Behavioral Neuroscience VISUAL ACCOMODATION

Visual System - process of adjusting the shape of the

lenses to focus light correctly on the
retina, which allows for clear vision at
varying distances.

1. Pupil
- round opening at the center of the eye Five Neurons
covered by cornea
- allows light waves to pass through its 1. Photoreceptors (Rods and Cones)
opening into the eye - a specialized type of cell found in the retina
of the eye that detects light and converts it
into signals that can be interpreted by the
2. Iris brain to form visual images.
- circular muscle that surrounds the pupil - (2) Main types of photoreceptors in the
- controls the amount of light enters the human retina: Rods and Cones.
eye
- contains pigment that gives the eye its 2. Horizontal Cells
distinct color - a type of neuron found in the retina that
play a crucial role in visual processing
by integrating and regulating input from
photoreceptors (rods and cones) before
the signals are passed on to other
retinal neurons.
- part of the retina's lateral inhibition
network, enhancing visual contrast
and sharpness.
- used for detecting contrast and
processing spatial information
- the ability to distinguish edges, shapes,
and textures in a visual scene would be
3. Lens impaired without it
- a clear part that receives the light that
enters the eye 3. Bipolar Cells
- located at the back of the pupil - a vital type of neuron in the retina that
- it then bounces off this light to the serves as intermediaries, transmitting
Retina signals from photoreceptors (rods and
cones) to ganglion cells
- has critical role in visual processing by
organizing and refining the light signals
received from photoreceptors before
passing them to the brain

JhayNotesPsych
4. Amacrine Cells a.) Rods
- are specialized interneurons in the - sensitive to light
retina that play a crucial role in - Dark
processing and modulating visual - located at Periphery
information.
- Peripheral Vision
- works within the inner plexiform
- Rhodopsin
layer of the retina, where they interact
with bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and - white, shades of gray, and black
sometimes other amacrine cells to
refine visual signals before they are b.) Cones
transmitted to the brain - useful in bright light
- Color
5. Ganglion Cells - located at Retina’s Fovea
- the final output neurons of the retina - Foveal Vision
- responsible for transmitting visual - Opsins (S-, M-, L-)
information from the eye to the brain - color (red, green, blue)
- their axons bundle together to form the
optic nerve, which carries signals to
various visual processing centers in the Rods are:
brain, including the lateral geniculate
nucleus (LGN), superior colliculus, and • highly sensitive to light, making it
other regions essential for vision in dim or low-light
- a crucial role in converting the refined conditions (scotopic vision)
visual signals from bipolar and • cannot detect color; they are
amacrine cells into action potentials for Monochromatic
further processing • located mostly in peripheral regions of
retina
• function well in night vision and
detecting motion

Cones are:
• function best in light (photopic vision)
• responsible for color vision and visual
detail
• concentrated in the central retina,
particularly in Fovea
• there are (3) types of cones, each
sensitive to different wavelengths of
light:

Types of Photoreceptors
o S-cones
(short wavelengths, blue light)

o M-cones
(medium wavelengths, green
light)

o L-cones
(long wavelengths, red light)

JhayNotesPsych
Example: If you open the light in a dark Given Situation: Reading a book
room
➢ When you look directly at the
1. Photoreceptor (Rods and Cones) words on the page, the light from
➢ Rods are the first to feel the
light because it is sensitive to
those words is focused on the
darkness Fovea
➢ If there is a sudden light, it ➢ The Fovea has the highest
lessens the release of concentration of cones, allowing
neurotransmitter (Glutamate)
you to see the words clearly and
as a sign that there is a light
in detail
2. Horizontal Cells ➢ If you try to look at the words off
➢ They organize and compare to the side of the page
signals from the near (peripheral vision), they appear
photoreceptors blurry because they’re not
➢ It helps you to clearly see the
edges or shapes of the things directly in the fovea, where
around you detailed vision happens

3. Bipolar Cells 5. Blind Spot

➢ On-bipolar cells are active - also known as optic disc
due to low glutamate, and it
- no photoreceptors in the area
says that there’s light
➢ Off-bipolar cells respond to - point where optic nerves exits
darkness and is temporarily - occupied by axons and blood vessel
active (Kalat, 2016)

4. Amacrine 6. Optic Nerve

➢ Strengthen signal about a - 2nd cranial nerve
sudden change (from dark to - It consists of millions of nerve fibers,
light), and that makes us able carrying messages from eyes to the
to see quickly brain and extends directly from the back
of the eyes beginning at the optic disc
5. Ganglion Cells
➢ It converts signal from bipolar
cells to action potentials Primary Visual Cortex
➢ These signals are taken to the
brain using optic nerve,
saying that “the room is
already lightened up”

4. Fovea
- center of the retina
- tiny, specialized area for acute and
detailed vision
- central pit in the retina of the eye
- crucial for sharp, detailed vision (visual - found in the posterior region of the
acuity) occipital lobe
- area of the retina where light is focused
when you look directly at an object

JhayNotesPsych
Secondary Visual Cortex Frequency

- its frequency falls between 400

to 750 terahertz (THz)
Wavelength

- its wavelength ranges between

400-700 nanometers

How Are Colors Formed?

- prestriate cortex and inferior
temporal lobe

Visual Association Cortex

More light = lighter color

Less light = darker color

Color Theories
Trichromatic Theory
- posterior parietal cortex and other
areas of the cerebral cortex - by Thomas Young and Hermann von
Helmholtz
- also known as
Young-Helmholtz Theory
Color Vision & Color Perception
- the theory suggests that the
combination and intensity of activation
of these three types of cones allow us
to perceive the full spectrum of colors
- explains how we perceive color using
three types of photoreceptors in the
retina: cones
- each cone is sensitive to specific range
of wavelengths of light corresponding to
blue, green, and red light
- Light evokes different responses from
- a narrow portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that human can see three different types of cones in the
retina
- all the colors we perceive are created
by light waves stimulating combination
of these three cones

JhayNotesPsych
Thomas Young

When excited = responds to one color paired

When inhibited = responds to the

- proposed that the ability perceive color
is the result of interaction or complementary pair
comparison of the response across
few types of receptors

Hermann Von Helmholtz

Non-Visual Sensation and

- proposed that we perceive color
Perception
through relative response of three
Sounds
kinds of cones and each one (1) is
sensitive to a different wavelength
- produced by things that vibrate and set
molecules of air into motion

Vibration
- “To and from” or back and forth motion
of an object
- molecules of air condense and rarefy
(pull apart) – waves travel away at
Opponent Process Theory 700miles per hour
- if vibration between 30 to 20,000 times
- by Edwald Herring per second - stimulate receptor cells in
- we perceive colors in terms of three ears – perceived as sound
pairs of opposing colors
- the visual system is responsive to three
color pairs (green-red, blue-yellow, and
black-white) and that vision is due to the
combined differential response of these
three different components

JhayNotesPsych
Medium of Propagation of Sound
o Air
o Liquid
o Solid

Can sound travel through anything and

everything?
➢ Sound CANNOT in a vacuum such as
outer space

JhayNotesPsych
The Outer / External Ear • Modify the way in which the
bones respond to pressure
1.) Pinna
changes at the eardrum
- External ear
• Together, these muscles are
responsible for acoustic reflex
2.) External Auditory Canal
- Ear canal
• They stiffen the bones in
- 2.5 cm long and 7mm wide
response to very loud sounds
- They channel sound waves towards the thereby minimizing damage to
eardrum the system

3.) Tympanic membrane

- eardrum
- transmit the soundwaves to the middle
ear

Middle Ear
1.) Ossicles
- Bones of middle ear
- transmit and amplify the vibration of the
eardrum to the inner ear where cochlea
is (contains the mechanoreceptors for
sound)

2.) Malleus Inner Ear

- Hammer
1.) Cochlea
- Snail shaped organ
3.) Incus
- the fluid filled structure of the inner ear
- Anvil containing auditory receptors

4.) Stapes • Two and three – quarter turns of a

- Stirrup gradually tapering cylinder 35mm
- baseplate presses against the
membrane of the oval window (opening • Three (3) longitudinal sections:
in the bony process around the o Scala Vestibuli (vestibular
cochlea) canal)

5.) Tensor tympani o Scala media

(meddle canal)
- muscle attached to the tympanic
membrane
o Scala tympani
- acts as a safety mechanism (tympanic canal)

6.) Stapedius
- muscle attached to the stapes

JhayNotesPsych
Inner Ear Wernicke’s Aphasia
1.) Scala Vestibuli - Carl Wernicke’s thought damage to
(vestibular canal) the left temporal posterior lobe of the
Scala Tympani brain, located near the left temple,
caused aphasia
(tympanic canal)
- Scientists originally thought the area
o Two of the chambers found in
was important for understanding
the cochlea
language but later learned it is
o Both contain fluid known as
important in the production speech
perilymph
Symptoms:
2.) Scala Media
o Contains a very different type ➢ speech of a person will be fluent but
of fluid, known as endolymph often make no sense and have
o Rich in potassium and low in errors, which include:
sodium o Mixing up related words (like
calling a chair a table)
Organ of Corti o Substituting a completely
unrelated word (like saying
- responsible for translating vibrations in apple instead of house)
the inner ear into neural messages o Mixing up words that sound
- consisting of rows of hair cells, rests on similar (like saying tip instead
the basilar membrane of dip or break instead of
bread)
Basilar Membrane o Reversing syllables (like
saying achehead instead of
- sound vibrations are transferred from headache)
the air of the middle ear to the fluid of
the inner ear, where they produce
movement of the basilar membrane Aphasia
- locating the peak response of the
basilar membrane to these vibrations - a disorder that affects the way you
begins the process of identifying the speak and write
frequency of a sound - affects how you understand written and
spoken words
Primary Auditory Cortex
Broca’s Area
- also known as Heschl’s gyrus
- a tonotopically organized, meaning that - a region within the inferior frontal gyrus
cells within the cortex will receive inputs of the frontal lobe
from cells in the inner ear that respond - on the left side, it is responsible for
to specific frequencies generating speech
- located in the frontal lobe, usually on
the left side
Wernicke’s Area
Broca’s Aphasia
- a region on temporal parietal junction
and on the left side of the brain, which - named for Pierre Paul Broca
is responsible for understanding of - results from damage to a part of the
speech brain called Broca’s Area
- the primary auditory will signal next to - one of the parts of the brain responsible
this area for speech and motor movement
- may be able to comprehend what’s
being said but unable to speak fluently

JhayNotesPsych
 because the brain isn’t able to control
the fluency of your speech

Symptoms:
➢ poor or absent grammar
➢ difficulty forming complete sentences
➢ omitting certain words such as “the, an,
and, is” (may say something like “Cup,
me” instead of "I want the cup”)
➢ difficulty using verbs than nouns
correctly
➢ difficulty articulating sounds and words
➢ difficulty repeating what has been said
by other
➢ trouble with writing sentences
➢ difficulty in reading
➢ problems with full comprehension
➢ difficulty in following directions

JhayNotesPsych
JhayNotesPsych
JhayNotesPsych
 VISION Johannes Müller

Visual Coding
How far an ant sees, or how far you see,
depends on how far the light travels before it
strikes the eyes. You do not send out “sight rays.”
That principle was probably the first scientific
discovery in psychology (Steffens, 2007).

You see because light strikes your retina,

causing it to send a message to your brain.
- he described this insight as the law of
specific nerve energies (1838)
- he held that whatever excites a
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF particular nerve establishes a special
PERCEPTION kind of energy unique to that nerve

René Descartes • According to the Law of specific

nerve energies, the brain
interprets any activity of a given
sensory neuron as representing a
particular type of sensory
information
• The brain somehow interprets the
action potentials from the auditory
nerve as sounds, those from the
olfactory nerve as odors, and so
forth
- a 17th-century philosopher • Sensory information is coded so
- who believed that the nerves from the that the brain can process it. The
eye would send the brain a pattern of coded information bears no
impulses arranged like a picture of the physical similarity to the stimuli it
perceived object, right side up describes

• In fact, your brain encodes the

information in a way that doesn’t
THE EYE AND ITS CONNECTIONS TO
resemble what you see
THE BRAIN
• The brain codes information
largely in terms of which neurons ➢ The lights enter the eye through an
are active, and how active they are opening in the center of the iris called
at any moment pupil
➢ It is focused by the lens (adjustable)
and cornea (not adjustable) and
projected onto the retina, the rear
surface of the eye which is lined with
visual receptors
➢ REMEMBER: the visual system does
not duplicate the image; it codes it by
various kinds of neuronal activity.

JhayNotesPsych
 ➢ Amacrine cells (additional cells) get
information from bipolar cells and
send it to other bipolar, amacrine, and
ganglion cells
➢ Amacrine cells refine the input to
ganglion cells, enabling certain ones
to respond mainly to shapes, directions
of movement, changes in lighting, color,
and other visual features
➢ Blind spot, a more important
consequence. The ganglion cell axons
join at the optic disc or also known as
the blind spot to form the optic nerve
that exits through the back of the eye

ROUTE WITHIN THE RETINA

FOVEA AND PERIPHERY OF THE
RETINA

Fovea

- means pit
- a tiny area specialized for acute
detailed vision

• Ganglion cells in the fovea of humans

and other primates are called Midget
Ganglion Cells, because each is small
and responds to just a single cone
➢ In the vertebrate retina, however, • Each cone in fovea has direct route to
messages go from receptors at the the brain, because the midget ganglion
back of the eye to bipolar cells, located cells provide 70% of the input to the
closer to the center of the eye brain, your vision is dominated by what
➢ Bipolar cells send their messages to you see in and near the fovea
ganglion cells, located still closer to
the center of the eye
“Eyes like a hawk”

Many bird species have two foveae

per eye, one pointing ahead and
one pointing to the side

• Toward the periphery of the retina, more

and more receptors converge onto
bipolar and ganglion cells
• As a result, the brain cannot detect the
exact location or shape of a peripheral
light source
• Foveal vision has better acuity
(sensitivity to detail)
• Peripheral vision has better sensitivity
to dim light

JhayNotesPsych
 • In the periphery, your ability to detect Human Foveal and Peripheral Vision:
detail is limited by interference from
other nearby objects
Characteristic Foveal Vision Peripheral
Vision

Proportion of
Receptors Cones only rods increases
toward
periphery

Convergence Each ganglion cell Each ganglion

of Input excited by a single cell excited by
cone many receptors

Responds to
Brightness Distinguishes among dim light; poor
bright lights responds for
sensitivity poorly to dim light distinguishing
VISUAL RECEPTORS: RODS AND among bright
lights
CONES

Vertebrate retina contains (2) types of Good detail vision Poor detail
Sensitivity to because each cone’s vision because
receptors: own ganglion cell many receptors
detail sends a message to the converge their
1.) Rods brain input onto a
given ganglion
- abundant in the periphery of the human cell
retina
- respond to faint light but are not useful
Color vision Good Poor
in daylight because bright light (many cones) (few cones)
bleaches them

2.) Cones
• Rods and Cones
- abundant in and near the fovea
- contain photopigments chemicals that
- less active in dim light
release energy when struck by light
- more useful in bright light, and essential
for color vision
• Photopigments
- consist of 11-cis-retinal (derivative of
Vitamin A) to proteins called opsins,
which modify the photopigments’
sensitivity to different wavelengths of
light

• Light
- converts 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-
retinal, thus releasing energy that
activates second messengers within
the cell

JhayNotesPsych
 COLOR VISION Hermann Von Helmholtz
➢ Visible light consists of
electromagnetic radiation within the
range from less than 400 nm
(nanometer, or 10–9 m) to more than
700 nm

➢ We perceive the shortest visible

wavelengths as violet

➢ Progressively longer wavelengths are - known as the trichromatic theory of

perceived as blue, green, yellow, color vision, or the Young-Helmholtz
orange, and red theory
- proposed that we perceive color
through relative response of three
kinds of cones and each one is
sensitive to a different wavelength

Trichromatic Theory
➢ we perceive color through the relative
rates of response by three kinds of
cones, each one maximally sensitive to
a different set of wavelengths
THE TRICHROMATIC (YOUNG- ➢ Trichromatic means three colors
HELMHOLTZ) THEORY ➢ Perception of color depends on the
frequency of response in each cell
Thomas-Young (1773-1829) relative to the frequency of other cells
➢ Long-wavelength and medium-
wavelength cones are far more
abundant than short-wavelength
cones. Consequently, it is easier to
see tiny red, yellow, or green dots
than blue dots

- Founded the:
1.) Modern Wave Theory of Light
2.) Calculation of Annuities
- defined energy in its modern form
- introduced the coefficient of elasticity
- discovered much about the anatomy of
the eye
- made major contribution to other fields
- proposed that we perceive color by
comparing the responses across a
few types of receptors, each of which
was sensitive to a different range of
wavelengths
- proposed that the ability perceive color
is the result of interaction or
comparison of the response across
few types of receptors

JhayNotesPsych
 • Shows the distribution of short-, - Researchers around 1950 first
medium-, and long-wavelength cones demonstrated that certain neurons in
in two people’s retinas, with colors the visual system increased their
artificially added to distinguish them. activity in response to one wavelength
of light and decreased it to another, they
• The smaller the dot, the farther you revolutionized our understanding of
have to move it into your visual field— vision, and of the nervous system in
that is, the part of the world that you general
see—before you can identify the color

THE RETINEX THEORY

THE OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY ➢ Trichromatic theory and the Opponent-
process theory
➢ the brighter the light and the longer you
- cannot easily explain color
stare, the stronger the effect.
constancy, the ability to recognize
colors despite changes in lighting
➢ a negative color afterimage, a
replacement of the red you had been
➢ a certain wavelength of light can
staring at with green, green with red,
appear as different colors depending
yellow and blue with each other, and
on the background
black and white with each other

Edwald Herring

➢ we perceive the brightness of an

- 19th-century physiologist object by comparing it to other
- proposed objects
- the opponent-process theory: We
perceive color in terms of opposites
- brain has a mechanism that perceives
color on a continuum

JhayNotesPsych
➢ To account for color and brightness What would happen if people had fourth
constancy: type of cone?

Edwin Land proposed the retinex - the long-wavelength cone shows

theory (a combination of the words genetic variation
retina and cortex): The cortex
compares information from various - at one point in the protein, most genes
parts of the retina to determine the code for the amino acid serine but 16%
brightness and color for each area to 38% of the genes (depending on
people’s ethnic background) produce
➢ Visual perception requires reasoning instead the amino acid alanine
and inference, not just retinal
stimulation - Man has only one (1) or the other while
some, Women have one long-
wavelength receptor with serine and
one with alanine
COLOR VISION DEFICIENCY

• Colorblindness
- one of the 1st discoveries in
psychology
- better described as color vision
deficiency

• Investigators demonstrated that some

people have otherwise satisfactory
vision without seeing all the color that
other people do

• Color deficiency results because

people with certain genes fail to
develop one type of cone or develop
an abnormal type of cone

• In red-green color deficiency

- the most common form of color
deficiency
- trouble distinguishing red from green
because their long- and medium-
wavelength cones have the same
photopigment instead of different ones

• The Gene causing this deficiency is on

the X chromosome

JhayNotesPsych
 Sexual Behaviors 2.)
-
Klinefelter Syndrome
condition in males
Sexual Development - caused by an XYY genotype
- characterized by frequent problems
❖ Humans are Dimorphic with fertility, secondary sex
- di means two (2), while morphous characteristics, and verbal skills
means form
- they come in two standard model, the
MALE and FEMALE

❖ Genetic Sex
- begins with sex chromosomes inherited
from two parents
- MOTHERS provide an X chromosome
to all their offspring while the FATHER
determine the offspring’s sex by
providing either X (producing a female)
or a Y chromosome (producing a male)

Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

1.) Turner Syndrome
- condition caused by an XO genotype,
characterized by frequent abnormalities Signs and Symptoms:
of the ovaries and infertility
- 1 out of 2,000 live births • Low sperm count (or no sperm)
- the lack of a second sex chromosome • Small testicles and penis
does have an impact on fertility, growth • Low sex drive
and hormone production and is • Taller than average height
associated with higher rick of diabetes, • Weak bones
osteoporosis, and cardiovascular
disease
- normal female external genetalia, but 3 Stages of Prenatal Development
the ovaries develop abnormally
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE
- the ovaries DO NOT produce either ova
or normal levels of female hormones INTERNAL ORGANS
that leads to infertility
1. Primordial Gonads
- regardless of genetic sex, fetus has the
same pair of gonadal structures

2. At about (6) weeks after

conception
- a gene on the short arm of the Y
chromosome, known as the sex-
determining region of the Y
chromosome, or SRY, is expressed in
male embryos

3. Testis-Determining Factor
- the protein encoded by the SRY gene,
switches on additional genes that cause
the primordial gonads to develop into
testes

JhayNotesPsych
 - In Female embryos, which lack the SRY 2. Labia, Clitoris, and Outer part of
gene and its ability to produce testis- the Vagina
determining factor, alternate genes - the female external genitalia
guide the development of the primordial
gonad into ovaries
No hormonal activity is required to
4. (6) Weeks After Fertilization develop female external genitalia.
- both MALES and FEMALES have However, hormonal stimulation is
(2) complete sets of reproductive ducts essential for the development of male
called; Wolffian and Mullerian system external genitalia.
5. Wolffian System
- the internal system that develops into 3. 5-Alpha-Dihydrotestosterone
vesicles, vas deferens, and the - must be recognized by receptor sites
prostate gland in MALES for the male external genitalia to
develop normally
6. Mullerian System
- the internal system that develops into
uterus, fallopian tubes, and the upper
two thirds of the vagina in the absence If genetic females are exposed prenatally
of anti-Mullerian hormone to excess androgens, their external
genitalia become masculinized.
7. During the 3rd Month
- the male’s relatively new testes begin to
secrete two (2): Testosterone and Anti- 4. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Mullerian hormones (CAH)
- a recessive heritable condition in which
8. Testosterone the fetus’s adrenal glands release
- one of the several types of male elevated levels of androgens
hormone or androgen that promotes the - majority of women with CAH are
development of the Wolffian system heterosexual and that most bisexual
and the Mullerian system to degenerate and lesbian women do not have CAH or
and the testes to descend into the other, similar conditions. By default, the
scrotum body is female and only by actions of
9. Anti-Mullerian Hormone testicular hormones will become male
- 1A hormone secreted by fetal testes
that causes the degeneration of the Females with CAH:
Mullerian system
• Clitoris is enlarged
• the labia look like a scrotum, and in
some cases, there is no vaginal
In the absence of any Androgens or Anti- opening
Mullerian hormone, the Mullerian system • behavior can be affected because
will develop in the typical female females with CAH more frequently
direction. describe themselves as tomboys
• they engage in more male-interest
play and are more likely than other
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXTRENAL women to engage in bisexual and
GENITALIA lesbian behavior
1. Penis and Scrotum DEVELOPMENT AT PUBERTY
- the male external genitalia
1. Primary Sex Characteristics

JhayNotesPsych
 - directly related to reproductive organs 2. Pituitary gland – master
and external genitalia gland. Secretes hormones
- Penis and scrotum growth that control other glands.
- Ovary, uterus, clitoris, and labia growth 3. Pineal gland
4. Thyroid
2. Secondary Sex Characteristics 5. Parathyroid gland
- Not directly related to reproductive 6. Adrenal gland – produces
organs and external genitalia testosterone in small amounts
- related to sex that appear at puberty, that helps with sexual
including deepening voice and facial response
hair growth in males and widening hips 7. Pancreas
and breast development in females 8. Ovaries – produces estrogen
- Facial hair and deeper voice that controls menstruation and
- Enlarged breast and hips progesterone that supports
- Hair and sweat gland changes pregnancy
9. Testes

Hormones and Sexual Behavior Sex Hormones

Hormones - classified as steroids

- chemicals that coordinate different

- play both organizational and activating
roles in sexual development
functions in the body by carrying
messages through the blood to the - in prenatal and early postnatal
organs, skin, muscles, and other development, sex hormones organize
tissues circuits in the brain that differ according
to sex
- released by endocrine glands and the
rest from special cells within organs like - these circuits are then activated by the
the kidney and stomach sex hormones at the onset of puberty
- plays an important role in determining All steroid hormones are:
the timing and frequency of sexual
behavior ➢ derived from cholesterol (differ only in
the ring structure and side chains
It controls: attached to it)
➢ lipid soluble and thus are freely
• Metabolism
permeable to membranes so are not
• Homeostasis stored in cells
• Growth and development
Steroid hormones are synthesized in:
• Sexual function
• Reproduction • Adrenal cortex: cortisol, aldosterone
• Sleep-wake cycle and androgens
• Mood • Testis: testosterone
• Ovaries: estrogen, testosterone and
Which body tissues make progesterone
hormones? • Placenta: progesterone
• Some peripheral tissues (as a
dispose tissue and brain)
- the endocrine system consists of the
following glands:
1. Hypothalamus – governor of
the endocrine system.
Controls the pituitary gland.

JhayNotesPsych
Gonads

- produce and release steroid hormones

- Testes for males
- Ovaries for females

Two main classes of Gonadal Hormones

are:

1. Androgens
- most common androgen is testosterone
2. Estrogens
- most common estrogen is estradiol How does Estrogen work?
- helps bring out physical changes that
turn a girl into a woman. It is called in - the ovaries which produce a woman’s
time of puberty. eggs are the main source of estrogen
from the body. Fat tissue and adrenal
Changes include: glands that is located at the top of each
kidney make small amounts of this
• Growth of breast
hormones
• Growth of pubic and underarm hair
• Start of menstrual cycles
• Helps control menstrual cycle and 3 Types of Estrogen
important for childbearing
1. Estradiol
- common type in women of childbearing
In men and women estrogen helps age
control:
2. Estrone
• Sexual desire - only estrogen in the body that makes
• Erectile function after menopause
• Lipid metabolism
• Brain function 3. Estriol
• Bone and skin health - main estrogen produced during
pregnancy
• Sustaining mood levels
Estrogen and Menstrual Cycle
What does Estrogen do?
- one of the main sex hormones
- affects array of organs and body controlling the menstrual cycle
systems:
- levels change throughout the month
• urinary tract
- highest in the middle of menstrual cycle
• hair and lowest during the period
• mucous membranes - levels drop at menopause
• reproductive tract
- normal estradiol levels:
• heart and blood vessels • Women – 30 and 400
• brain picograms per milliliter (pg/ml)
• pelvic muscles • Men – 10 to 40 pg/ml
• breasts
• bones

JhayNotesPsych
The Menstrual Cycle and Female Fertility Signs:

1. Follicle ➢ BMD: T-score≤-2.5

- one of several clusters of cells in the ➢ ECG: abnormal results
ovary of which contains an egg cell ➢ Urinalysis test: signs of infection
➢ Estrogen tests: low levels
2. Ovum
- a female reproductive cell or egg 2. Low Estrogen level

Women
3. Ovulation
- process of releasing mature egg from a) Hot flashes (suddenly feeling very
the ovary warm) and/or night sweats
b) Trouble sleeping
4. Corpus Luteum c) Vaginal dryness and thinning
d) Anorexia nervosa
- yellow mass of cells in the ovary formed
e) Amenorrhea
by a ruptures follicle that has released
f) Female sexual dysfunction (FSD)
egg
g) Osteoporosis
h) Primary ovarian insufficiency
5. Progesterone (premature menopause)
- hormone produced in the corpus luteum i) Vaginal atrophy (atrophic vaginitis)
that prevents the development of j) Some women get menstrual
additional follicles and promotes the migraine
growth of the uterine lining
Men:

Common Conditions and Disorders a) Excess belly fat and low sexual desire
Associated with Estrogen

1. Estrogen Deficiency
3. Estrogen Dominance
Causes:
Causes:
➢ Genetic predisposition
➢ Abnormal gland function ➢ Poor liver function
➢ Hysterectomies ➢ Insulin resilience
➢ Exogenous hormone regimens
➢ Radiation Therapies
➢ Environmental pollutants
➢ Exogenous hormone regimens
Risk Factors:
Risk Factors:
➢ Age
➢ Age ➢ Obesity
➢ Stress ➢ Stress
➢ Eating disorders ➢ Poor diet
➢ Excessive exercising ➢ Bad diet
➢ Bad habits (caffeine, alcohol, smoking)
Symptoms:
Symptoms:
➢ Bloating
➢ Fatigue ➢ Blood clotting
➢ Dizziness ➢ Depression
➢ Hair loss
➢ Hot Flashes
➢ Allergic reactions
➢ Breast Tenderness

JhayNotesPsych
Signs: Importance of Estrogen tests
➢ Mammogram or biopsy: positive ✓ Mainly used to investigate menstrual
results abnormalities, but also implemented for
➢ Blood tests: abnormal cholesterol, specific reasons
androgen levels
➢ Transvaginal ultrasound: ovarian ✓ Puberty: determine early-onset or
cysts, uterine masses delayed puberty
➢ Hysteroscopy or x-ray: uterine
✓ Pregnancy: assess risk of potential
fibroids, cancer
genetic disorders
4. High Estrogen Level ✓ Menopausal Transition: monitor
treatment effectiveness
Women
a) Mood swings, feeling depressed or Lowering Estrogen
anxious
b) Low sexual desire and fatigue Diet:
c) Weight gain, mainly in the waist,
hips, and thighs • Organic foods
d) Worsen breast cancer, • Smaller amounts of red meat
endometriosis pain, PMS • Lignan-containing foods
e) Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
f) Uterine cancer fibroids and polyps
g) Fibrocystic breasts (non-cancerous Exercise:
breast lumps)
• 150 mins moderate-intensity exercises
h) Low performance of spatial tasks,
or 75 mins vigorous activity
high verbal fluency, and manual
dexterity Healthy Habits:
Men: • Reduce caffeine intake
a) Enlarged breasts (gynecomastia) • Limit alcohol consumption
b) Poor erections • Improve gastrointestinal health
c) Infertility
Alternative Medicine
d) Los of sex drive
e) Erectile dysfunction (ED) a) Vitamin supplements
f) Dry skin (milk thistle, B vitamins, magnesium,
zinc)

Estrogen Test b) Hormone-regulating herbal

supplements
How to test Estrogen Levels?
Medication
1.) Blood tests: most common measure
levels in blood serum or plasma content a) Estrogen-blocking drugs
(SERMs, aromatase inhibitions)
2.) Urine tests: often used to measure
estriol levels in pregnant women
Increasing Estrogen
3.) Saliva tests: claimed most useful Diet:
because measure bioavailable
hormones • Phytoestrogens
(Fruits, whole grains, legumes)
• Estrogen-promoting nutrients
(vitamins C, A, and E; zinc)

JhayNotesPsych
Exercise: - temporary gland that develops after
ovulation (release an egg from ovary)
• Moderate weight-bearing and strength-
- maintaining progesterone levels after
training
conception and fertilization supports
• 30 mins a day 5 times a week pregnancy
Healthy Habits: • Progesterone and Estrogen are like
hormonal teammates in the body
• Monitor caffeine intake (menstruation)
• Quit smoking • MALES need progesterone to produce
testosterone
Alternative Medicine
a) Phytoestrogenic herbal supplements Progesterone and Menstrual Cycle
(red clover, gingko)
- progesterone helps to prepare the
b) Hormone-regulating herbal body for pregnancy by stimulating
supplements glandular development and the
development of new blood vessels
Medications - levels of progesterone remain elevated
throughout pregnancy
a) Hormone medications
(HRT, risks involved) - these elevated levels prevent the body
b) Birth control pills from producing additional eggs during
(also, with risks involved) the pregnancy
o prevent body from ovulating
o suppress uterine contractions
Progesterone o lactation

- produced in the corpus luteum that

prevents the development of additional Common Conditions and Disorders
follicles and promotes the growth of the Associated with Progesterone
uterine lining
1. Women’s Low Progesterone
- plays an important role in the level:
reproductive system a) Irregular menstrual periods
b) Difficulty conceiving
c) Mood changes, anxiety or depression
Does several things, including: d) Trouble sleeping
e) Hot flashes
• Thickening the lining of uterus for f) Ectopic pregnancy
implantation g) Miscarriage
• Regulates bleeding during h) Preterm labor
menstruation
• Supports pregnancy once 2. Women’s High Progesterone
conception occurs level:
• Helps in improving mood a) Linked to symptoms associated with
• Supports thyroid function and premenstrual syndrome or PMS,
lactation including:
• Sperm development o Breast swelling
o Breast tenderness
o Bloating
How does Progesterone work? o Anxiety
o Agitation
• Corpus Luteum o Fatigue
- produces progesterone o Depression
o Low libido (sex drive)
o Weight gain

JhayNotesPsych
 Symptoms:
3. Low Progesterone
• Puberty: 0.1 – 0.3 ng/ml • High cholesterol
• Migraines
• Adulthood: 0.1 – 25 ng/ml
• Weight gain
• Post menopause: 0.1 – 1 ng.ml • Allergies
Cause: Signs:
• Natural: childbirth, breastfeeding, • Laparoscopy: lesions, cysts, scarring
menopause • Pelvic exam: irregular masses
• Lifestyle: diet, stress, eating • Thyroid panel: abnormal levels
disorders, excessive exercise • Progesterone tests: low levels
• Induced: hysterectomy,
chemotherapy, medications
• Other causes: congenital 5. High Progesterone
conditions, abnormal gland Symptoms:
function, delayed puberty
• Vaginal infections
Symptoms: • Weight gain
• Water retention
• Headaches
• Bloating
• Tender breasts
• Changes in appetite
• Body aches • Cramping Fatigue
• Bloating • Mood swings
• Depression
• Anxiety Signs:
• Irritability • Microscopy: bacterial, fungal growth
• Insomnia • Blood, urine, or saliva tests: high
level
Signs: • Doctor diagnosis of pitting edema or
hair loss
• Transvaginal ultrasound:
abnormal results
6. High Progesterone
• Pelvic exam: cysts, scars, masses • Puberty: 0.1 – 0.3 ng/ml
• Thyroid panel: irregular results • Adulthood: 0.1 – 25 ng/ml
• Progesterone tests: low levels • Pregnancy: 10 – 290 ng/ml
• Post menopause: 0.1 – 1 ng/ ml

4. Progesterone Deficiency Causes:

Cause: • Natural: pregnancy

• Lifestyle: smoking, caffeine
• Poor bowel, liver function • Induced: HRT, exogenous hormone
• Thyroid problems exposure
• Environmental pollutants • Other causes: CAH, ovarian tumors
• Exogenous hormones
7. Men’s Low Progesterone level:
Risk factors: a) Lack of sex drive
• Age
b) Estrogen dominance
• Stress c) Erectile dysfunction
• Smoking d) Prostate enlargement
• Alcohol e) Higher risk of prostate cancer
f) Low libido

JhayNotesPsych
 g) Osteoporosis necessary for necessary for
conception in a conception in
h) Arthritis female or female or
i) Prostatism (obstruction of the intersex body intersex body.
Conception
bladder neck) In males, it is
necessary for
production of
8. Men’s High Progesterone level: semen
a) Increase in estrogen production (sperm)
High levels of High levels of
that leads to: estrogen are progesterone
o Heart conditions Weight gain linked to weight are linked to
o Depression gain weight gain
o Fatigue Low levels of Low levels of
o Larger prostate estrogen are progesterone
Bone health linked to poor are linked to
o Prostate inflammation bone health poor bone
o Urination difficulties health
o Erectile dysfunction Low levels of Low levels of
estrogen are progesterone
Brain function linked to may impair
EFFECT ESTROGEN PROGESTERONE diminished brain central
function nervous
system
High levels of Synthetic
function
Cancer estrogen are progesterone
associated with (progestin) has been Low levels of In females,
(breast and estrogen are some intersex
increased risk of linked to increased
uterine) linked to lack of people
certain cancers breast cancer risk
development of progesterone
Estrogen Progesterone is Puberty and
female plays a key
treatments have thought to play a role secondary secondary sex part in
Mental been known to in regulating sexual characteristics. menstrual
Health lower the risk of behavior characteristics High levels are cycle. In
depression in linked to males and
post-menopausal development of other intersex
women female people, its
Low in high Low levels of secondary sex presence
Menstrual levels of progesterone have characteristics triggers the
cycles estrogen are been linked to production of
linked to menstrual problems estrogen
menstrual
problems
Menopause Low levels of Low levels of
and estrogen are progesterone are Androgen
premature linked to linked to menopause
menopause menopause or and premature - like testosterone are sex hormone
premature menopause
menopause - help start puberty and play role in
necessary for necessary for reproductive health and body
Pregnancy preparing the maintaining a development
body for pregnancy
pregnancy - all genders make androgens, but males
make more of them
o Testicles
o Ovaries
o Adrenal glands that sit on
top of each kidney

JhayNotesPsych
In women and men androgen helps WOMEN with low androgen levels
control: (Androgen Deficiency) may have
symptoms such as:
• Bone density
• Muscle development • Tiredness
• Puberty • Poor concentration
• Red blood cell production • Loss of muscle mass and
• Sexual desire and function strength
• Low sex drive
• Low mood
Types of Androgens
1. Androstenedione WOMEN with high androgen levels
(Hyperandrogenism) may have:
2. Dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA) • Acne
3. DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S) • Amenorrhea (missed periods) or
4. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) abnormal menstruation
• Excessive hair growth
(hirsutism) or hair loss
Role of Androgens in Men • In fertility
• Obesity
- Contributes to: • Ovarian tumors
• Deep voice (vocal cord • Insulin resistance
lengthening) • Cardiovascular problems
• Hair growth on the face, scalp,
chest, underarm, and genitals
• Sperm development
MEN with low androgen levels may have
Androgen and Menstrual Cycle symptoms such as:

- Testosterone-increase a woman’s sex • Androgen insufficiency syndrome

drive • Decrease in sexual activity, loss of
- Effects are more expressed mid-cycle libido
in the days leading up to ovulation • Erectile dysfunction
- Regulates menstruation • Poor intensity and decrease in
- Aids conception and pregnancy volume of ejaculation
- Minimizes bone loss (osteoporosis) • Irritability, nervousness,
- Stimulates pubic and underarm hair generalized weakness
growth • Osteoporosis, decrease of body
hair and abdominal obesity
Common Conditions and Disorders
associated with Androgen: MEN with high androgen levels may
have:
Normal Ranges of Androgens
• Hyperandrogenism
(Total Testosterone) • Suppress the function of testes and
o Women: 6.0 and 86 nanograms per cause infertility
deciliter (ng/dl) • Skin issues
o Men: 300 and 1,000 nanograms per • Unpredictable behavior
deciliter (ng/dl) • Poor sleep
• Sexual dysfunction

JhayNotesPsych
• Low sperm count
• Male pattern baldness

JhayNotesPsych