Important Inorganic Compounds

Table 3.5 Some important salts and their uses.

Salts Uses
Sodium chloride (common 1. Preparation and preservation of food
salt, NaCl) 2. Raw material for the manufacture of sodium,
chlorine, and sodium hydroxide
3. Component of Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS)
4. Manufacture of baking soda (NaHCO3) and
Na2CO3
5. In making a freezing mixture which is used by ice
cream vendors
Ammonium nitrate, Nitrogenous fertilizer and in explosives
(NH4NO3
Copper (II) sulphate, 1. Used to make Bordeaux mixture (mixture of CuSO4
(CuSO4) and Ca(OH)2 and other fungicides. Bordeaux
mixture is used to prevent fungal attack of leaves
and vines
2. Useful in electroplating and dyeing
Iron (III) chloride, (FeCl3) 1. Used in the treatment of waste water
2. Used for etching printed circuits
Potassium nitrate, (KNO3) 1. Used in making gun powder ((mixture of KNO3,
carbon and sulphur) and other explosives
2. Used as fertilizer in agriculture
Calcium sulphate, Used for plastering walls and supporting fractured
(CaSO4.2H2O, Gypsum) bones.
Barium sulphate, (BaSO4) 1. Given to patients as a “barium meal” before
gastrointestinal x-ray photography
2. Used as a white pigment
Iron (II) sulphate (FeSO4) Given as iron tablets to patients who suffer from
anemia

Properties of Salts
Salts can be classified depending on the anion (negative ion) they possess, because
the anion is partly responsible for the solubility of the salt.

1. Solubility of salts
When salts are added to water or water is added to salt, different types of actions
take place. Some salts are soluble in water; some are insoluble while some salts are
only slightly soluble.
2. Tendency to absorb water from the atmosphere or release water to the atmosphere.
Salts can be classified as hygroscopic, deliquescent and efflorescent depending
on their tendency to absorb water from or release water to the atmosphere.

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Chemistry Grade 10
Hygroscopic salts are those which absorb water from the atmosphere but remain
solid.
Example: Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4
Deliquescent salts absorb water from the atmosphere to form a solution. The process
of absorbing water from the atmosphere by a solid to form a solution is called
deliquescence.
Example: Calcium chloride(CaCl2), Sodium nitrate (NaNO3), Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3)
Efflorescent salts lose their water of crystallization to the atmosphere. The loss of
water of crystallization by solid crystals to the atmosphere is known as efflorescence.
It is very important to note that all deliquescent substances are hygroscopic, but all
hygroscopic substances are not necessarily deliquescent.

Example 3.22: Hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3•10H2O), Hydrated sodium

sulphate (Na2SO4•10H2O)

3. Aqueous solutions of soluble salts are good conductors of electricity, because

they release mobile positive and negative ions in solution.
NaNO3 (aq) → Na+ (aq) + NO3– (aq)
CaCl2 (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl– (aq)
4. Thermal stability of salts: Thermal stability of a salt is the property of a salt to
resist irreversible change in its chemical or physical structure, often by resisting
decomposition at a high relative temperature. When different salts containing
the same anion are heated, they may not show similar behavior. Some salts are
thermally stable while others undergo decomposition. The following examples
illustrate this fact.

A. Thermal decomposition of carbonates

All the carbonates of Group IIA undergo thermal decomposition to the metal oxide
and carbon dioxide gas. The term “thermal decomposition” describes splitting up a
compound by heating it. Carbonates are salts containing a carbonate, CO32-, as an
anion.
If “M” represents any one of the elements, the following describes this decomposition:

MCO3(s) → MO(s) + CO2

The carbonates of Group IIA are: MgCO3, CaCO3, SrCO3, BaCO3
The carbonates become more thermally stable down the group. In Group IA, lithium
carbonate behaves in the same way, producing lithium oxide and carbon dioxide:

Li2CO3(s) → Li2O(s)+CO2
The rest of the Group IA carbonates do not decompose at laboratory temperatures,

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 Important Inorganic Compounds
although at higher temperatures this becomes possible. The decomposition temperatures
again increase down the group.

Most transition metals decompose on heating to give the metal oxides and carbon
dioxide:

Example 3.23:

CuCO3 (s) → CuO (s) + CO2 (g)

B. Thermal decomposition of nitrates

Nitrates are salts containing a nitrate, NO3–, as an anion. The Group IIA and most
transition metal nitrates undergo thermal decomposition to the metal oxide, nitrogen
dioxide and oxygen gas. .

Nitrate → Metal oxide + Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen

Example 3.24: 2Mg(NO3)2 (s) → 2MgO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

2Pb(NO3)2 (s) → 2PbO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

Nitrates of sodium and potassium decompose on heating to give nitrites (instead of

the oxides) and oxygen gas;

2NaNO3 (s) → 2NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g)

2KNO3 (s) → 2KNO2 (s) + O2 (g)

The carbonate and nitrate of lithium differ from those of sodium and potassium; they
decompose on heating in the following manner:

4LiNO3 (s) → 2Li2O (s) + 4NO2 (s) + O2 (g)

Li2CO3 (s) → Li2O (s) + CO2 (g)

Note that both the nitrates and carbonates of lithium are thermally unstable similar to
Group IIA. This reveals that lithium behaves more like Group IIA rather than Group IA.
Chemical Tests of Some Ions in Salt

1. Do you know why fireworks give different colors?

Consult books in your library, and discuss in your
group. Explain to the class.
2. How do chemists know of the presence of certain
ions in a compound?
Activity 3.21

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Experiment 3.14
Test for Cations-I
Objective: To identify the presence of Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+ in salts
by flame tests.
Chemicals: Distilled water, salts containing Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+.
Apparatus: Platinum or nichrome wire, watch glass, Bunsen burner.
Procedure:
1. Place a small amount of the salt containing a Li+ ion on a watch glass, moisten
it with pure concentrated HCl, dip the tip of the platinum or Nichrome wire
into the moist salt and then bring to the Bunsen flame.
2. Observe the colour produced.
3. Repeat the same step for salts containing Na+, K+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+ and
record your observations. Rinse the platinum or nichrome wire with distilled
water after each test.
Question:
a. Write the colour of the flame produced in the following table.
Table 3.6 Metal ion and corresponding flame colour
Metal ion in the salt Colour of flame produced
Lithium (Li )
+

Sodium (Na+)
Potassium (K+)
Calcium (Ca2+)
Strontium (Sr2+)
Barium (Ba2+)
b. Write a laboratory report and present to the class.

Flame tests are used to identify the presence of a relatively small number of metal
ions in a compound. Certain metals give a characteristic color to a Bunsen flame when
their solid salts or moist salts are heated directly in the flame. A flame test is commonly
used to identify the presence of lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, strontium and
barium ions in salts.

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 Important Inorganic Compounds

Experiment 3.15
Test for Cations - II
Objectives: To identify the presence of Cu2+, Fe2+ and Fe3+ in salts.
Chemicals: Ammonia solution, sodium hydroxide solution, salts containing each of
Cu2+, Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions
Apparatus: Beakers, test tubes, test tube rack, glass rod.
Procedure:
1. Dissolve a salt containing Cu2+ in the first beaker, Fe2+ in the second and Fe3+ in
the third. Take three test tubes and add a 2 mL solution of (each ion) Cu2+ salt
to the first, Fe2+ salt solution to the second and Fe3+ salt solution to the third.
2. Add aqueous ammonia in small quantities until it is in excess, to the first test
tube containing a copper (II) salt solution and record your observations.
3. Add sodium hydroxide solution in small quantities, until it is present in excess, to
the second and third test tubes, and record your observations.
Questions:
1. What does the formation of a blue precipitate in the first indicate? Write the
chemical equation for the blue precipitate formation.
2. Observe the colours of the precipitates formed and complete the following
Table 3.7 Colour observed and its indication.
Colour observed Confirms the presence of

Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions. Write a laboratory report
in group and present to the class.
Experiment 3.16
Test for Sulphates
Objective: To identify for the presence of sulphate using barium salts.
Chemicals: Any soluble sulphate salt (such as sodium sulphate), barium chloride
or barium nitrate solution, and dilute HCl.
Apparatus: Beakers, test tubes, and test tube rack,
Procedure: Add some sodium sulphate solution to a test tube and acidify the solu-
tion by adding a few drops of dilute HCl. Then add BaCl2 or Ba(NO3)2 solution
and note if a white precipitate is formed.
Questions:
1. Name the white precipitate formed?
2. Why is it necessary to add a few drops of dilute HCl?
3. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
Write a laboratory report and present to the class

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Experiment 3.17
Test for Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates
Objective: To distinguish between carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Chemicals: Na2CO3, NaHCO3, dilute HCl, lime water
Apparatus: Conical flasks, Beaker

Procedure:
1. Take 20 mL solution of Na2CO3 and add it to one conical flask and 20 mL
NaHCO3 solution to another. Add the same amount of dilute HCl to each of the
conical flasks; Fit a rubber stopper to which a delivery tube is inserted to each
conical flask. Allow the gas produced to pass through lime water and observe the
changes.
2. Again take Na2CO3 solution in one conical flask and NaHCO3 solution in the
other. Add the same amount of CaCl2 solution to each of the conical flasks.
Questions:
1 What happened to the lime water in each case?
2. Which solution formed a white precipitate upon the addition of CaCl2 solution?
3. Write balanced chemical equations for all the reactions.
Write a laboratory report and present it to the class.

Experiment 3.18
Test for Nitrates (Brown Ring Test)
Objectives: To identify the presence of nitrate in a solution.
Chemicals: Nitrate solution, iron (II) sulphate solution, concentrated H2SO4
Apparatus: Test tube, test tube rack, beaker,

Procedure:
Take 2 mL of nitrate solution in a test tube and add an equal volume of freshly
prepared iron (II) sulphate solution. Hold the test tube in an inclined position and
carefully pour concentrated sulphuric acid down along the inclined side of the
test tube. The acid sinks to the bottom. Carefully observe the changes in test tube.

Questions:
1. Where is the brown ring formed?
2. Write the chemical equation for the formation of the brown ring.
3. What does the formation of brown ring in the solution indicate? Write a
laboratory report

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 Important Inorganic Compounds

Exercise 3.12

1. You are provided separate solutions of NaCl, HCl, NaOH and Phenolphtha-
lein (Marked 1). All the solutions are colorless. How would you recognize the
solutions of acid, base and salt?
2. Suggest at least three methods for the preparation of salts.
3. Classify the following salts as soluble or insoluble in water:
a. NH4Cl e. AgNO3 i. CaSO4
b. K3PO4 f. CaCl2 j. BaCO3
c. FeCO3 g. PbSO4
d. AgCl h. Na2S
4. Why do aqueous solutions of soluble salts conduct electricity?
5. Which carbonates do not decompose on heating?
6. Nitrates mostly decompose by heat to give metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen. Which nitrates do not give these products on heating?
7. What reagents do you use to identify the presence of the following ions in
salts?
a. Halide ions c. Sulphate, SO42- ions?
b. Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion

Plant Nutrients
By the end of this topic, students will be able to
" explain the applications of some salts as fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides;
" give examples of salts used for fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

Form groups, discuss the following questions in class

and present it to the class.
1. Plants need nitrogen for their growth, and there is
plenty of nitrogen in the air. If this is so, why do we
apply nitrogenous fertilizers to the soil to support
plants growth?
2. Some people prefer to eat organic food that has
been grown without fertilizers and pesticides.
Does eating organic food overcome the problems
Activity 3.22 caused by artificial fertilizers?

Essential plant nutrients could be either macronutrients or micronutrients, depending on

the amount required by plants.

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Table 3.8 Essential plant nutrients
Macronutrients Micronutrients
These are the elements required These are the elements required by plants in
in relatively large amounts by relatively small (trace) amounts.
plants. These elements are iron, cobalt, zinc, manganese,
These elements are nitrogen, molybdenum, copper, boron and chlorine. The
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are
magnesium, sulphur, carbon, obtained by plants from air and water. These are
hydrogen and oxygen. not considered as mineral nutrients.

Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are said to be primary mineral nutrients. What
are the roles of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in plant growth?

Nitrogen (N)
" is a very important plant nutrient and absorbed by plants in the form of nitrate
ions (NO3–).
" is utilized in the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, coenzymes and nucleic acids
which are taking place in the growth and development of plants
" is also involved in the synthesis of chlorophyll to produce a deep green color.

Phosphorus (P)
" is absorbed by plants mainly in the form of H2PO4– and HPO32– in small amounts.
" facilitates early growth and root formation, quick maturity and promotes seed
or fruit production.
" has a role in the formation of some amino acids and proteins, coenzymes, nucleic
acids and high energy phosphate compounds like Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).

Potassium (K)
" is absorbed by plants in the form of the K+ ion.
" is a component of enzymes that facilitate the process of photosynthesis , protein
synthesis, and adjusts stomata movement.
" is the most important ion in controlling the turgidity of plant cells.
" increases in the solute potential (sap concentration) within the cells which leads to
an increase in the amount of water that enters the cells osmotically.

Exercise 3.13

1. What is the importance of the following elements for the growth of food crops?
A. Nitrogen B. Phosphorus C. Potassium
2. In what form do plants absorb these elements?
3. Why nitrogen is not absorbed by plants in the form of N2? And phosphorous
not in the form of P4?

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 Important Inorganic Compounds
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are materials that are added to soils to increase the growth, yield or
nutritional value of crops. There are organic( natural) and synthetic (artificial)
fertilizers.
Organic (natural) fertilizers are fertilizers derived from animals and plants.
" Organic fertilizers provide readily available nutrients to plants after some
period of decay and decomposition and can supply the elements nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and various trace elements to the soil.
" Synthetic (artificial) fertilizers contain nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, and
are known as complete fertilizers.
" A mixed artificial fertilizer may contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Such type of fertilizer is called a complete fertilizer.
" The term NPK is used to describe fertilizers containing the elements nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium.

Examples of artificial fertilizers are ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, potassium nitrate

(KNO3), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), and diammonium hydrogen phosphate, DAP
(NH4)2HPO4).The most important mineral nutrients that need to be added to the soil
are usually nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
" All three elements are needed in large quantities. Commercial fertilizers are
normally given a “grade”, which reflects the percentages they contain of N,
P and K by dry weight. For example, a NPK fertilizer may be described as
10:10:10 indicating that there is 10% of each element in the fertilizer.
" The suitable proportions are best determined in relation to the tested fertility of
the soil and the requirements of the particular crop that is being grown on it. This
means fertilizers of the same composition are not used for different purposes.
" In nitrogen-deficient soil, a fertilizer containing a higher percentage of nitrogen
than phosphorus and potassium must be used. In addition to this, all fertilizers
are not used for the treatment of all kinds of soil. For example, ammonium
sulphate is more suitable for use in basic soils than in acidic or neutral soils.

Exercise 3.14
1. Explain the terms mixed fertilizer , complete fertilizer and fertilizer grade
2. Classify the following as organic or synthetic fertilizers:
A. NH4NO3 B. Urea C. (NH4)2SO4
3. Can the same fertilizer be applied to all types of soil? Explain.

Pesticides
" Pesticides are chemicals that can be applied to crops to kill pests that affect
plant growth and development.

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Chemistry Grade 10
Herbicides
" Herbicides (weed killers) are chemicals used to manipulate or control
undesirable plants. Some examples of herbicidal salts are: Common salt ( NaCl),
copper sulphate ( CuSO4), sodium arsenite (NaAsO2), Ammonium sulphamate
(NH4SO3NH2), sodium chlorate (NaClO3).

Reading Assignment
Read about the use of more salts as pesticides and herbicides from a reliable source
and present it to your class.

Check List for Reference

Key Terms of the Unit
" Alkalis for water (kw) " Non-volatile acid
" Acid salt " Dilute acid " Normal salt
" Acidic oxide " Electrolyte " pH
" Acid, basic and " Efflorescent " Peroxide
normal salt " Fertilizer " pOH
" Amphoteric oxide " Flame test " Pesticide
" Arrhenius acid " Hygroscopic " Polyprotic acid
" Arrhenius base " Litmus " Salt
" Basic salt " Macronurient " Strong acid
" Basic oxide " Molarity " Strong base
" Binary acid " Micronutrient " Ternary acid
" Concentrated acid " Monoprotic acid " Universal indicator
" Deliquescent " Neutral oxide " Weak acid
" Dissociation constant " Neutralization " Weak base

Unit Summary
" Inorganic compounds are those compounds that originate from mineral constituents
of the earth’s crust. Inorganic compounds may be classified as oxides, acids, bases
and salts.

" Oxides are binary compounds consisting of oxygen and any other element. Most
common oxides are classified as acidic, basic, amphoteric, neutral oxides and
peroxides. Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metallic elements. Basic oxides are
oxides of metals. These metal oxides which dissolve in water are also called basic
anhydrides. Amphoteric oxides are those oxides which show the properties of
both acids and bases. Neutral oxides are those oxides which do not show basic
or acidic properties. Peroxides are oxides containing a peroxide (-O-O-) link and
the oxidation state of oxygen is -1.

" Arrhenius acids are substances that release hydrogen ions or protons in aqueous

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 Energy Changes and Electrochemistry

Start-up Activity
1. Describe the different types of chemical reactions
and their characteristics.
2. Argue for or against this idea “without energy, there
is no development!”
3. Describe the energy sources of our country
Ethiopia? Compare their relative importance to the
country’s development. Which one is the principal
source? Which one is the most important source that
is underutilized? What are the different forms of
energy contained in each of these sources?
4. Discuss the relevance of hydroelectric dams such
as the GERD (The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance
Dam) to the country’s development vis-à-vis climate
change? What energy changes are involved? What
about batteries? How do they generate electrical
energy and how light bulbs convert it into light? Can
you make a battery? Some people do not want to
think about these types of questions. They just spend
money to buy one and gratify their needs. But
others are very curious to learn new things and want
to create their own device named in honor of their
names (Made by Mr/Miss “X”). Which category are
you from?

4.1 Introduction
At the end of this section, students will be able to describe energy changes in chemical
reactions.

1. We feel warm when we stand in the sunlight.

Discuss the reason.
2. Your body sweats when you take a hot shower after
an intensive physical exercise?
3. Why do you burn wood, or charcoal at your home?
What energy change is involved?
4. The major component of dynamite is nitroglycerin,
a very unstable material, mixed with diatomaceous
earth. What type of energy change occurs when
Activity 4.1 dynamite explodes?

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Chemistry Grade 10
You have studied in unit 1 that chemical reactions almost always involve energy
change. This means, the energy of the reaction mixture is different before and after
the reaction. For example, coke is mainly carbon, and the combustion of carbon in
oxygen, which can be represented by the chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

results not only in the formation of gaseous carbon dioxide, but also in the release
of energy in the form of heat and light. During this process, the chemical energy
contained in fossil fuels is converted into heat and light energy. Similarly, natural gas
(principally methane, which has the formula CH4) bums in oxygen
CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
gives not only the gaseous products carbon dioxide and water, but energy in the form
of heat and light.

To study the energy change, (E), involved in chemical reactions like the combustion
reaction we have just cited, scientists conceptually divide the universe into two: the
system (the part being studied) and the surroundings (everything else).

Universe = System + Surrounding

A system is part of the universe that is being studied. Surrounding is anything else
than the system in the universe. Each particle in a system under investigation, such as a
reaction mixture in a test tube, has potential energy and kinetic energy, and the sum
of all these energies is the internal energy, E of the system.

Internal energy of a system is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energies of the
components of the system.

(Internal Energy)system = (potential energy + kinetic energy)system

Potential energy is stored energy. It is stored in chemical bonds. Kinetic energy is the
energy due to motion. It causes work to be done through movement.

When the reactants in a chemical system change to products, the system’s internal
energy is changed. This change, E, is the difference between the internal energy
after the change (Efinal) and before the change (Einitial):

E = Efinal – Einitial = Eproducts - Ereactants

Where  (Greek delta) means “change (or difference) in” and refers to the final state
minus the initial state. Thus, E is the final quantity of energy of the system minus the
initial quantity.

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 Energy Changes and Electrochemistry
Note that the total energy of the universe remains constant. When the system loses
a certain amount of energy, the surrounding gains the same amount of energy. This
means, energy is simply being exchanged between the two components of the universe
keeping the total energy of the universe constant (Figure 4.1).

Temperature
Temperature
Figure 4.1 Energy exchange between system and surrounding.

Energy transferred from system to surroundings or vice versa appears in two forms:
heat and work. For instance, the various chemicals that make up gasoline contain a
large amount of chemical (potential) energy that is released when the gasoline is
burned in a controlled way in the engine of the car. The release of that energy does
two things: some of the potential energy is transformed into work, which is used to
move a car; at the same time, some of the potential energy is converted to heat and
makes the car's engine very hot. Therefore, the energy changes of a system occur as
either heat (q) or work (w), or some combination of both.

E = q + w

4.1.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Chemical Reactions

At the end of this section, students will be able to
" define endothermic reaction;
" describe endothermic reaction;
" define exothermic reaction;
" describe exothermic reaction;
" elucidate endothermic and exothermic reactions using diagrams;
" do simple experiment to demonstrate exothermic and endothermic reactions.

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1. From your discussion on Activity 4.2, you can

conclude that reactions that cause the surrounding
to heat up are called heat releasing reactions and
the process is exothermic. Reactions that take up
energy from the surrounding such as the reaction
flask are called heat absorbing and the process
is endothermic. Based on this information, discuss
whether energy (in the form of heat) is released or
absorbed during
a. baking of bread (consider the heat of stove before
and after the cold dough is loaded)
b. cooking food
c. burning of wood and then classify each of them as
exothermic or endothermic.
What other processes can you cite from your daily life
experience that either releases heat or absorbs heat?
2. Is photosynthesis an endothermic or exothermic
reaction? Write the balanced equation and draw
an energy diagram indicating all the necessary
information. Repeat this activity for respiration.
Activity 4.2
All of the combustion reactions mentioned in the previous section release energy in the
form of heat. Such reactions are described as being exothermic (from the Greek exo
meaning outside and therme meaning heat). One of the examples cited earlier is the
combustion of coke in oxygen, which obviously results in the release of a considerable
amount of energy. Similarly, although on a much more modest scale, when NaOH
dissolves in water, the test-tube becomes warm. In other words, the process results in
a temperature rise. This observation indicates that the dissolving process for NaOH is
also exothermic; that is, it is accompanied by the release of energy, which heats up
the solution.
NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH¯(aq)

The other is the reaction between calcium chloride and water:

CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(g) + heat

In this case too, heat is released during the reaction, elevating the temperature of the
reaction mixture, and thus the reaction flask becomes hot. But, when potassium nitrate,
KNO3, dissolves in water, the mixture gets colder. This process can be represented by
the following equation:
H2O
KNO3(s) + Heat K+ (aq) + NO3¯(aq)

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 Energy Changes and Electrochemistry
Reactions like this are described as being endothermic (from the Greek endo meaning
within).

To study whether the energy being released or absorbed during a chemical reaction,
we need to set the temperature and pressure constant. Thus, if a reaction takes place
at constant temperature and pressure, the heat transferred is called the enthalpy of
reaction, and this is denoted by the symbol H:

H=HProducts _ Hreactants

For an exothermic reaction: H is negative, H < 0.

For an endothermic reaction: H is positive, H > 0.

The relative energies of reactants and products in exothermic and endothermic

reactions can be represented as shown schematically in Figure 4.1 a and b, respectively.
Reactants enthalpy level (a) Products enthalpy level (b)

Reactants Products
Enthalpy

H > 0
Enthalpy

H < 0

Reactants
Products
Products enthalpy level Reactants enthalpy level
Reaction progress Reaction progress
Figure 4.1 Enthalpy diagram for (a) exothermic reactions (b) endothermic reactions.

The device used to measure the heat released (or absorbed) by a chemical reaction
is called calorimeter. To find the energy change during chemical reaction, we measure
the change in temperature and determine the quantity of heat released or absorbed
using the following relation:

q ∝ ΔT or q = constant x ΔT or q/ΔT = constant

The proportionality constant in the above equation is called heat capacity. Every
object has its own heat capacity. Heat Capacity of a substance is defined as the
quantity of heat required to change its temperature by 1 K.

Heat capacity = q/ΔT

The unit of heat capacity is Joule per Kelvin (J/K). Heat capacity is related to a
substance’s ability to retain heat and the rate at which it will heat up or cool down. For

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Chemistry Grade 10
example, a substance with a low heat capacity, such as iron, will heat and cool quickly,
while a substance with a high heat capacity, such as water, heats and cools slowly.

A related property is specific heat capacity (c). Specific heat capacity (c) of a
substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1
gram of the object by 1 K:

Specific heat capacity (c) = (Heat capacity)/mass = q/(mass x ΔT)

If we know c of the object being heated (or cooled), we can measure the mass and the
temperature change and calculate the heat absorbed (or released):
q = c x mass x ΔT

Notice that metals have relatively low values of c and water has a very high value: for
instance, it takes over 30 times as much energy to increase the temperature of a gram
of water by 1 K as it does a gram of gold. This is one of the properties that make
water unique and responsible for its use as a coolant in car radiators and in industries

Exercise 4.1
1. Where does the energy released during chemical reaction come from?
2. How is the energy that you get from food stored in your body? How is it
supplied to the cellular process in your body when needed?
3. Explain the energy changes involved when
a. quicklime or calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with water to form slaked lime
[Ca(OH)2]?
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
b. limestone (CaCO3) decomposes to give quicklime (CaO)
c. nitroglycerine (major component of dynamite) decomposes

4C3H5 (NO3)3(l) → 12CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) + O2 (g) + 6N2 (g)

Is it exothermic or endothermic? Explain! Draw an enthalpy diagram for each of

these three reactions.
4. On a hot summer day the water in a lake stays cool even though the air above
it heats quickly, and the water stays warm at night after the air has cooled.
Can you explain this?
5. Have you encountered an earthen stove “Injera Mitad” that takes longer time
to feel hot? Explain why. Which stove stays warm for longer time after the
heat source is disconnected, the one heats up quickly or slowly?
6. What property of substance is responsible for the observations in Q1 and
Q2?

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4.1.2 Importance of Chemical Changes
At the end of this section, students will be able to discuss the importance of chemical
changes in the production of new substances and energy.

1. Discuss the importance of chemical changes in your

life process. Consider, for instance, oxidation of glucose
in your body cells. The photosynthesis and combustion
reactions, the digestion, etc. Do you think life is possible
without chemical reactions or chemical changes?
2. Can you mention some pharmaceuticals and their use?
How are they made?
3. What two major uses of chemical reactions or changes
Activity 4.3 can you suggest from the above discussion?

Chemical reactions are the most important types of events in the universe. It's through
chemical reactions that plants grow, produce fruit, and become compost for new plants.
It's because of chemical reactions that human beings (and all other animals) reproduce,
digest, grow, hear, and think. Chemical changes are involved during digestion and
respiration. You get energy because of respiration. You get food because of the
chemical change called photosynthesis. Therefore, the two principal advantages of
chemical changes are production energy and useful substances.

Experiment 4.1
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Objective: To explore the energy changes involved in the reaction between acetic
acid and baking soda.
Materials needed: Plastic cup or beaker, vinegar (acetic acid), baking soda
(NaHCO3), spatula/teaspoon, thermometer.
Procedure:
Pour about 10 mL of vinegar into a small plastic cup. Then, place a thermometer
into the vinegar. Record the initial temperature (Ti).
While the thermometer is in the cup, add about ½ teaspoon of baking soda to
the cup.
Watch the thermometer for any change in temperature. After it has stopped
changing, record the final temperature (Tf).

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1. Based on your observations of the baking soda and vinegar reaction, is the
reaction exothermic or endothermic?
2. Use energy level diagram to visualize the energy changes
3. Repeat the above steps using calcium chloride instead of vinegar. Briefly,
dissolve 1/2 a spoonful of calcium chloride in 20 mL water in a test tube.
Record your observation. In a second test tube, dissolve equal amount of
baking soda and record your observation. Allow both solutions to cool to
equal (room) temperature and record this temperature as Ti. Mix the two
solutions in a plastic cup/beaker and record the final temperature.
4. Discuss the endothermic and exothermic processes observed in the above
procedure.
5. Write the reaction equation and use energy level diagram to visualize the
energy changes during reaction of calcium chloride and baking soda.

4.2 Energy Changes in Electrochemistry

At the end of this section, students will be able to
" describe electrochemistry;
" define electrical conductivity;·
" explain metallic conductivity;
" explain electrolytic conductivity;
" differentiate between metallic conduction and electrolytic conduction.

4.2.1 Electrochemistry

1. You know that metals are good conductors of heat and

electricity. But what is electricity? What are the sources?
What is the analogy between electricity and water flow
via tap to your home? How do metals conduct electricity?
Can you suggest other materials that conduct electricity?
2. What do substances need to possess in order to
conduct electricity?
3. What about batteries such as hand batteries and
car batteries? What is the energy change involved?
4. Can you suggest devices that generate electrical
Activity 4.4 energy? Discuss the uses of electrical energy?

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Electrochemistry is a field of chemistry that deals with the interconversion of electrical
energy and chemical energy. It is concerned with the use of electricity to cause chemical
reactions (changes) to happen or generating electricity from chemical reactions. Thus,
electrical energy and chemical energy are inter-convertible.
4.2.2 Electrical Conductivity
Why do metals conduct electricity? Do you know any non-metal which conducts
electricity? Electrical conductivity is the ability of a substance to transmit electricity.
The materials that allow the passage of electricity through them are called electrical
conductors. Electricity is constituted by movement of charged particles or charge
carriers. Electrons carry negative charge whereas ions may carry positive (cations) or
negative (anions) charges. Depending on the nature of the particles responsible for
the flow of electric charges through conductors, electrical conductivity can be classified
as metallic conductivity and electrolytic conductivity.

a) Metallic conductivity
Electrical conductivity in metals is a result of the movement of electrically charged
particles called electrons. The atoms of metal elements are characterized by the
presence of valence electrons; which are electrons in the outer shell of an atom that
are free to move about. It is these "free electrons" that allow metals to conduct an
electric current. Because valence electrons are free to move, they can travel through
the metallic lattice that forms the physical structure of a metal. Silver is the best
electrical conductor.

Metallic lattice can be described as an atmosphere of positive ions in a sea of mobile

electrons (Figure 4.3). The electrons entering the metal displace (repel) the freely
moving electrons at the point of entry. The displaced electrons occupy new positions
by pushing neighboring electrons ahead. This will continue until electrons are forced
out of the wire at the opposite end. The charge carriers in metallic conduction are
electrons. Hence, metallic conductivity is also called electronic conductivity.

Electrons Electrons
in out

Free electron Nucleus

Figure 4.3 Electrical conductivity in metals.

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Chemistry Grade 10
Non-metals are generally non-conductors of electricity, because they do not have
freely moving electrons. Graphite is a form of carbon in which the carbon atoms are
bonded in trigonal planar fashion to the three other carbon atoms, to form inter-
connected hexagonal rings, as shown in Figure 4.4. Electrons move freely through the
hexagonal layers, making graphite a good conductor of electricity.
Covalent bonds 1.42A

Van der waals forces

3.35A

Figure 4.4 Structure of graphite.

b) Electrolytic conductivity
Electrolytes are substances that transmit electricity in a molten state or in aqueous
solution. Unlike metallic conductivity, the conductivity of electrolytic solutions depends
on the type and concentration of ions in solution. Based on their degree of ionization
or the extent to which they produce anions and cations, electrolytes can be classified
as strong electrolytes or weak electrolytes. Recall from unit 2 that many ionic
compounds such as NaCl dissociate completely in water and are therefore called
strong electrolytes.
_
NaCl (aq) → Na+ (aq) + Cl (aq)

When electrical potential is applied through an electrolyte solution, the positive ions
(cations) move in one direction and the negative ions (anions) move in the opposite
direction. This movement of ions through the electrolyte, brought about by the
application of electricity, is called electrolytic conductivity. Hence, the charge-carriers
in electrolytic conductivity are ions (anions and cations). That is electrolytic conductors
are also called ionic conductors.

Difference between metallic conduction and electrolytic conduction

Metallic Conduction Electrolytic Conduction
Conduction through metals is due to Conduction through electrolytes is due to
the movement of electrons. the movement of ions.
No change in the chemical properties It may cause chemical decomposition of
of the conductors is observed. the electrolytes.

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 Energy Changes and Electrochemistry

It does not involve any transfer of It involves the transfer of matter as ions.
matter.
The resistance of metals is due to The resistance of electrolytic solutions is
obstacles of vibrating kernels of due to factors like concentration inter-ionic
metal atoms. attractions, the viscosity of solvent etc.
It decreases with the increase in It increases with the increase in
temperature. temperature.
Note that metallic conduction is a physical process, but electrolytic conduction is
accompanied by chemical changes that occur on the surface of the electrodes.

Experiment 4.2
Conductivity of Materials
Objectives: To test the conductivity of substances and classify them as strong,
weak or non-conductors of electricity.
Apparatus: Copper wire, light bulb, power supply (DC) or dry cells, scotch tape,
distilled water, 1M NaCl solution, 1 M HCl, 1 M acetic acid solution, 1 M sugar
solution, pencil graphite, wood, magnesium ribbon and an iron nail.
Procedure:
1. Arrange the conductivity apparatus as shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Conductivity apparatus for (A) metals and (B) electrolytic solution

2. Pour some distilled water in the beaker (as illustrated in Figure 4.5B), dip the
electrodes into the water and turn the switch on. Set-up the experiments to
test the conductivity of pencil graphite, magnesium ribbon, wood or an iron
nail as illustrated in Figure 4.5A.

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3. Repeat the experiment with separate solutions of table salt, copper sulphate,
hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, acetic acid, ammonia solution, molten
lead bromide and sugar solution. (use 1.0 M solutions of each).
Observations and Analysis:
a. Does the bulb glow when the switch is turned on?
b. Solutions of which substances make the bulb glow and not glow, when you turn
on the switch?
c. Solutions of which substances make the bulb to glow with a: i) bright light? ii)
dim light?
d. Classify the substances used in this experiment as strong conductors, weak
conductors and non-conductors by completing the table below:
Strong Conductors Weak Conductors Non-conductors

e. Which substances in the experiment are used as: i strong electrolytes ii weak
electrolytes
Repeat the experiment with lemon juice, and orange juice and answer the
questions.
Note that if the solution contains ions, current flows through the circuit and the
light bulb glows. The brightness of the bulb increases with current strength, which
increases with the number of ions in the solution. Strong electrolytes dissociate
completely and produce more ions in solutions brighter light than weak electrolytes
that dissociate slightly.
f. In your experiment using set-up 4.5 A, what observations did you make?
In which case did the bulb glow and in which case did not? Pencil graphite,
magnesium ribbon, wood, or iron nail?
Write a laboratory report on what you have observed and submit to your teacher.

Exercise 4.2
1. Na and Ca metals conduct electricity in solid state but NaCl and CaCl2
conduct electricity only when they are dissolved in water or when they are in
the molten form, but not in the solid state. Why?
2. Why are solutions of strong electrolytes better conductors of electricity than
weak electrolytes?
3. Which of the following substances are capable of conducting electricity?
Give reason for your answer.
a. Iron c. Solid sodium chloride
b. Sulphur d. Molten calcium chloride

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 Energy Changes and Electrochemistry
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
At the end of this section, students will be able to
" distinguish between strong and weak electrolytes;
" use conductivity apparatus to test conductivity of substances.

All solutes that dissolve in water fall into one of two categories: electrolytes and
nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water, results in a
solution that can conduct electricity. In order to conduct a current, a substance must
contain mobile ions. All ionic compounds are electrolytes. When ionic compounds
dissolve, they dissociate (break apart) into ions, which are then able to conduct a
current. Thus, we can represent sodium chloride dissolving in water as
H2O
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

What this equation says is that all the sodium chloride that enters the aqueous solution
ends up as Na+ and Cl- ions; there are no undissociated NaCl units in solution.
Even insoluble ionic compounds, such as CaCO3, are considered electrolytes because
they can conduct a current in the molten (melted) state. Some polar covalent compounds
such as acetic acid (CH3COOH) that can, at least partially, dissociate into ions when
dissolved in water are also classified as electrolytes.

A nonelectrolyte is a substance that does not conduct an electric current in either

aqueous solution or in the molten state. Most polar covalent compounds, such as table
sugar (C12H22O11), and all nonpolar covalent compounds are good examples of
nonelectrolytes. When these compounds dissolve in water, they do not produce ions.
An equation can still be written that simply shows the solute going into solution without
dissociating into ions. For example, the process of dissolving sucrose in water can be
written as follows:

C12H22O11(s) → C12H22O11(aq) Individual C12H22O11

molecules in solution

C12H22O11
crystal
Strong and Weak Electrolytes
A strong electrolyte is a substance that when dissolved in water dissociates completely
into its ions. All ionic compounds are strong electrolytes. NaCl is a good example. A
weak electrolyte is a substance that when dissolved in water dissociates partially into
its ions. For example, acetic acid (CH3COOH)- the compound in vinegar and nitrous
acid (HNO2) only partially ionizes into respective ions (H+ and CH3COO_ or H+ and

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NO2_) when dissolved in water. Aqueous nitrous acid is composed of only about 5%
ions and 95% intact (undissociated) nitrous acid molecules. Table 4.1shows some strong
and weak electrolytes.

HNO2(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + NO2-(aq)

CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

Table 4.1: Classification of Solutes in Aqueous Solutions.

Strong Electrolyte Weak Electrolyte Nonelectrolyte
HCl CH3COOH (NH2)2CO (urea)
HNO3 HF CH3OH (methanol)
HClO4 HNO2 C2H5OH (ethanol)
H2SO4 NH3 C6H12O6 (glucose)
NaOH H2O C12H22O11 (sucrose)
Ba(OH)2
Ionic compounds

Experiment 4.3
The Distinction Between Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Objective: To distinguish between electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions
Chemicals: Water, Table salt
Apparatus: power source, wires, beaker (or water glass) and light bulb
Procedure
1. Construct the light bulb experiment as shown in Figure 4.6.
2. Fill the glass with water as shown in the Figure. Write your observation
3. Add a tea spoonful of fine NaCl in the water and let it dissolve. Make sure
the circuit is complete. Write your observation.

Caution: Bare wires are a hazard! Skin will conduct an electric current and
will cause a shock. Do not touch the bare part of the wires when the light-bulb
apparatus is plugged in.

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Question
In which case does the light bulb glow? With just water or salt dissolved in it?
Explain your observations. Try the same experiment using table sugar (sucrose)
instead of salt. Apply the concept to test whether the drinking water in your
locality is salty or potable. Note that the brightness of the light bulb depends on
the concentration of the salt.

Figure 4.6 Setup for electrolytic conductivity test.

Exercise 4.3
1. Classify each of the following as electrolytes or nonelectrolytes:
a. air d. lemon water g. ammonia
b. pure water e. sulphuric acid solution
c. saline solution f. nitric acid
2. The diagrams show three compounds (a) AB2, (b) AC2, and (c) AD2 dissolved
in water. Which is the strongest electrolyte and which is the weakest? (For
simplicity, water molecules are not shown.)

(a) (b) (c)

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4.3 Electrochemical Cells
At the end of this section, students will be able to describe the importance of
electrochemical cells in daily life (Votic cell and car battery).

Consider the catabolic biochemical reactions such

as breakdown of glucose during respiration which
releases energy (exothermic) and anabolic reactions
such as joining of amino acids to form proteins
(endothermic). Where do you think these reactions
take place in your body? What about photosynthesis
in plants? Where does it take place? Can you
draw analogy between the places (setup) where
biochemical reactions take place in your body to the
setup for redox reactions to produce electrical energy
Activity 4.5 or produce useful compounds?

An electrochemical cell is a system that incorporates a redox reaction to produce

or use electrical energy. It consists of two or more electrodes that are dipped into
an electrolyte (see Figure 4.7 & 4.10) in which a chemical reaction either uses or
generates an electric current, and the electronic circuitry for controlling and measuring
the current and the potential. Electrodes are strips of metal or graphite that allow
electrons to leave or enter the electrolytes. They can be chemically active or inert.
Active electrodes directly take part in reactions. Examples include zinc and magnesium.
Inert electrodes do not directly take part in chemical reactions. They only serve to
transfer electrons. Examples include platinum and graphite.

Depending on the purpose or the types of reactions taking place, electrochemical cells
are divided into two. These are Galvanic (Voltaic) cells and Electrolytic cells.
4.3.1 Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells
What is a galvanic cell?
A Galvanic cell or voltaic cell is an electrochemical cell in which chemical energy
contained in reactants is converted into electrical energy via a spontaneous redox
reaction. Galvanic cell or voltaic cell was so named after the Italian scientists Luigi
Galvani and Alessandro Volta, who constructed early versions of the device.

Examples include the cells we use in our hand batteries (dry cells), flashlight batteries,
wrist watches, cameras and car batteries. The redox reactions between the chemicals
in these cells are responsible for the generation of electricity. The reaction proceeds
on its own and without any external influence. This type of chemical reaction is called
spontaneous redox reaction. Therefore, Galvanic cells are electrochemical cells in

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 Energy Changes and Electrochemistry
which spontaneous redox reactions generate electricity. Galvanic cells are classified
into primary cells, secondary cells, and fuel cells. Here, we shall be concerned with
the primary and secondary cells only. Fuel cells will be discussed in grade 11. Both
primary and secondary cells are batteries that store electrical energy in the form of
chemical energy. The chemical energy is converted into electrical energy when we the
battery is in use.

Primary Cells (Battery Cells)

Primary cells or also known as battery cells are galvanic cells that are not rechargeable.
This is because once the chemicals in the cells that serve as reactants are completely
used up, it is not possible to recover them by charging the cells. Examples of primary
cells include Daniell’s cell and zinc-carbon (Leclanche) dry cells. The common feature
of all Galvanic cells is that they contain two electrodes in contact with an electrolyte.
The electrolyte in a Galvanic cell can be in the form of a solution (Daniell cell) or
a paste (Leclanche cell). The cells containing electrolytes in the form of solution are
called wet cells, and those containing electrolytes in the form of paste are called dry
cells.

An example of a wet primary cell is the Daniell cell. It consists of a zinc strip placed
in ZnSO4 solution in one compartment and a copper strip placed in copper sulphate,
CuSO4, solution in another compartment (Figure 4.7).

The anode (zinc) The cathode (copper)

electrode loses its mass electrode gains mass

Figure 4.7 The Daniell Cell.

Each compartment is called a half-cell, and the reactions occurring in each compartment
are called half-cell reactions. The solutions in the two compartments are linked by a

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Chemistry Grade 10
salt bridge. The salt bridge consists of a delivery tube filled with warm mixture of
conc. KCl solution and agar solution, which is then allowed to cool so that it sets in the
form of a gel.

In the anode compartment, the zinc atoms from the zinc electrode lose two electrons
each and become zinc ions, Zn2+. The ions enter into the solution, and the electrons
remain on the electrode and flow through the external wire to the copper electrode
(see anode half reaction below). This situation causes the zinc electrode to be negative
and the solution to have an overall positive charge. In the process the anode (zinc)
electrode loses its mass. That is why the anode of the galvanic cell is sometimes called
sacrificial electrode. On the other hand, in the compartment containing the copper
electrode, copper ions, Cu2+, from the solution move to the cathode and gain two
electrons each, to become copper atoms and deposit on the surface of the copper
electrode (see cathode half reaction below). This condition causes the electrode to
be positive and the solution to have a negative charge. In addition, the cathode
continuous to grow in mass as more and more copper deposits on it. The electron flows
from anode to cathode in the external conductor.

The half-cell reactions and the cell reaction in Daniell cells are represented as

Anode reaction: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

Cathode reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Overall (cell) reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Due to the oxidation-reduction reaction in the cell, the Daniell cell generates electricity.
What is the purpose of the salt bridge in Figure 4.7? From the preceding discussion,
it is clear that the solution in which the zinc electrode is placed has an overall positive
charge while the solution in the copper compartment has a negative charge. Unless
the two solutions are neutral, the cell cannot produce electricity. Thus, the purpose of
the salt bridge is to maintain electrical neutrality between the two solutions.

Although, wet cells like the Daniell cell can serve as a source of electricity, they are not
portable since they contain solutions. Due to this practical problem of using wet cells,
dry cells were developed. In a dry cell, a moist electrolyte paste is used instead of
solutions. This cell was invented by Georges Leclanche, a French chemist.

We commonly use Leclanche cells as convenient, portable sources of energy. Flashlights

and radios are examples of devices that are often powered by the zinc–carbon,
or Leclanché, dry cell (Figure 4.8). This voltaic cell has a zinc can as the anode; a
graphite rod in the center, surrounded by a paste of manganese dioxide, ammonium
and zinc chlorides, and carbon black, as the cathode. It produces electricity as a result
of a spontaneous redox reactions:

Anode reaction: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

Cathode reaction: 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) + 2e → Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l) + 2NH3(aq)

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 Energy Changes and Electrochemistry
Overall (cell) reaction:
Zn(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) → Zn2+(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l) + 2NH3(aq)

Figure 4.8 Zinc-carbon dry cell (Leclanche cell).

A buildup of ammonia gas around the cathode may disrupt the current. However, this is
prevented by the reaction between Zn2+ and NH3 to form a complex ion, [Zn(NH3)2]2+
which crystallizes as a chloride salt through reaction with chloride (spectator ion).
_
Zn2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) + 2Cl (aq) → Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s)

Therefore, the overall reaction occurring in a Leclanche cell is often written as:

Zn(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) + 2MnO2(s) → Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s) + Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l)

The voltage of this dry cell is initially about 1.5 V, but it decreases as current is drawn
off. The voltage also deteriorates rapidly in cold weather. There are other examples
of dry cells, such as the alkaline dry cell, silver oxide cell, and copper oxide cell which
are left for interested students to read.

Exercise 4.4

A voltaic cell is constructed from a half-cell in which a cadmium rod is dipped

into a solution of cadmium nitrate, Cd(NO3)2, and another half-cell in which a
silver rod is dipped into a solution of silver nitrate, AgNO3. The two half-cells are
connected by a salt bridge. Silver ion is reduced during operation of the voltaic cell.
" Draw a sketch of the cell.
" Label the anode and cathode, showing the corresponding half reactions at
these electrodes.
" Indicate the electron flow in the external circuit (with a lightbulb) and the
signs of the electrodes.

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