Business Horizons (2023) 66, 433e441

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Revisiting resistance to change and how to

manage it: What has been learned and
what organizations need to do
D.D. Warrick

Graduate School of Business, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, 1420 Austin

Bluffs Parkway, Colorado Springs, CO 80918, USA

KEYWORDS Abstract Resistance to change can be a significant factor in the success or failure
Resistance to change; of changes. As such, researchers have spent more than a half century studying the
Managing change; causes of resistance and how to manage it. Much can be learned from resistance
Adaptive organization literature that applies to today’s unparalleled, nonstop change in which an organi-
zation’s ability to manage resistance to change can not only impact the change’s
success or failure but also determine whether an organization will survive or thrive.
This article explores important lessons revealed via resistance literature, and more
importantly, how such knowledge applies to managing change in the modern world.
The article emphasizes the urgent need for organizations to become skilled at
effectively managing change and resistance to change and offers recommendations
on how they can do so.
ª 2022 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. Published by Elsevier Inc. All
rights reserved.

1. The importance of understanding Dynamic, unpredictable, and unrelenting change

resistance to change is normal and often accompanied by resistance or
a lack of change. Resistance can be reasonable or
Resistance to change has a long history primarily unreasonable and can be expressed visibly or
rooted in the field of organization development silently. Regardless of its form, however, resis-
and change. How resistance is viewed, managed, tance is one of the main reasons change efforts fail
and studied regarding organizational change is a (Erwin & Garman, 2010). Effectively managing
highly relevant topic. resistance can have significant payoffs for organi-
zations, but lacking skills can have significant costs
(Burnes, 2015).
Change and its resistance have been ever-
present throughout history. However, the
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434 D.D. Warrick

accelerated rate, unpredictability, and quantity of participationdrather than personal factorsdwas

change that organizations and individuals must the biggest influence in reducing resistance to
deal with in such an interconnected, high-tech, change. As discussed throughout the rest of Section
and complex worlddas well as the potential con- 2, the Coch and French study provided a foundation
sequences of organizational, social, cultural, eco- for many of the future conclusions regarding
nomic, and political changesdunderscores change change resistance. It is worth noting that in-
and resistance to change in the modern era. In dividuals affected by change are called recipients,
understanding the need for knowledge and skills to and those that initiate and lead change (e.g.,
manage change and resistance, consider the leaders, professionals, and others who champion
multitude of changes organizations deal with modification) are called change agents.
including changes in leadership, structure, strat-
egy, culture, technology, practices, attracting and
retaining talent, cyber security, crisis manage- 2.1. How you view resistance determines
ment, government regulations, responding to what how you manage it
people want out of work, and many other factors
that must be effectively managed for organiza- Assumptions regarding resistance to change are
tions to compete. important in determining how resistance is
In addition to the changes mentioneddmany managed and can have a significant influence on
of which likely involved managing resistanced the success or failure of change efforts. Consider
organizations must also prepare to adapt and deal the following major assumptions about resistance
with unpredictable changes such as the COVID-19 and its implications.
pandemic that altered the world and impacted
lives and organizations, regardless of size, in such 2.1.1. Resistance is disadvantageous and creates
a short period. The pandemic affected almost all obstacles that managers must overcome
aspects of how organizations are run, resulting in Resistance is predominantly viewed under this
a multitude of changes (e.g., determining the assumption (Dent & Goldberg, 1999). Management
balance of remote to in-person work amid its textbooks often include a heading that reads “Why
support or condemnation; Colvin, 2021). As such, Employees Resist Change” or “How to Overcome
leaders and organizations must learn as much as Resistance” as well as reasons employees resist
possible about managing change and resistance to change and what managers can do to overcome
it. such resistance. This view has three underlying
assumptions: managers know what must be
changed, employees resist for various reasons, and
2. Lessons learned about resistance to managers must find ways to overcome negative
change attitudes, which can be helpful or coercive.
Resistant employees are considered either a
While resistance to change is not a novel concept, nuisance or bad apples.
the first formal mention of the term appeared in
an article written by Kurt Lewin (1947) under a 2.1.2. People naturally resist change, so
section titled “Constancy and Resistance to resistance is to be expected
Change.” The context differed from the term’s This view presumes that employees are the
actual usage, but it provided a name for resistance problem and must be dealt with, as people
to change and resulted in many articles and books naturally resist change (Craine, 2007; Ford et al.,
devoted to its understanding. 2008; Greiner, 1992; Peiperl, 2005). Numerous
Coch and French (1948) conducted the first studies on resistance disagree with this assump-
major study of resistance to change, as well as tion and demonstrate that while there may be
many others at the Harwood Manufacturing Corpo- some natural reasons employees resist, others
ration under the guidance of Lewin. Harwood embrace and like change (Dent & Goldberg,
Manufacturing was a pajama factory that employed 1999). In a Harvard Business Review highlights
over 500 production workers and experienced excerpt, Lawrence (1969, p. 6) said: “Let me
considerable resistance due to numerous changes reemphasize the point that resistance to change
workers were required to make regarding what they is by itself neither good nor bad. Resistance may
did and how they did it. Coch and French studied be soundly based or not. It is always, however, an
different approaches to managing changes with important signal calling for further inquiry by
various groups and found that the degree of management.”
Revisiting resistance to change and how to manage it 435

2.1.3. Resistance can come from employees or support the change, one-third will be skeptical and
managers and can help manage change want more information about the change, and one-
This thinking represents a breakthrough regarding third will resist the change (Waldman & O’Reilly,
resistance to change, suggesting that resistance 2022). There are multiple reasons for resistance
can come from managers as well as employees, to change, and understanding these reasons can
resisters may offer valuable information, and combat such resistance and help inform leaders on
resistance must be managed as part of the change how to manage it. Resistance literature presents
process (Anderson, 2020; Dent & Goldberg, 1999; at least four major categories for why people resist
Ford et al., 2008). Interestingly, the foundation for change, as discussed throughout Section 2.3.
such beliefs resides in the Coch and French study.
However, it only recently gained critical attention. 2.3.1. Personal reasons
This assumption significantly changes our view of Numerous studies have explored the personal
resistance and how we manage it and suggests reasons people resist change (e.g., Burnes, 2015;
creating a safe environment to consider and Dent & Goldberg, 1999; Kotter & Schlesinger, 2008;
discuss resistance. In some cases, resisters may be Oreg, 2003, 2018; Zander, 1950). A person’s
heroes rather than villains, preventing negative response will be a combination of how they
changes and fine-tuning positive ones. A book respond to change generally and how they respond
titled Embracing Resistance to Change (Maddox, to a specific change. For example, some thrive on
2021) explores a positive approach to the way re- change while others dislike it and prefer main-
sisters are perceived and how to manage taining the status quo. Change will likely be
resistance. resisted if self-interest is threatened or if it has
adverse effects. Change may also be resisted
2.2. How to recognize resistance because of uncertainty about what the change will
mean, conflicting information (or lack thereof), or
Signs of resistance are not always easy to detect insufficient reasons for change. Resistance can be
because they may not be visibly expressed. How- expected when change is perceived as coercive
ever, resistance research provides cues to be and designed with another’s motives or agendas.
aware of, as unaddressed resistance can under- From personal consulting experience, resistance
mine or lead to misguided changes. Some of the may also occur if employees believe the change
cues noted by researchers are emotions (e.g., does not make sense, there are better alterna-
fear, anger, anxiety, and excessive complaining) tives, the cure appears worse than the disease, the
and behaviors (e.g., disengagement and lack of change is copious, or the change represents a
involvement, decreased performance or morale, difference in personal or organizational values,
overly aggressive or passive behavior, prevention principles, and goals.
or hinderance of change, and increased turnover;
Block, 2011; Ford & Ford, 2010; O’Toole, 1995). 2.3.2. Organizational reasons
These cues still require managers to determine It makes sense that a productive organization with
whether to surface and explore the reasons for skilled, trusted, and respected leadersdwho have
resistance or when to confront disruptive resis- a genuine concern for employees and a commit-
tance. I recall one consulting example in which an ment to a positive workplacedwould have less
executive vice president visibly and vocally did resistance to change than an organization that
everything he could to undermine the changes predominantly focuses on the bottom line, has
being made even though I met with him many little regard for people, and is led by untrustwor-
times to hear and reason through his objections. thy, ineffective leaders. As organization develop-
The other vice presidents told me they were fed up ment grew in the 1960s and beyond, greater
with his resistance and were losing confidence in emphasis was placed on building people-oriented
the CEO since the resistance caused such negative organizations and creating a culture that wel-
effects. I discussed the matter with the CEO, who comes change (Burnes, 2015).
then had a meeting with the executive VP, clari- In the resistance literature, numerous scholars
fying that he needed to be part of and stop began to discover that an organization and the way
undermining the change process. it is run can have a significant influence on resis-
tance to change (e.g., Beer et al., 1990; Coch &
2.3. Why people resist change French, 1948; Kotter, 1995; Senge, 1990). To
reduce resistance, increase support for change,
To put resistance into perspective, when changes and develop attractive organizations for em-
are made, one-third of the people involved will ployees, changes must be aligned with the values
436 D.D. Warrick

and practices of employees (Burns & James, 1995). successdas much as 70% of significant organiza-
This helps organizations be people-oriented and tional changes fail to achieve the desired results or
responsive to workers’ needs (Buckingham, 2022; fail altogether (Burke & Nourmair, 2015; Kotter,
Gherson & Gratton, 2022; Leinwand et al., 2022). 1990; Miller, 2002).
In their article on managing resistance to change, In working with organizations, I often ask people
Gilgeous and Chambers (1999) summed up the two at different levels how skilled their organization is
main causes of change and its potential for resis- at managing change. Some typical responses to
tance in organizations as internal (e.g., manage- this question include:
ment philosophy, structure, culture, and the
power and control system) and external (e.g.,  “Changes are often made at the top with little,
changes in technology, markets, customer expec- if any, explanation as to why they are being
tations, competitor activities, quality and stan- made, with no involvement of those expected to
dards, government legislation, and the economy). implement the changes, and with no under-
Resistance literature shows the impact of an or- standing that the change makes little sense to
ganization’s management on resistance to and those impacted by the changes.”
support for change.
 “It is clear that providing feedback on changes is
2.3.3. How change agents cause resistance or risky, so we do what we are told even though it
build support is a waste of time and resources.”
While much of the resistance literature focuses on
recipients and how to manage their resistance,  “Changes almost always mean more workdmore
change agents can also have a significant influence busy work, doing more with lessdwith no
on whether changes are resisted or supported benefit to me or others.”
(Armenakis et al., 1993, 1999; Dent & Goldberg,
1999; Endrejat et al., 2021; Ford et al., 2008;  “Management is either unaware of or does not
Klonek et al., 2014; Oreg & Sverdlik, 2011). Some care about the impact of their changes on
change agents who lead or initiate change will be employees.”
resisted because of their reputation, leadership
style, or practices. These agents generally initiate  “I am reluctant to get involved in changes
changes with minimal communication, involve- because they have a low probability of success,
ment, and concern for those who are impacted by and I am likely to be identified with how they
or resist changedand may even initiate change are badly managed.”
with questionable motives that distort trust.
The change agent researchers focused primarily When organizations frequently mismanage change,
on change agent skills. Skilled change agents are it creates an organizational attitude toward it that
straightforward and transparent regarding changes increases resistance (Bordia et al., 2011). From a
and do not oversell or mislead employees. They can more positive perspective, well-managed change
be trusted to do what is right and keep their com- can expect a high success rate (Golembiewski,
mitments. These agents also demonstrate support 2019). The fifth theme will discuss skills eluci-
from management, effectively and honestly dated by the resistance literature regarding man-
communicate reasons for change, and internalize aging resistance to change.
feedback and resistance. They build good relation-
ships with those impacted by changes and have a 2.4. Potential consequences of resistance
genuine interest in their concerns. Yet resistance
literature also recognizes the need to provide The resistance literature has also illuminated the
training to (carefully chosen) change agents for potential consequences of resistance (e.g.,
managing change and resistance to it. Cutcher, 2009; Erwin & Garman, 2010; Fleming &
Spicer, 2003; Ford et al., 2002; Lawrence, 1954;
2.3.4. How change is managed Rahaman et al., 2021). This perspective on resis-
Poorly managed change is the most important tance is important because it serves as a motivator
cause of resistance to it (Bordia et al., 2011; to develop skills on how to manage it, as the costs
Gilgeous & Chambers, 1999). In addition, well- of resistance can be significant.
managed change decreases resistance and in- The resistance literature discussed several
creases support (Ford et al., 2008; Oreg et al., consequences of resistance: the failure or under-
2011). Most organizations lack skills in this area achievement of desired change objectives, wasted
even though it is important for their future time and resources, reduced productivity, and
Revisiting resistance to change and how to manage it 437

resistance delays that increase costs, slow change, What should be clear about the many contri-
undermine commitment, and slow momentum. butions the resistance literature has made to
Resistance can also result in a loss of confidence knowledge about managing resistance to change is
and trust in leaders to effectively manage the that much of what we know about managing
change process, internal conflict, and differences change has come from these contributions. It
between leaders and followers. In addition, inap- should also be clear that training in effectively
propriate measures for dealing with resistance can managing change could be a high-payoff invest-
damage morale and increase absenteeism and ment that every organization needs to consider.
turnover. Another potential cost of resistance is
losing the ability to adapt and make swift neces- 3. Why people resist change and how to
sary changes. However, the resistance literature manage it
expands upon more than just the costs and spe-
cifics of resistance to change. The findings high- After revisiting the various perspectives on resis-
light broader reasons for understanding the many tance to and how to manage change and exploring
costs of poorly managed change. the lessons that can be learned, the need for a
multifaceted perspective emerges (Burnes, 2015;
2.5. Skills for managing resistance and their Garcia-Cabrera & Hernandez, 2014; Oreg, 2006).
insight applicable to managing change Tables 1 and 2 simplify and present the informa-
tion in an understandable and applicable way.
As the resistance literature evolved and perspec- Table 1 summarizes the major reasons why people
tives changed, it became clear that the term resist change, and Table 2 summarizes alternatives
“managing resistance to change” is more appro- for managing resistance to change.
priate than “overcoming resistance to change.”
Contributions to managing resistance emerged in
some of the earliest studies on resistance, which
4. How organizations can develop the
found that participation, involvement, and solic- skills necessary for managing change and
iting ideas from participants reduced resistance resistance to it
and resulted in a greater commitment to change
(Chin & Benne, 1985; Coch & French, 1948; Extant resistance literature details managing
Zander, 1950). Communication was also key to change and resistance to it, yet there is a lack of
managing resistance to change, which should understanding regarding the application of such
include planning and providing managerial support knowledge. Therefore, I offer four recommenda-
for change, outlining the expected results, and tions that elevate present knowledge to help or-
monitoring how such changes will affect em- ganizations become skilled in managing both
ployees (Armenakis et al., 1999). Researchers change and resistance to it. Because skills for
encouraged supportive communication and managing these issues are so closely linked, and
listening to resistance (Vos & Rupert, 2018). In what has been learned about managing resistance
managing resistance, it is important to communi- applies to managing all changes, the term man-
cate the change vision, ensure reward systems aging change applies to all changesdincluding
align with the desired change, and train em- resistance to change.
ployees to adapt to changes (Waldman & O’Reilly,
2022). 4.1. Commit to being a change champion
In their Harvard Business Review article, Kotter
and Schlesinger (1979) summarized numerous Understanding the urgency for organizations to
strategies for reducing resistance, such as educa- develop skills for managing change and resistance
tion, participation, facilitation, negotiation, dis- to it, I encourage others to become change
cussion, financial incentives, and political support. champions in their organizations. As a champion of
They also acknowledge negative approachesdsuch change, they can practice their acquired knowl-
as manipulation and coerciondthat are seldom edge regarding resistance to and management of
mentioned in the resistance literature. These ap- changedas a change agent or participantdand
proaches can lead to future problems if employees can become advocates for training in change
feel manipulated and can alienate the initiators management and developing organizational skills
from the receivers. While negative approach- for managing change. When they have opportu-
esdsuch as force, deception, and even vio- nities to do (e.g., being involved in the decision-
lencedare used to accomplish change, they will making process), they can encourage strong
likely increase passive and aggressive resistance. change management and promote change-related
438 D.D. Warrick

Table 1. Lessons learned: Why people resist change

Personal reasons
 Comfort with the status quo, low tolerance for change, typical response to change
 Lack of information and compelling reasons for change, uncertainty about the impact of changes
 Adversely affected by the change, threat to self-interest or status
 Change does not make sense, there are better alternatives, or the change is not necessary
 Change is contrary to personal values and principles or stated organizational values and principles
 Change is perceived as coercive, forced, or made with questionable motives

Organizational reasons
 Bottom-line-oriented organization that shows little concern for employees or their well-being
 Leaders are not trusted nor perceived as skilled leaders
 Unpleasant organizational cultures that do not attract and retain talented workers
 Top-down, controlling structures and practices that demotivate employees
 Out of touch with changing times, must adapt to be competitive

The role of change agents in causing resistance

 Resistance occurs because of a change agent’s reputation, leadership style, or practices
 Lack of communication regarding the purpose and impact of changes
 Oversell or mislead people regarding changes
 Minimal communication, involvement, and opportunities for feedback and dialogue during the change process
 Lack of transparency and questionable practices, motives, and agendas that undermine trust
 Minimal effort to build rapport with, listen to, and engage those impacted by change

How change is managed

 Change agents are often lacking in training and skills to manage change
 Because of the lack of skills in managing change, there is a high failure rate at successfully implementing
changes
 An organizational attitude is created regarding how change is managed, as well as the failure and negative
impact of changes, which increases resistance to change

books, articles, and other materials for learning with transformational leadership skills such as
about managing change. leading, managing change, and transforming or-
ganizations. These developments can significantly
4.2. Develop transformational leaders who reduce resistance to change and increase support
can lead and manage organizations amid for necessary changes.
change
4.3. Develop a safe culture for open
The term transformational leadership was origi- dialogue
nally developed by James MacGregor Burns in
1978.1 The concept was further developed by The resistance literature clarified the importance
others, and research on transformational leader- of having a safe culture for open dialogue,
ship continues today. Prior research aimed to including for those resisting change. In a fast-
develop leaders capable of bringing about signifi- moving, rapidly changing, and highly competitive
cant positive changes in individuals, groups, and environment, having a culture that encourages
organizations by providing vision, inspiration, open and safe dialogue becomes a critical factor in
engagement, and motivation, as well as commu- the success of an organization and is particularly
nicating compelling goals and values. Warrick important in making changes. It helps change ini-
(2011) pointed out that while transformational tiators consider valuable insights, develop a real-
leadership concepts are excellent for leadership istic view of changes, and expose unnecessary
skills used to transform organizations, they should changes that are not likely to succeed. There are
also include organizational development skills numerous ways leaders can create a safe culture
(e.g., managing change and transforming organi- for open dialogue, as discussed in Section 4.3.
zations), as leaders with these skills are necessary.
Organizations must commit to developing leaders 4.3.1. Set an example
Valuing open and straightforward communication
must become a clear value or cultural norm that
1
Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row. leaders also practice. Leaders must avoid engaging
Revisiting resistance to change and how to manage it 439

Table 2. Lessons learned about managing resistance and change

Clearly communicate compelling reasons for change and its impact
 Clarify the reasons for change, what the change consists of, and how the change will affect employees.
View resistance as part of the change process
 Resistance is neither good nor bad and can provide valuable information that can help consider, plan, and
implement changes. Continued, disruptive resistance should be confronted as it can derail necessary changes.
Consider the qualifications of change agents (leaders, professionals, or others who initiate change)
 The qualifications, reputations, and skills of change agents can significantly affect resistance or support for
changes and their success or failure.
Involve and engage the appropriate people in the change process
 Involve, engage, and listen to those who can best contribute to the planning and implementation of changes.
People will likely own what they participate in and help create.
Provide education and training to prepare people for change and help them make necessary changes
 Educate people on the change, provide training to help people adapt to changes, and train change agents
on how to effectively manage changes.
Address concerns and create opportunities for safe, open, and candid two-way communication
 Address concerns and fears and create opportunities for open, two-way communication so all aspects of a
change can be considered.
Build trust, be transparent, and communicate throughout the change process
 Act in ways that builddrather than underminedtrust, be transparent and straightforward, keep people informed,
and invite feedback throughout the change process.
Clearly demonstrate the support and trustworthiness of top-level leaders
 When top-level leaders demonstrate their support for a change and participate in the change process, changes
have a higher probability of acceptance and success.
Align rewards and incentives with the desired change
 It is important to make the incentive for change greater than the incentive to stay the same. Changes often mean
more work, potentially making things worse for employees. Efforts must be made to provide incentives for making
successful changes.
Avoid coercion, threats, and hidden agendas in making changes
 Accomplishing change using manipulative, forceful, and deceptive tactics builds distrust and passive or aggressive
resistance, causing undesirable consequences.

in disingenuous openness in which they initiate an incorporate all or some of those impacted by
open dialogue yet ignore what was said and do change. Creating opportunities for open dialogue is
things their waydregardless of employee input. especially valuable during the change process to
Leaders must also handle challenges, setbacks, and monitor what is going well, what may need
failures in positive and helpful ways. For example, I further alteration, and where resistance may take
engaged with one CEO of a Fortune 500 company place. When feedback is neither sought nor
who was very critical of the assessment results of a encouraged, changes can be derailed or require
survey conducted by a change team. His reaction improvementsdwhich can happen without leaders’
discouraged involvement with major changes for knowledge.
many years following such a response.
4.3.3. Keep people informed
4.3.2. Create opportunities for open dialogue Keeping people informed conveys a culture of
Even leaders who engage in welcome, open dia- openness. Since people in organizations tend to be
logue must create opportunities for openness and overloaded with information, it takes planning and
feedback with the knowledge that their position good judgment to determine what, how, and how
can influence what is relayed to them. These op- much information is shared to adequately commu-
portunities can include asking employees nicate changes and clarify that openness is welcome.
specific questions that invite openness, organizing
meetingsdwith or without a leader’s presencedto 4.3.4. Develop organizational expertise in
brainstorm, consider ideas, and provide feedback, managing change
using surveys to gather valuable information, and This articledand an abundance of articles,
forming teams to plan and implement changes that books, and studies on how organizations can
440 D.D. Warrick

succeeddclarifies that developing expertise to (e.g., what did or did not work and what lessons
manage change should be an organizational prior- were learned). These sessions can provide op-
ity. Unfortunately, few organizations have a pur- portunities for sharing ideas about managing
poseful way of accomplishing this goal. Section 4.4. change and continuously improving skills in
outlines three ways for organizations to develop managing change. In addition, they can instill
skills in managing change and resistance to it. the importance of effectively managing change
in the organizational culture. Finally, change
learning sessions can also be used to address
4.4. Clear methods for managing change
and share ideas regarding specific issues. For
example, I have had clients that have addressed
To further illustrate the ultimate purpose of this
the problems of work overload and change fa-
article in helping organizations manage resistance
tigue. I recently worked with an organization to
to change, I provide three recommendations:
explore ways to minimize or remove unnec-
essary work; minimize bureaucracy, reports, and
1. Assign responsibility for developing and
meetings; more effectively propose changes;
providing expertise in managing change. A
and plan enjoyable activities to relieve stress
person, department, team, or external profes-
and build camaraderie.
sional must be tasked with developing expertise
and providing resources for effectively man-
aging change. For example, responsibilities may 5. Next steps for applying the resistance
include attending and providing training to
manage change, collecting resources (e.g.,
literature, organizational success
books, articles, videos, and questionnaires),
Given the rate and abundance of change that
and providing counsel, facilitation, or other
organizations must deal with, coupled with the
necessary help to manage change.
many consequences mismanaged change can
impose on all parties involved, all organizations
2. Develop guidelines for those at all organiza-
should urgently develop skills to effectively
tional levels to manage change. Leaders and
manage change and resistance to it. Revisiting the
others involved in the change process can use
resistance literature provides valuable insights
a brief, one-page list of guidelines to consider,
for managing resistance to change. More impor-
plan, and implement changes. This is one of
tantly, the resistance literature has advanced our
the quickest and most effective ways to
understanding of effectively managing change.
educate and help change champions develop
The intent of this article was not only to learn
skills in managing change. The guidelines must
from the past but also to provide insight for or-
be developed by a team that includes the
ganizations to develop change skills that will aid
CEOdor at least one top-level leaderdso the
future success.
guidelines are used in a top-down approach. A
list of guidelines is provided in Table 2 exem-
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