LECTURE 3: SKELETAL SYSTEM-PART 1

BONE
A. Living tissue, highly specialized, dense connective tissue that makes up most of the skeleton
B. Consists of cells, fibers, & matrix [Calcification of extracellular matrix makes the bone hard]
C. Provide:
C1. Protection for vital structures (Skull protect the brain; Vertebral column protects the spinal cord)
C2. Reservoir of calcium and phosphorous
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
▪ Bones are classified according to their shape
1. LONG BONES - Are tubular structures
- For example: Humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpal and phalanges in hand, femur, tibia,
fibula, metatarsal and phalanges in foot
2. SHORT BONES - Are cuboidal
- Found only in the ankle (tarsus) and wrist (carpus)

HUMERUS (LONG BONE) TARSAL BONES (SHORT BONES) CARPAL BONES (SHORT BONES)
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
▪ Bones are classified according to their shape
3. FLAT BONES - Consists of two compact bone plates separated by spongy bone
- For example: Skull bones, sternum, ribs and scapula
4. IRREGULAR BONES - Are bones with various shapes other than long, short, or flat
- For example: Bones of the face, hip bone, vertebrae

SKULL BONE (FLAT BONE) RIB (FLAT BONE) VERTEBRA (IRREGULAR BONE)
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
▪ Bones are classified according to their shape
5. SESAMOID BONES - Are round or oval bones that develop in tendons (e.g., patella, or kneecap)
- Reduce friction on the tendon; Also alter the direction of pull of a tendon
Patella develops in the tendon of
QUADRICEPS FEMORIS
(Muscle on the front of the thigh)

PATELLA (SESAMOID BONE)

[Sesamoid: Greek sesamodes, eidos = shape or form; like grains of sesame]
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
▪ OTHER TYPES
1. PNEUMATIC BONES - Some bones of the skull contain air-filled cavity
(Maxilla, frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid)

PNEUMATIC BONES

Pneumatic: containing air

C
 GROSS STRUCTURE OF AN ADULT LONG BONE
1. A long bone shows the following features:
SHAFT:
A. - From outer to inner:
1. Periosteum
2. Cortex
3. Medullary cavity
Periosteum:
A1 - Thick fibrous membrane covering the surface of the bone
- United to the underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
- Continuous with the capsule of the joint at the articular margin
- Has a rich nerve supply which makes it the most sensitive part
of the bone

Structure of a typical long bone

 GROSS STRUCTURE OF AN ADULT LONG BONE
A2 Cortex:
- Made up of a compact bone which gives it the desired strength to withstand all possible mechanical forces

Structure of a typical long bone

 GROSS STRUCTURE OF AN ADULT LONG BONE
A3. Medullary cavity :
- Filled with red or yellow bone marrow
- The bone marrow is red everywhere with widespread hemopoiesis at birth
- The red bone marrow is replaced with yellow bone marrow with advancing
age and has no power of hemopoiesis
- Red bone marrow persists in the cancellous ends of long bones
- The red bone marrow is found through out life in:
1. Sternum 2. Ribs 3. Vertebrae 4. Skull bones
B. ENDS:
- The two ends of a long bone are made up of cancellous bone covered
with hyaline cartilage

Hemopoiesis: Formation of blood cells

Structure of a typical long bone

 BONE MARKINGS
A. Bone markings appear wherever tendons, ligaments, and fascia are attached or where arteries lie adjacent to or enter bones
B. ▪ PROJECTIONS:
B1. Tubercle Small, raised eminence (e.g., greater tubercle of the humerus)
B2. Tuberosity Large, rounded elevation (e.g., ischial tuberosity of the hip bone)
B3. Trochanter Large, blunt elevation (e.g., greater trochanter of the femur) GT=Greater Trochanter

Copyright (©) – Mohd Asim Khan- King Khalid University, Abha, KSA
Humerus Hip bone Femur
 BONE MARKINGS
B. ▪ PROJECTIONS:
B4. Condyle Rounded articular area (e.g., condyles of the femur)
B5. Epicondyle Eminence superior to a condyle (e.g., epicondyles of the humerus)
B6. Malleolus Rounded prominence (e.g., medial malleolus of the tibia)

Copyright (©) – Mohd Asim Khan- King Khalid University, Abha, KSA
Tibia Femur
 BONE MARKINGS
B. ▪ PROJECTIONS:
B7. Crest Ridge of bone (e.g., iliac crest of hip bone)

Copyright (©) – Mohd Asim Khan- King Khalid University, Abha, KSA
B8. Line (Linea) Linear elevation (e.g., soleal line of the tibia)
B9. Spine Thorn-like process (e.g., spine of the scapula)

Hip bone Scapula Tibia

 BONE MARKINGS
B. ▪ PROJECTIONS:
B10. Process Projecting spine-like part (e.g., spinous process of a vertebra)
B11. Protuberance Projection of bone (e.g., external occipital protuberance of the cranium)

Vertebra Skull

Copyright (©) – Mohd Asim Khan- King Khalid University, Abha, KSA
 BONE MARKINGS
C. ▪ DEPRESSIONS:
C1. Fossa Hollow or depressed area (e.g., infraspinous fossa of the scapula)
C2. Groove (Sulcus) Lengthy depressions (e.g., intertubercular groove of humerus)
C3. Notch Indentation at the edge of a bone (e.g., greater sciatic notch in the posterior border of the hip bone)

Indentation
Scapula Humerus Hip bone
Note: An indentation is a cut in the surface or edge of something
Copyright (©) – Mohd Asim Khan- King Khalid University, Abha, KSA
 BONE MARKINGS
C. ▪ DEPRESSIONS
C4. Foramen Passage through a bone (e.g., obturator foramen in hip bone )
C5. Canal Foramen when lengthy; Tunnel in a bone
C6. Meatus Passage or Canal (e.g., external acoustic meatus in outer ear- temporal bone)
D. ▪ FACET: Smooth flat area, usually covered with cartilage, where a bone articulates with another bone (e.g., articular facets of a vertebrae)

Vertebra

Hip bone External Acoustic Meatus Copyright (©) – Mohd Asim Khan- King Khalid University, Abha, KSA
 OSSIFICATION
1. Ossification is the process of bone formation
2. Ossification takes place by centers of ossification
3. The centers of ossification may be primary or secondary

Clavicle

IMPORTANT
Knowledge concerning the times of appearance of the various
ossification centers is used by radiologists to determine whether
the skeleton of a child is growing normally

Radiograph of lower limb

 PARTS OF A YOUNG BONE
1. A typical long bone ossifies in three parts:
- Two ends from secondary centers
- Shaft from a primary center
2. The following parts of the bone can be defined before ossification is complete:
2A. EPIPHYSIS: [Greek, epi= upon; physis= growth]
- The ends and tips of a bone which ossify from secondary centers are called epiphyses
2B. DIAPHYSIS: [Greek, dia = in between; physis= growth]
- It is the elongated shaft of a long bone which ossifies from a primary center
2C. METAPHYSIS: [Greek, meta= beyond; physis = growth]
- The epiphyseal ends of a diaphysis are called metaphyses
- It is zone of active growth
2D. EPIPHYSEAL PLATE OF CARTILAGE : (GROWTH PLATE)
- Separates epiphysis from metaphysis
- Proliferation of cells here is responsible for lengthwise growth of bone
- After epiphyseal fusion, bone no longer grows in length

Parts of a Young Bone

 BONE DEVELOPMENT
1. - All bones are derived from mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue) by one of the different processes
A. ▪ INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION (MEMBRANOUS BONE FORMATION):
- Directly from mesenchyme; For example, flat bones of the skull, mandible, clavicle, etc.
B. ▪ ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION (CARTILAGINOUS BONE FORMATION):
- From cartilage derived from mesenchyme; For example, long bones of the limbs
2. The histology of a bone is the same either way

Intramembranous ossification (Membranous Bone Formation) Endochondral Ossification (Cartilaginous Bone Formation)
A to D