Science Q3 Reviewer

--Lesson 1: Nerve Cell–

THE NERVE CELL / NEURON
• Neuron or Nerve cell is the basic functioning unit of the nervous system. It carries messages or impulses to
the brain for interpretation and to the muscles for reaction.
• It has a special ability to carry signals or impulses. A nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge
and a chemical reaction.

Nucleus
- It contains the neuron’s genetic material (DNA) and acts as the control center of the cell

Cell Body
- Also known as “Soma”. The cell body houses the nucleus and is responsible for integrating incoming signals
from the dendrites

Dendrites
- are branch-like extensions that receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors

Axon
- Also known as a “Nerve fiber”. A tail-like structure that carry signals away from the cell body to other neuron

Myelin Sheath
- A fatty layer that covers the axon, speeding up the transmission of electrical signals

Schwann Cell
- It forms the Myelin Sheath around axons and aids in in repairing damaged axons

Node of Ranvier
- The broken-up gaps between each Myelin Sheath where Electrical signals jump between the nodes of
Ranvier, speeding up the transmission of signals

Axon Terminal
- Also Known as “Terminal Buttons” located at the end of the neuron, the axon terminals, responsible for
transmitting signals to other neurons
THE NERVE IMPULSE
• A nerve impulse cannot jump from one neuron to another. When a nerve impulse comes to the end of an
axon, it produces the chemical, called “neurotransmitter” to be released. The chemical crosses the between
neurons called synapse and stimulates the nerve to start in the next dendrite.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
- Sensory Neuron / Afferent Neuron – Pick-up impulses from the environment and
carry them towards central nervous for interpretation.

- Interneuron / Association Neuron – Found between sensory neuron and motor

neuron, located in our spinal cord and brain

- Motor Neuron / Efferent Neuron – Pick-up impulses from the Central nervous
system and carry them to the muscles for reactions.

Neural Pathway
- Stimuli – It refers to any change in the internal or external environment that is detected by receptors.
- Response – The reaction of the body to a stimulus. This can be voluntary or involuntary.
- Receptor – Specialized structures that detect stimuli and convert them into nerve impulses.
- Effector – Structures that carry out the response initiated by the nervous system

--Lesson 2: The Nervous System--

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The body’s storage center of information and control system
• The Nervous System is mainly in charge of:
➢ Communication
➢ Control
➢ Regulation
• It is divided into Two Major Division:
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

1. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

• It serves as the main processing center of the nervous system. It consists of two main components:
A. Brain - It is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of information
for the body.
B. Spinal Cord - It serves as a channel or signal between the brain and the majority of the body parts, and
controls some simple musculoskeletal reflexes even without the processing of the brain.
Cerebrum
- It is the large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought.

Cerebellum
- The part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and coordination.

Brain Stem
- The part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls autonomic functions.

Pons
- Acts as a bridge, connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum, and plays a role in sleep, breathing, and facial
movement

Medulla oblongata
- Controls vital functions like breathing and heartbeat and connects the brain to the spinal cord

Spinal Cord
- It serves as a channel or signal between the brain and the majority of the body parts.

NEURAL PATHWAY: REFLEX ARC

- Reflex Arc - It pertains to how the body responds to stimuli automatically and without conscious effort
- Characteristic - These are involuntary “reflexes” that is not controlled by the brain. The information is
processed in the Spinal cord.
2. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
• It connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs. It has two main divisions:
A. Somatic Nervous System - This system is associated with the voluntary control of body movements
B. Autonomic Nervous System - This system is associated with involuntary control of the body movements

A. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• It regulates the activities that are under conscious control and has two main parts:
A. Spinal Nerves - The nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body.
B. Cranial Nerves - The nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.

B. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• It regulates the activities that are done without conscious control and has two subdivisions:
A. Sympathetic - It is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress
B. Parasympathetic - It maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode.

--Lesson 3: The Endocrine Sysytem--

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- The endocrine system is a series of glands that produce and secretes hormones that the body uses for a
wide range of functions
- Hormone is a chemical transmitter that is released in small amounts from glands, and is transported in the
blood stream to the Target organs or cells
- Hyposecretion or Hypersecretion of any hormones can be harmful to the body.

TWO TYPES OF GLANDS

- A gland is an organ which produces and releases substances that perform a specific function in the body.
There are two types of glands:

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
HYPOTHALAMUS
- The hypothalamus links the nervous and endocrine systems by way of the pituitary gland. It is referred to as
the “Control Center”
- Responsible for: Body Temperature, Metabolism, Mood, Release of Hormones, Thirst, Sleep, Sexual Urge

PITUITARY GLAND
- A small pea-sized gland and referred to as the body's “master gland”
- Responsible for: metabolism, growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, blood pressure

PINEAL GLAND
- Also called the “pineal body” is located in the middle of the brain
- Hormones Produced:
o Melatonin - A hormone that may help regulate when you sleep at night and when you wake up in
the morning

THYROID GLAND
- The thyroid gland is in the front part of the lower neck, it is shaped like a bow tie or butterfly
- Responsible for:
o They regulate the rate at which calories are burned affecting weight loss or weight gain
o it can slow down or speed up the heartbeat

PARATHYROID GLAND
- Attached to the thyroid gland are four tiny glands that work together called the parathyroids
- Hormones Produced:
o Parathyroid Hormone - they release parathyroid hormone which controls the level of calcium in the
blood with the help of calcitonin which the thyroid makes

THYMUS GLAND
- Part of the lymphatic system and also part of the endocrine system. The thymus is located just below the
breastbone.
- Hormones Produced:
o Thymosin - Accentuates the immune response as well as stimulating pituitary hormones such as
growth hormone

PANCREAS
- It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells.
- Two main function:
o an exocrine function that helps in digestion
o an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar

ADRENAL GLANDS
- These two triangular adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands have two parts each of
which makes a set of hormones and has a different function:

REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS / GONADS

- The male gonads is called testes and ovaries for female gonads

MALE GONADS
- The testes or testicles are a pair of sperm-producing organs

FEMALE GONAD
- the female gonads is called the ovaries, they make egg cells
THE ENDOCRINE GLAND AND THEIR HORMONE
- The Endocrine system contains a group of glands that release hormone into the body. The following table
lists all the major glands in the body with their functions, locations, and hormones.

GLAND LOCATION HORMONES RELEASED FUNCTION

Hypothalamus At the base of the Released into the Pituitary:
Brain Corticotropin releasing hormone Signals the pituitary gland to produce
(CRH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone or (ACTH)
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone Signals the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-
(TRH) stimulating hormone (TSH)
Gonadotropin-releasing Signals the Pituitary to produce Follicle
hormone (GnRH) stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing
hormone (LH)
Growth hormone releasing Signals the pituitary gland to produce growth
hormone hormone (GH)
Prolactin releasing hormone Signals the pituitary gland to produce prolactin
Oxytocin Stored in the pituitary and is secreted to
during childbirth and lactation
Vasopressin / Antidiuretic Stored in the pituitary and is secreted to
hormone (ADH) regulate water levels in the body
Pituitary Gland At the base of the Adrenocorticotropic hormone Stimulates the adrenal gland to make Cortisol
Brain (ACTH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates the thyroid gland to make T3 and
(TSH) T4
Follicle stimulating hormone Stimulates reproductive gonads to produce sex
(FSH) hormones
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Growth hormone Stimulates the growth of bone and other body
tissues
Prolactin Stimulates milk production in women who are
breastfeeding
Oxytocin Triggering uterine contractions during labor
and milk ejection during breastfeeding
Vasopressin / Antidiuretic Helps control body water balance through its
hormone (ADH) effect on the kidneys
Pineal Gland At the Base of the Melatonin Regulates the Sleep-wake cycle
Brain
Thyroid Gland Below the Voice box Triiodothyronine (T3) Thyroxine Uses iodine from food to produce the
(T4) hormones T3 and T4, which regulate
metabolism.
Calcitonin Regulates calcium levels by lowering blood
calcium when it is too high
Parathyroid Back of the thyroid Parathyroid Hormone Regulates calcium levels by increasing blood
gland calcium when it is too low
Thymus Gland In front of the heart Thymosin Helps in the development and maturation of
white blood cells, specifically T-cells, essential
for the immune system
Pancreas Located in the Insulin Lowers blood sugar level by converting glucose
abdomen into glycogen for storage.
Glucagon Increases blood sugar level by converting
glycogen into glucose
Adrenal Gland On top of the Cortisol Produced by the adrenal cortex, helps manage
Kidneys long-term stress
Adrenaline Produced by the adrenal medulla, helps
manage short-term stress
Testis (Male) Lower abdomen Testosterone Control maturation and development of male
characteristics
Ovaries Lower abdomen Estrogen Influence female traits and support
(Female) Progesterone reproductive function
 --Lesson 4: The Male Reproductive System--
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- The reproductive system is a group of organs and structures in the body responsible for reproducing; the
transporting and nurturing of gametes (sperm in males and eggs in females).
- It allows organisms to produce offspring, ensuring the continuation of a species.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- The male reproductive system is a network of organs and structures designed to produce, store, and deliver
sperm cells (male gametes) and secrete testosterone, the primary male sex hormone. This system plays a
key role in the continuation of the species by ensuring the transfer of genetic material to the female
reproductive system during sexual reproduction.

Scrotum
- The pouch of skin that holds and protects the testes.
- It maintains an optimal temperature necessary for healthy sperm production by contracting or relaxing.

Testis
- Produces sperm through spermatogenesis and secretes testosterone, the primary male sex hormone
responsible for secondary sexual characteristics and sperm production.

Epididymis
- A long, coiled tube located at the back of the testis where sperm are stored and allowed to mature, gaining
motility and the ability to fertilize an egg.

Vas Deferens
- A muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts during
ejaculation.

Ejaculatory Duct
- A short duct where the vas deferens and the seminal vesicle meet. It transports semen into the urethra
through the prostate gland.

Seminal Vesicle
- Gland that secretes a fluid rich in fructose and other nutrients to provide energy for sperm. This fluid also
contributes to the bulk of semen.

Prostate Gland
- Produces a milky, alkaline fluid that helps protect and nourish sperm.
- This fluid is mixed with sperm to form semen and helps neutralize the acidic environment of the female
reproductive tract.
Cowper’s Gland
- Bulbourethral or Cowper’s Gland, produces a clear lubricating fluid that neutralizes acidity in the urethra,
preparing it for the passage of semen.

Urethra
- A tube that passes through the penis, carrying urine from the bladder or semen from the reproductive
system out of the body. It serves a dual function in excretion and reproduction.

Penis
- The external organ that delivers semen during sexual intercourse and serves as a conduit for urine to exit the
body.

Urinary Bladder
- While not part of the reproductive system, the bladder stores urine. During ejaculation, a sphincter muscle
prevents urine from mixing with semen.

Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction

- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a hormone that stimulates the production of other hormones
that are essential for reproductive health. GnRH is produced in the hypothalamus and causes the pituitary
gland to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
- FSH acts on Sertoli cells, promoting their development and function. Sertoli cells are crucial for
spermatogenesis, providing nutrients and a supportive environment for sperm development. They also
produce inhibin.
- LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone. Testosterone is essential for male sexual development
and function, including sperm production

--Lesson 5: The Female Reproductive System--

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- The female reproductive tract is a complex system with the primary function of enabling reproduction. It
houses and matures eggs, provides a site for fertilization, supports the development of a fetus during
pregnancy, and facilitates childbirth. This intricate system involves a delicate interplay of hormones and
intricate structures, showcasing the complexity of the human body.

Ovary
- The ovaries are vital organs in the female reproductive system responsible for producing eggs (oocytes) and
secreting hormones like estrogen and progesterone
Fimbriae
- The fimbriae are fingerlike projections located at the ends of the fallopian tubes, near the ovaries. Their
primary function is to capture the egg released during ovulation and guide it into the fallopian tube

Fallopian Tube
- The fallopian tubes are a pair of tube-like structures that extend from either side of the uterus. Their main
function is to transport the egg from the ovary to the uterus

Uterus
- The uterus is a hollow, muscular organ located in the pelvic cavity. Its primary function is to host and nurture
a fertilized egg, allowing it to develop into a fetus.

Endometrium
- The endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus. It is a highly specialized tissue that thickens and becomes
enriched with blood vessels each month in preparation for the implantation of a fertilized egg

Myometrium
- The myometrium is the middle, muscular layer of the uterus. Its primary function is to contract during labor,
helping to push the baby out of the uterus and into the birth canal

Cervix
- The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It serves as a passageway
for menstrual blood to exit the uterus, for sperm to enter during intercourse, and for the baby to pass
through during childbirth

Vagina
- The vagina is a muscular, flexible canal that connects the uterus to the outside of the body. It functions as
the birth canal during delivery and as the passage for menstrual blood to exit the body.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- The menstrual cycle is a cycle which begins at puberty. It lasts around 28 days but can be shorter or longer,
especially if a young person has just started having periods.
- The menstrual cycle is the monthly series of changes a woman's body goes through to prepare for a possible
pregnancy
MENSTRUAL PHASE (DAY 1-5)
- It begins on the first day of Menstruation and lasts till the 5th day of the menstrual cycle.

FOLLICULAR PHASE (DAY 1-13)

- This phase also begins on the day of menstruation, but it lasts till the 13th of the menstrual cycle

OVULATION PHASE (DAY 14)

- On the 14th day of the cycle, the ovary releases the matured egg cell

LUTEAL PHASE (DAY 15-28)

- This phase begins on the 15 day and lasts till the end of the cycle, menstrual phase occurs if the egg does not
get fertilized
TAKE NOTE
- Human reproduce sexually
- The endometrium thickens to support the implantation of a fertilized egg
- If fertilization occurs, amniotic sac and placenta is developed
- Vasectomy is a surgical procedure where the vas deferens are cut or sealed
- Circumcision is the surgical removal of the prepuce or foreskin, the skin covering the head of the penis

--Lesson 6: DNA REPLICATION--

DNA
- DNA serves as the blueprint of life, storing and passing genetic information from one generation to the next.
- DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is a long molecule made up of monomers called nucleotides.

RNA
- RNA plays a vital role in translating the genetic information stored in DNA into proteins, acting as the
messenger, builder, and regulator that drives cellular functions and life processes
- RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. Essential for life Processes.

DNA RNA

CHARGAFF’S RULE OF DNA

- The bases of DNA pair with each other in a predictable way.
o A ALWAYS PAIRS WITH T
o C always pairs with G
DNA REPLICATION
HELICASE
- “Unzipping Enzyme”
- An enzyme that unzips/separates the double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the
complementary bases

PRIMASE
- “Initializer”
- Ab enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. These primers serve as a starting point for
DNA synthesis

DNA POLYMERASE
- “The Builder”
- An enzyme that replicates DNA to build a new strand

LIGASE
- “The Gluer”
- An enzyme which connects two strands of DNA together

EXONUCLEASE
- “The Corrector”
- An enzyme acts like a cleaner by removing mistakes or damaged sections from the DNA/RNA sequence
 --Lesson 7: Central Dogma--
CENTRAL DOGMA
- “It describes how genetic information encoded in DNA is used to produce proteins”

RNA POLYMERASE
- It attaches to a gene to unwind the DNA and build an RNA strand

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

- It carries copies of instructions for assembling proteins from DNA to ribosomes

TRANSCRIPTION
- RNA polymerase reads the DNA sequence and builds a complementary RNA strand, which carries genetic
instructions to the ribosome.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

- The core structure of the ribosome where translation occurs to assemble proteins

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

- Help translate the genetic code from mRNA into a sequence of amino acids

TRANSLATION
- The process where the mRNA is decoded at the ribosome to assemble a protein
 --Lesson 8: Gene Mutation--
MUTATION
- “A significant and basic alteration or change. These refers to the changes in the genetic sequence. And they
are the main cause of diversity among organisms”

FACTORS CAUSING MUTATION

- “Changes in our DNA code (sequence of nucleotides) and errors during DNA replication can cause mutation“

MUTAGEN
- “It is an agent of substance that can bring about a permanent alteration to the physical composition of a
DNA gene”

Where Does Mutation Occur?

GERMLINE MUTATION (REPRODUCTIVE CELLS)

- “Germline mutations occur in the egg or sperm cells, which are involved in reproduction. These mutations
are passed on to offspring because germline cells combine to form the next generation’s DNA”

SOMATIC MUTATION (BODY CELLS)

- “Somatic mutations occur in body cells. These mutations are not inherited by offspring, as they do not affect
the germline cells. Instead, the mutation is passed only to daughter cells when the mutated cell divides”

Causes of
Mutation

Physical Chemical Biological

Mutagen Mutagen Mutation

HPV (Human
X-Ray Barbecuing papillomavirus)

Nitrate and
Nitrite from HBV (Hepatitis
UV Radiation B)
Preservatives

Cigarette Smoke
Types of Mutations
GENE MUTATION
- It is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. Two types: Point Mutation and
Frameshift Mutation
- It has three types of mutation: Point Mutation, Frameshift Mutation and Chromosomal Mutation

POINT MUTATION
- Small-scale changes that affect a single nucleotide or a few nucleotides within a gene.
o Missense Mutation, Nonsense Mutation and Silent Mutation

MISSENSE MUTATION
- A substitution that results in a different amino acid being incorporated

NONSENSE MUTATION
- A substitution that creates a stop codon, ending protein synthesis prematurely

SILENT MUTATION
- A substitution that does not change the amino acid sequence
FRAMESHIFT MUTATION
- These occur when the reading frame of the genetic code is shifted due to insertions or deletions of
nucleotides.
o Insertion and Deletion

INSERTION
- An insertion mutation involves the addition of one (or more) nucleotide base pairs into the DNA sequence

DELETION
- As the title may suggest, a deletion mutation occurs when there a piece of DNA is removed from the
sequence.

CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION
- It occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene deletion, duplication or rearrangement that may occur
during the cell cycle and meiosis.
o Deletion, Duplication, Inversion and Translocation

DELETION
- A deletion occurs when a portion of a chromosome is lost or deleted.
- This can result in the loss of one or more genes.
DUPLICATION
- A duplication occurs when a segment of a chromosome is copied more than once.
- This results in the repetition of a certain gene or genetic region.

INVERSION
- An inversion occurs when a segment of a chromosome breaks off, flips around, and reattaches in the reverse
order.

TRANSLOCATION
- A translocation is a type of mutation where a segment of one chromosome is transferred to another
chromosome

KARYOTYPE
- A karyotype is a visual display of an individual’s chromosomes, organized by size, shape, and banding
pattern.
 --Lesson 9: Evidence of Evolution--
EVOLUTION
- Evolution refers to the gradual change in a population's genetic composition or inherited over successive
generations.
- It provides an explanation for the changes observed in organisms throughout geological history when
compared with those present today.

Evidences of Evolution:
- Fossil Records
- Comparative Anatomy
- Embryonic Development
- Genetic Information

FOSSIL RECORDS
- Fossils are the preserved remains and traces of past life by natural process or catastrophic event.
- Fossils document the existence of now-extinct past species that are related to present-day species.
- Commonly found in sedimentary rocks.
- Two types:
o Imprints - Imprints are shallow external molds left by animals or plant tissues with little or no
organic material present.
o Compression - Compression fossils are animal or plant tissue preserved in sedimentary rock and is
formed with more organic material.

Determining the Age of Fossils

- Relative Dating – A method used to determine the age of rocks and fossils by comparing them to other
layers of rock
- Radiometric Dating – The age of rock is method used to determine the age of rocks using the decay of
radioactive isotopes of Carbon-14 which is present in rocks when the organism died

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
- Study of the similarities and differences in the structures of different species.
- Both internal and external form can be observed and associated with function between organisms to identify
the degree of evolutionary relatedness.
- Three Types:

o Homologous Structures - It refers to body structures of an organism that may perform different
functions are of the same origin
▪ Divergent Evolution - It occurs when two or more species that share a common ancestor
evolve in different directions and develop different traits or adaptations over time

o Analogous Structures - It refers to body structures of an organism that may perform the same
function but are of the different origins
▪ Convergent Evolution - It occurs when species from different evolutionary backgrounds
evolve similar traits or features due to similar environmental pressures or functions.

o Vestigial Structures - It refers to body structures that are left overs from a previous ancestor in
which they were useful
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
- The portion of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization
- Many organisms have similar embryos, supporting the idea of common ancestors

GENETIC INFORMATION
- Small mutations or changes in the DNA eventually lead to the evolution of new species

--Lesson 10: Evolution and Ecosystem Diversity--

JEAN-BAPTISTE LAMARCK
• The first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time.
• He concluded that organisms of higher complexity had evolved from pre-existing, less complex organisms

THEORY OF NEED
- According to Lamarck, organisms change in response to their environment. The ability of organisms to
survive has helped them to adapt to the environment in which they live.

THEORY OF USE AND DISUSE

- According to Lamarck, the organs or parts of the body that are not used will be lost and the organs that are
always used will be developed.

THEORY OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS

- According to Lamarck, the offspring inherited the acquired characteristics of having a long neck of giraffes
and it is propagated to the next generation of giraffes.

CHARLES DARWIN
• His theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies
• The theory of evolution by natural selection was independently develop by Charles Darwin and Alfred
Wallace

THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

- Natural selection is a process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change.
- This is also known as "survival of the fittest" which states that organisms best adjusted to their environment
are most successful in surviving and reproducing

ECOSYSTEM: BIODIVERSITY
ECOSYSTEM
- A community of organisms that live, feed and interact with the environment.

BIODIVERSITY
- The variety of life forms in a particular ecosystem
o Supports organism's climatic adaptation
o Enhances economic and aesthetic value
o Increases ecosystem stability
BIODIVERSITY & STABILITY
STABILITY
- A state of balance in an ecosystem where it maintains the flow of nutrients (abiotic factor) and the flow of
energy in a form of food

BIODIVERSITY AND STABILITY

- What happened to the ecosystem when the grass suddenly gone due to drought?
o LOW BIODIVERSITY = LOW STABILITY
o HIGH BIODIVERSITY = HIGH STABILITY

POPULATION GROWTH & CARRYING CAPACITY

POPULATION
- The total number of organisms belonging to the same species in a particular environment

POPULATION DENSITY
- The measurement of population per unit area

POPULATION GROWTH
- It refers to the increase in the number of individuals in a population over a specific period

LIMITATING FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH:

- Natality (Birth) – Number of organisms born
- Mortality (Death) – Number of organisms that died
- Immigration – Organisms that moved into the population
- Emigration – Organisms that moved out of the population

CARRYING CAPACITY
- The maximum number of organisms that an environment can support