UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES

SCHOOL OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

AND OUTREACH
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
EBS 357: INTRODUCTORY ATOMIC PHYSICS,
HEAT AND OPTICS

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ATOMIC THEORIES
The various Atomic theories established that all matter is made of tiny particles, a discovery that
led to scientific breakthroughs in diverse fields of study in science.

Proust Atomic Theory

This theory, also known as the Proust’s law, published the Law of Definite Proportions or Law
of Constant Composition. It states that ‘a compound is composed of exact proportions of
elements by mass regardless of how the compound was created’. Thus, the relative quantities of
any given pure chemical compound's constituent elements remain invariant, regardless of the
compound's source. Examples; Sodium Chloride (table salt) is always 39.34% Na and 60.66% Cl
by mass. If one sample of water breaks down into 2 grams of hydrogen and 16 grams of water,
then twice the amount of water would contain 4 grams of hydrogen and 32 grams of water. The
proportion of hydrogen to oxygen is "definite" or fixed. Carbon dioxide is composed of one
carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
Therefore, a substance has the same make up where ever or however it was made, and if found in
different areas of the world would have the same elements at the same ratio.

Applications of the Law

The law has applications to both molecular compounds with a fixed composition and ionic
compounds as they require certain ratios to achieve electrical neutrality.

Limitations of the Law

The law is not applicable to non-stoichiometric compounds such as ferrous oxide. In addition,
the law does not account for isotopic mixtures.

Tutorial Questions:
1. State the law proposed by Proust based on his observations on the composition of chemical
compounds. What was the name given to this law?
2. What deduction can be drawn from this law relative to the formation of pure compounds?
3. What is the limitation to this law?

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Dalton's Atomic Theory

This theory offered the first complete attempt to describe all matter in terms of atoms and their
properties.

The five main points of this atomic theory

1. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created or destroyed.
3. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass and other properties.
4. Atoms of a given element are different from those of any other element.

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5. Atoms of different elements combine with atoms of other elements in whole-number ratios to
form chemical compounds. A given compound always has the same relative numbers and types
of atoms.
6. In chemical reactions atoms are indivisible. The chemical reaction simply changes the way the
atoms are grouped together.

Significance of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. Explained the Law of Definite Proportions (Proust’s Atomic Theory).
2. Continued to break down earlier views of ‘elements’.
3. Bridged the gap between laboratory data and hypothetical atom, and offered a way of
calculating relative atomic weights.
4. Explained the Law of Conservation of Mass. (a) That ‘Initial Mass = Final Mass’. (b) That
only reorganizing of unchangeable atoms occur in a chemical reaction.

Drawbacks of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. It has been proved that an atom is not indivisible as an atom can be subdivided into electrons,
protons and neutrons.
2. According to the theory, atoms of an element are identical in mass, size and many other
chemical or physical properties. But, practically it is observed that atoms of several elements
differ in their densities and masses. These atoms with the different masses are known as isotopes.
For example, Chlorine (Cl) has 2 isotopes with the mass numbers of 35 and 37.
3. According to the theory, atoms of two-different elements differ in mass, size and many other
chemical or physical properties. This is not correct for all situations because for example, Argon
(Ar) and Calcium (Ca) atoms, each has an atomic mass of 40 amu. These atoms with similar
atomic masses are isobars.
4. According to the theory, a chemical compound is formed when atoms of different elements
(atoms of two or more elements) combine in simple whole number ratios. This is not true in the
case of complex organic compounds.
5. The theory fails to explain the existence of allotropes. This implies that it fails to explain the
differences in properties of charcoal, graphite, and diamond, which are all allotropes of carbon.

Disproving part of Dalton’s Theory

Thomson disproved Dalton's idea that atoms were indivisible. This is because when elements
were excited by an electrical current, the atoms broke down into two parts, with one of those
parts being a negative tiny particle, which he called a corpuscle.

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Tutorial Questions
1. State the main postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
2. What are the limitations of this theory?
3. All matter is made up of very small particles which cannot be further broken down. These
particles are called atoms. This statement is one of the assumptions of which theory?
A. Proust’s atomic theory
B. Dalton’s atomic theory
C. Rutherford’s atomic theory
D. Bohr’s atomic theory

4. Give the supporting laws for Dalton’s Atomic Theory.

5. How does Dalton’s atomic theory explain the law of conservation of mass?
6. How does Dalton’s atomic theory differentiate between elements and compounds?
7. List two merits of Dalton’s atomic theory.

Thomson’s Atomic Model

Thomson's experiments with cathode ray tubes showed that all atoms contain tiny negatively
charged subatomic particles/electrons. He proposed the plum-pudding model of the atom, which
had negatively-charged electrons embedded within a positively-charged ‘soup’. The size of the
atom is about one angstrom in diameter. Although Thomson’s model was not an accurate model
to account for the atomic structure, it proved to be the base for the development of other atomic
models.

Postulates of Thomson’s atomic model

Postulate 1: An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it.
Postulate 2: An atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges
are equal in magnitude

Thomson atomic model is compared to watermelon where he considered the watermelon seeds
as negatively charged particles and the red part of the watermelon as positively charged.

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Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
1. It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model failed to explain how a positive
charge holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom.
2. This model failed to account for the position of the nucleus in an atom.
3. It failed to explain the atom's stability.
4. It failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils.

Tutorial Questions
1. What are the postulates of this atomic model?
2. List the limitations of this model.

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Rutherford’s Atomic Model

This model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively charged core called a nucleus, in
which nearly all the mass is concentrated, around which the light, negative constituents, called
electrons, circulate at a distance, much like planets revolving around the Sun. It is therefore also
called the ‘Planetary’ Model.

This model demonstrated that the atom has a tiny, massive nucleus with his gold-foil experiment.

The Gold-foil Experiment

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Observations
1. Most of the alpha particles passed through the foil.
2. Some of the alpha particles were deflected by the foil making small angles.
3. Rutherford said – “this result was almost as incredible as if you fire a 15-inch shell on a piece
of tissue paper and it comes back and hits you”.

Conclusions
1. Most of the space inside the atom is empty as most of the alpha particles passed through the
gold foil without getting deflected.
2. Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the
atom occupies very little space.
3. A very small fraction of the alpha particles were deflected by 1800, indicating that all the
positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the
atom. By this he concluded that the radius of the nucleus is about 105 times less than the radius
of the atom.

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model

1. It could not explain the stability of the atom. According to Classical Theory of Mechanics,
during a uniform revolution, a body accelerates, and an accelerating charged particle must emit
radiation and loose energy. As a result, the electron will follow a spiral path and ultimately fall
into the nucleus. Rutherford has therefore given a concept of unstable atom.
2. The model does not say anything about the arrangement of electrons in the atom.

Tutorial Questions
1. What did Rutherford's experiment prove?
2. What was Rutherford's model called?
3. Why did Rutherford use gold?
4. Why did the Rutherford model fail?
5. What are the main features of Rutherford's atomic model?
6. What is the conclusion of Rutherford's gold foil experiment?
7. Why do alpha particles pass through gold?
8. What would happen if Rutherford used aluminum foil?
9. What was Rutherford experiment and what did he discover?
10. What did Rutherford direct at a thin gold foil?
Alpha particles,
Bullets,
Laser beam
11. Rutherford’s scattering experiment proved the existence of what?
Protons,
Electrons,
The nucleus
12. What deduction can be drawn from the observation that most alpha of the particles going
went straight through the gold foil?
13. Briefly describe this atomic model.
14. What are the observations and conclusions drawn from this model?
15. What are the limitations of this atomic model?

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Bohr’s Atomic Theory

The postulates that sum up the model
1. The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any
energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called
stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron
cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
2. The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the
revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck's constant and expressed as:

= ℏ

where n = 1, 2, 3, is called the principal quantum number, and ħ = h/2π.

The lowest value of n is 1; which gives the smallest possible orbital radius of 0.0529 nm known
as the Bohr radius. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the proton.

Starting from the angular momentum quantum rule, Bohr calculated the energies of the allowed
orbits of the hydrogen atom and other hydrogen-like atoms and ions. These orbits are associated
with definite energies and called energy shells or energy levels. In these orbits, the electron's
acceleration does not result in radiation and energy loss. The Bohr model of an atom was based
on Planck's quantum theory of radiation.

3. Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another,
absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ν determined by the energy
difference of the levels according to the Planck relation:

= − =ℎ

where h is Planck's constant.

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Radius for Bohr Orbit
The radius of an electron in an atom is generally expressed as:

= (5.29 10 ) ; = 1, 2, 3, ….
where Z is the number of protons.
For the hydrogen atom, Z = 1; for the smallest Bohr orbit, n = 1,
Hence = 5.29 10 . This particular orbit is the Bohr radius.

Energy
The energy is generally expressed in Joules or eV as:
= −(2.18 10 ) , = 1, 2, 3, … ..

= −(13.6 ) , = 1, 2, 3, … ..

For the hydrogen atom Z = 1.

The highest energy level corresponds to n = ∞ with energy 0 eV.

For an atom, when the electron is completely removed (r = ∞) from the nucleus, the lowest
energy level (ground state) has n = 1 and value -13.6 eV.

Higher energy levels are called excited states.

From the ground state (n = 1) to the highest possible state (n = ∞), a minimum energy of 13.6 eV
is required.

Limitations of Bohr’s Model

1. The model failed to explain the atomic spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen atom.
2. The model could not give better explanation of hydrogen spectrum because it could not
explain the spectrum when two spectral lines are very close to each other (i.e. doublet).
3. The model could not explain the existence of fine and hyperfine structure in spectral lines.
4. It failed to explain the Stark’s and Zeeman Effect. i.e., splitting of spectral lines under the
influence of magnetic field
5. The wave nature of electron was not considered
6. It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecule by chemical bonds.
7. It provides an incorrect value for the ground state orbital angular momentum.
8. It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainity Principle because it considers electrons to have both a
known radius and orbit.

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Tutorial Questions
1. How does Bohr's model explain atomic spectra?
2. According to this atomic model, why can't electrons exist between levels?
3. What is the difference between Rutherford atomic model and Bohr atomic model?
4. How was Bohr's model better than Rutherford's model?
5. How does Bohr's atomic model build on Rutherford's model?
6. Why did Bohr change Rutherford's model?
7. What is the Bohr radius?
8. For an atom, the nucleus has radius 1x10-15 m, while electrons orbit at distance of 1x10-10 m.
For a planetary motion, the radius of the sun is 7x108 m, while the earth orbits at a distance of
1.5x1011 m. If the dimensions of the solar system had the same proportions as those of the atom,
would the earth be closer to or further away from the sun than it is now?

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Hydrogen Spectrum
Electrons get into the higher energy orbits by picking up energy when atoms collide (when a gas
is heated) or when a high voltage is applied to a gas.

According to Bohr’s model, a photon is emitted when the electron drops from a higher energy
orbit to a lower energy orbit. For this, individual atoms emit only a specific wavelength λ and
can be identified as a series of bright fringes called line spectrum.
The simplest line spectrum is that of atomic hydrogen.

In contrast, the sun or the hot filament of a bulb emits a continuous range of wavelengths, known
as a continuous spectrum.

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 Spectrum of the hydrogen atom

Various lines and their associated wavelengths

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When an electron makes a transition from ni = 2 to nf = 1, the longest wavelength photon in the
series is emitted. Energy change is the smallest possible.
When an electron makes a transition from ni = ∞ to nf = 1, the shortest wavelength photon in the
series is emitted. Energy change is the largest possible.
For all transitions in which nf = 1, the series generated is the Lyman Series.

R: Rydberg constant, given as 1.097 x 107 m-1

For transitions in which nf = 2, the series generated is the Balmer Series.

For transitions in which nf = 3, the series generated is the Paschen Series

Wavelengths in the Lyman series (nf = 1) are in the ultraviolet band

Balmer lines (nf = 2) are in the visible part of the spectrum
Paschen lines (nf = 3) lie in the infrared band
For Brackett series (nf = 4) lie in the infrared band
Pfund series (nf = 5) lie in the infrared band

Generally,
1 1 1
= − ; , = 1, 2, 2, … … >

nf is the final energy level, ni is the initial energy level, R is Rydberg constant,
Z is the number of protons in the nucleus. For the hydrogen atom, Z = 1.

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Tutorial Questions
1. Calculate the long and short wavelength limits of the Balmer Series. Where can this series be
found in the em spectrum?
2. Calculate the longest and shortest wavelengths, and the wavelength that corresponds to the
transition ni = 6 to nf = 4 for the Bracket Series. Where can this series be found on the em
spectrum?

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Spectrum of ionized Helium

Singly ionized helium is an atom that has lost one of its electrons. There is only one difference
between hydrogen atom and singly ionized helium atom, and that is the number of protons in the
nucleus. The remaining electron acts like a hydrogen electron. .

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Questions
In the spectrum of singly ionized helium, the wavelength of a line observed is almost the same as the first
line of Balmer series of hydrogen. This is due to transition of electron;
A. From n1=6 to n2=4
B. From n1=5 to n2=3
C. From n1=4 to n2=2
D. From n1=3 to n2=2

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X-RADIATIONS
X-rays (x-radiation) are a form of electromagnetic radiations produced when electrons,
accelerated through a large potential difference, collide with a heavy metal target made from
molybdenum (Mo, 42), platinum (Pt), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu, 29),
zirconium (Zr, atomic number 40), tungsten (W, 74), Silver (Ag, 47), Gallium (Ga, 31), Indium
(In, 49). These are referred to as heavy metals because they have high density, specific
gravity or atomic weight. They are also toxic in nature.

X-rays have these characteristics

Wavelength in the range of 0.01 nm to 10 nm,
Frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz),
Energy in the range 120 eV to 120 keV
They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays and longer than gamma rays.
Classification Based on their penetrating abilities:
Two types of x-rays can be identified based on their penetrating abilities.
Soft X-rays
Have energy from about 0.12 to 12 keV (10 to 0.10 nm wavelength)
Can hardly penetrate matter at all
Attenuation length of 600 eV (~2 nm), and in water is less than 1 micrometer
Application: It is used in mammography

Hard X-rays
Have energy from about 12 to 120 keV (0.10 to 0.01 nm wavelength)
Can penetrate solid objects
Application: can be used to take images of the inner parts of objects,
Used in crystallography by determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal
The measure of X-rays ionizing ability is called the exposure

As electromagnetic radiation, X-rays obey these laws:

As a wave, the wavelength is
=
f is the frequency of the radiation, v is its phase velocity (in a vacuum, v = c, the speed of light)

As a particle, the energy of a photon is

=ℎ
f is the frequency, h is Planck's constant

Combining these two equations, the energy can be expressed as:

ℎ
=

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Generation
X-rays are generated in an x-ray tube (vacuum tube). It uses a high voltage to accelerate
electrons released by a hot cathode (through the process of thermionic emission) to a high
velocity. The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target (the anode) thereby generating
the x-rays.
The maximum energy of the produced x-ray photon is limited by the energy of the incident
electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube. So an 80 kV tube cannot create x-rays with
energy greater than 80 keV. It is assumed that all the kinetic energy of the incident electrons goes
into the producing the x-ray photon.

Thus,
= ℎ

Generation of X-rays in a vacuum tube

When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are generated by two different atomic processes leading
to two distinctive features:

Feature 1: X-ray fluorescence

If the incident electron has enough energy it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner
electron shell of a metal atom, and as result electrons from higher energy levels then fill up the
vacancy and x-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an emission spectrum of X-rays at
discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as spectral lines. The spectral lines generated depend
on the target (anode) element used and thus are called characteristic lines.
These are usually transitions from upper shells into K shell (resulting in K lines), or into L shell
(resulting in L lines) and so on. K shell is n = 1 shell; L shell is n = 2 shell, etc.

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 Kα lines associated
Feature 2: Bremsstrahlung: withradiation’)
(‘braking X-ray photon production
This is radiation given off by the electrons as they decelerate or “brake” upon hitting the target
These X-rays have a continuous spectrum.

Combining these features, the resulting output in the tube therefore consists of two main
features; Continuous Bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage and several
spikes at the characteristic lines.
Kα lines arise when an electron in the n = 2 level falls into the vacancy that the impinging
electron has created in the n = 1 level.
Kβ line arises when an electron in the n = 3 level falls to the n = 1 level

Features associated with X-ray production

15
Feature 2:
A sharp cutoff occurs at a wavelength of λ0 on the short-wavelength side of the Bremsstrahlung.
This cut-off wavelength is independent of the target material but depends on the energy of the
impinging electrons. An impinging electron cannot give up any more than all its kinetic energy
when decelerated by the metal target in an x- ray tube. Thus at most an emitted x-ray photon can
have energy equal to the kinetic energy of the electron.

The kinetic energy will then be expressed as:

=ℎ =

where h is Planck’s constant, f is frequency, c is the speed of light, λ is the wavelength.

The KE acquired by an electron in accelerating from rest through a potential difference V is eV.

Thus:
=ℎ = =
A maximum photon frequency f0 corresponding to a minimum wavelength, which is a cutoff
wavelength λ0 can be defined as:

Both of these X-ray production processes are significantly inefficient, with a production
efficiency of only about one percent. Hence, to produce a usable flux of X-rays, most of the
electric power consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. The x-ray tube must therefore be
designed to dissipate this excess heat.

Application of X-rays in Medical Observations

X-rays can be used to help detect or diagnose:
Bone fractures, Infections (such as pneumonia), Calcifications (like kidney stones or vascular
calcifications), Some tumors, Arthritis in joints, Bone loss (such as osteoporosis), Dental issues,
Heart problems (such as congestive heart failure), Blood vessel blockages, Digestive problems,
Detect foreign objects in the body (such as items swallowed by children), Detect abnormalities in
the lungs, Applied in Mammograms to detect breast cancer.

Limitation
The image on the film is a superposition of all the shadows that result as the radiation passes
through one layer of body material after another. Interpretation is therefore difficult.

X rays in CT scan
A CT scan or computed tomography scan (also known as computed axial tomography or CAT
scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of multiple X-
ray measurements taken from different angles to produce tomographic (cross-sectional) images

16
(virtual "slices") of a body, allowing the user to see inside the body without cutting. This
technique is thus an imaging tool that combines X-rays with computer technology to produce a
more detailed, cross-sectional image of your body. A CT scan lets your doctor see the size,
shape, and position of structures that are deep inside your body, such as organs, tissues,
or tumors. This has greatly extended the ability of X-rays to provide images from specific
locations within the body.

Question
1. Distinction between X-rays and gamma rays based on their origin:
2. The energy of X-rays produced by an X-ray tube has a wavelength of 1.20 x 10-10 m. What is
the speed of the electrons in this tube just before they strike the target?
3. An x-ray tube is operated at a potential of 42,000 V. Calculate the maximum frequency of the
x-ray produced.

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Conductivity
This gives a measure of the ease at which an electric charge or heat can pass through a material.
Thermal conductivity is an intensive property (independent of amount of matter being measured,
e.g., density, refractive index) of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat.
It is the transfer of internal energy by the microscopic collisions of particles and movement of
electrons within a body. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons,
transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, jointly known as internal energy.
Conduction takes place in all phases: solid, liquid, and gas. The rate at which energy is
conducted as the heat between two bodies depend on the temperature difference (and
hence temperature gradient) between the two bodies and the properties of the conductive
interface through which the heat is transferred.
Heat spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder body. In the absence of an opposing external
driving energy source within a body or between bodies, temperature differences decay over time,
thermal equilibrium is approached and temperature becomes more uniform.

NB: (Extensive property varies directly with the amount of substance present, e.g., mass,
volume)

Differential form
The differential form of thermal conduction shows that the local heat flux density, q, is equal to
the product of thermal conductivity, k, and the negative local temperature gradient, -∆T.
The heat flux density is the amount of energy that flows through a unit area per unit time.

= − ∆
where q is the local heat flux density (W·m ); k is the material's conductivity (W·m−1·K−1);
−2

∆T is the temperature gradient (K·m−1).

It can be further expressed as:

= −

Thermodynamics
This branch of physics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. In
particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of energy, the
ability of energy to do work and how it affects matter. The key concept is that heat is a form of
energy corresponding to a definite amount of mechanical work.
There are essentially four laws of thermodynamics.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

This states that “If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with one another”.

18
Let’s assume we have three systems - system 1, system 2 and system 3. Their temperatures are
T1, T2 and T3 respectively.

1 3 2

T1 T3 T2

Three systems 1, 2 and 3 at temperatures T1, T2 and T3

From the Zeroth law, if the temperature of system 1 is equal to temperature of system 3, and the
temperature of system 2 is equal to temperature of system 3; then the temperature of system 1
should be equal to the temperature of system 2. The three systems are said to be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

That is; if T1= T3 and T2 = T3, then T1 = T2

The Zeroth law is analogous to the basic rule in algebra, that if A = C and B = C, then A = B.

First Law of Thermodynamics

This law is essentially the ‘Law of Conservation of Energy’, which states that ‘Energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; it can just be converted from one form to another’.
The first law of thermodynamics states that whenever heat energy is added to a system from
outside, some of that energy stays in the system and the rest gets consumed in the form of work.
Energy that stays in the system increases the internal energy of the system and is manifested in
various different forms such as kinetic and potential energy of molecules, or heat energy that
simply raises the temperature of the system.

Internal energy is the sum total of kinetic energy, which comes from motion of the molecules,
and potential energy which comes from the chemical bonds that exist between the atoms and any
other intermolecular forces that may be present.
The first law of thermodynamics can therefore be stated as: ‘The change in internal energy of a
closed system is equal to the energy added to it in the form of heat (Q) plus the work (W) done
on the system by the surroundings’.
Mathematically, this can be put as

∆ = + = ∆
The conventional definition of the first law is based on the system gaining heat (Q is +ve) and
the surrounding doing work (W is –ve).

19
 The opposite scenario can occur too, in which case the ‘signs’ in the equation will have to be
changed appropriately.

Generally:
 if heat flows out of the system, then Q will be negative
 if heat flows into the system, then Q will be positive
 if there is no heat exchange with the system, Q is 0
 if work is done by the system, (gas expands) then W will be negative
 if work is done on the system,(gas is compressed) then W will be positive
 if there is no volume change (constant) work done is 0
 if temperature increases, change in internal energy is positive
 if temperature decreases, change in internal energy is negative
 if temperature is constant, change in internal energy is 0

NB:
Open system: one that freely exchanges both energy and matter with its surroundings
Closed system: One that exchanges only energy with its surroundings, not matter
Isolated system: One that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings

Example of this law

Consider gas in a sealed container (closed system) with a piston attached, on top of which is a
block of wood. Provide heat (Q) from outside to this system. This heat energy leads to expansion
of the gas, which in turn pushes the piston up. The gas does work (W) in expanding itself, which
results in pushing of the piston.

From the ideal gas laws, where P is pressure, V volume, and T temperature,

= =

Wooden Block

Piston
Heat Q supplied to
Gas the system.
The gas expands
The gas does work W,
resulting in the piston and
wood being pushed up.

20
For the above figure,

∆ = − = − ∆
where Q is the external energy provided, P is the pressure of the gas and ∆V is the change in
volume of the gas.

Most power plants and engines operate by turning heat energy into work. This is because a
heated gas can do work on mechanical turbines or pistons, causing them to move. The first law
of thermodynamics applies the conservation of energy principle to systems where heat transfer
and doing work are the methods of transferring energy into and out of the system.

Tutorial Questions
1. In an exothermic process, the volume of a gas expanded from 186 mL to 1997 mL against a
constant pressure of 745 torr. During the process, 18.6 calories of heat energy was given off.
What was the internal energy change for the system in joules? Take 1 L atm = 101.3 J; 1 cal =
4.184 J.
2. The work done when a gas is compressed in a cylinder is 820 J. At the same time, the system
lost 320 J of heat to the surrounding. What is the energy change of this system?
3. Is heat Q the same thing as temperature T?
4. A container has a sample of nitrogen gas and a tightly fitting movable piston that does not
allow any of the gas to escape. During a thermodynamics process, 200 J of heat enter the gas,
and the gas does 300 J of work in the process. What was the change in internal energy of the
gas? Will the temperature increase or decrease?
5. Four identical containers have equal amounts of helium gas that all start at the same initial
temperature. The containers also have a tightly fitting movable piston that does not allow any of
the gas to escape. Each sample of gas is taken through a different process as described below:
Sample 1: 500 of heat exits the gas and the gas does 300 J of work
Sample 2: 500 J of heat enters the gas and the gas does 300 J of work
Sample 3: 500 J of heat exits the gas and 300 J of work is done on the gas
Sample 4: 500 J of heat enters the gas and 300 J of work is done on the gas
Which of the following correctly ranks the final temperatures of the samples of gas after they're
taken through the processes described above?
A. T4>T3>T2>T1
B. T1>T3>T2>T4
C. T4>T2>T3>T1
D. T1>T4>T3>T2

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21
Second Law of Thermodynamics
This law states that “The total change in entropy of a system plus its surroundings will always
increase for a spontaneous process”.
This law can be restated as: "In all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system,
the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state." This is also
commonly referred to as entropy.

Entropy is the “measure of disorder or randomness of a system”.

Every system wants to achieve a state of maximum disorder or randomness. An example is the
melting of ice into water. This happens spontaneously as soon as ice is left at room temperature.
Ice is a solid with an ordered crystalline structure as compared to water, which is a liquid in
which molecules are more disordered and randomly distributed. All natural processes tend to
proceed in a direction which leads to a state that has more random distribution of matter and
energy.

Leave ice at room

Ice Water
temperature

Less random state More random state

These processes take place spontaneously, meaning that once they start, they will proceed to the
end if there is no external intervention. The reverse of this process in which water converts back
to ice at room temperature cannot happen without external intervention.

∆ = ∆ + ∆ >0

where ∆Suniverse is the net change in entropy of the universe

∆Ssystem is the net change in entropy of the system
∆Ssurroundings is the net change in entropy in the surroundings
This means that the Entropy of the universe is constantly increasing.

22
Mathematically,

Which is, heat absorbed or released by the system or surroundings divided by the temperature of
the system or surroundings. Entropy is expressed in Joules per Kelvin (J/ K).

If energy is never created or destroyed, that means that energy can just be recycled over and over
again. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change from more-useful forms into
less-useful forms. Although heat can in fact do work under the right circumstances, it can never
be turned into other (work-performing) types of energy with 100% efficiency. So, every time an
energy transfer happens, some amount of useful energy will move from the useful to the useless
category. Heat that doesn’t do work goes towards increasing the randomness (disorder) of the
universe. The degree of randomness or disorder in a system is called its entropy.

Practical Examples of the Second Law

A spring-driven watch will run until the potential energy in the spring is converted, and not again
until energy is reapplied to the spring to rewind it.
A car that has run out of gas will not run again until you refuel it.
Once the potential energy locked in carbohydrates is converted into kinetic energy, the organism
will get no more until energy is input again.

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KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

This is a model of the thermodynamic behavior of gases with which many principal concepts of
thermodynamics were established.
It explains the macroscopic (volume, pressure, temperature, mass, internal energy) as well as
transport (viscosity, thermal conductivity and mass diffusivity) properties of gases. The model
accounts for related phenomena, such as Brownian motion.
It generally relates the macroscopic to the microscopic property relating to the motion of atoms
or molecules (speed).

Assumptions
The theory makes the following assumptions:
1. Gases consist of large number of molecules (atoms) that are in continuous, random motion.
2. The volume of all molecules of the gas is negligible compared to the volume in which the gas
is contained.
3. Attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecules are negligible.

23
4. Energy can be transferred between molecules during collision, but the average KE of the
molecules does not change with time as long as the temperature of the gas remains constant.
5. The average KE of a molecule is proportional to the Kelvin temperature. At any given
temperature the molecules of all gases have the same KE.

Equilibrium properties
Pressure and kinetic energy
In this model, the pressure is equal to the force exerted by the atoms hitting and rebounding from
a unit area of the gas container surface.
Consider a gas of N molecules, each of mass m, enclosed in a cube of volume V = L3. When a gas
molecule collides with the wall of the container perpendicular to the x axis and bounces off in the
opposite direction with the same speed (an elastic collision), the pressure P can be related to the
kinetic energy K by the expression:

=
where =

is the total mean squared speed in the three dimensions

The pressure equation relates pressure, a macroscopic property, to the (translational) kinetic
energy of the molecules K, which is a microscopic property.

Tutorial Questions
What are the postulates of the kinetic theory?

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24
The Gas Laws
These established the relationships between pressure, volume and temperature of a sample
of gas, and are applicable approximation for all gases.

The various Gas laws are summarized as follows

Avogadro's law
The volume occupied by an ideal gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of the
gas present in the container.
Mathematically,

n is equal to the number of molecules of gas (or the number of moles of gas).

The Combined gas law or General Gas Equation

This is obtained by combining Boyle's Law, Charles's law, and Gay-Lussac's Law. It establishes
the relationship between the pressure, volume, and temperature for a fixed mass (quantity) of
gas.

25
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
=

With the addition of Avogadro's law, the combined gas law develops into the ideal gas law:

P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles, T is temperature (K), R is the universal gas
constant (8.3145 Jmol-1K-1).

An equivalent formulation of this law is:

=

N is the number of gas molecules, k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23 JK−1)

These equations are exact only for an ideal gas, which neglects various intermolecular effects.
However, the ideal gas law is a good approximation for most gases under moderate pressure and
temperature.

NB: Real gases are non-ideal gases whose molecules occupy space and have interactions;
consequently, they do not adhere to the ideal gas law.

= =

NA is Avogadro’s number, n is number of moles, N is number of molecules.

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Tutorial Questions
1. The volume of a cylinder containing CO2 was initially 2.543 L at 94.07°C; what would the
volume be if the temperature of the gas increased to 180.4°C?
2. A quantity of gas in a piston-cylinder has a volume of 0.440 m3 and a pressure of 200 Pa. The
piston compresses the gas to 0.292 m3 in an isothermal (constant-temperature) process. What is
the final pressure of the gas?

26
3. A sample of gas occupies a volume of 275 ml at 20oC and 1 atm pressure. Calculate the
volume in milliliters of the gas at 0oC and 1 atm pressure.
A. 256
B. 356
C. 456
D. 556
4. A sample of gas occupies a volume of 225 ml. at a pressure of 720 torr and a temperature of
20 C. Calculate the new pressure in torr if the volume is increased to 350 ml, at constant
temperature.
a. 263
b. 363
c. 463
d. 563

5. Under conditions of fixed temperature and amount of gas, Boyle's law requires
I. P1V1=P2V2
II. PV=PV= constant
III. P1P2=V1V2
A. I, II and III
B. I only
C. III only
D. II only

6. At 1.70 atm, a sample of gas takes up 4.25 L. If the pressure in the gas is increased to 2.40
atm, what will the new volume be?

7. Boyl’s law is applicable in…………………………………….

A. Isochoric process
B. Isothermal process
C. Isobaric process
D. Isotonic process
8. If the pressure of an ideal gas is decreased by 10% isothermally, then its volume will
A. Increase by 10%
B. Increase by 11.1% *******
C. Decrease by 10%
D. Decrease by 9%

9. A balloon takes up 625 L at 0°C. If it is heated to 80°C, what will its new volume be?

10. A gas at 40.0°C occupies a volume of 2.32 L. If the temperature is raised to 75.0°C, what
will the new volume be if the pressure is constant?

11. If the pressure in a car tire is 1.88 atm at 25°C, what will be the pressure if the temperature
warms to 37°C?

27
12. The pressure in a sealed can of gas is 235 kPa when it sits at room temperature (20°). If the
can is warmed to 48°C, what will the new pressure inside the can be?

13. A car tire has a pressure of 2.38 atm at 15.2°C. If the pressure inside reached 4.08 atm, the
tire will explode. How hot would the tire have to get for this to happen? Report the temperature
in degrees Celsius.

14. A gas at 110 kPa at 30.0°C fills a flexible container with an initial volume of 2.00 L. If the
temperature is raised to 80.0°C and the pressure increases to 440 kPa, what is the new volume?

15. A 40.0 L balloon is filled with air at sea level (1.00 atm, 25.0°C). It is tied to a rock and
thrown in a cold body of water, and it sinks to the point where the temperature is 4.0°C and the
pressure is 11.0 atm. What will its new volume be?

28
OPTICS
This is a branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its
interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
Classical optics is divided into two main branches: Geometrical (ray) optics and Physical (wave)
optics.
Geometrical optics, or ray optics, describes the propagation of light in terms of ‘rays’ which
travel in straight lines, and whose paths are governed by the laws of reflection and refraction at
interfaces between different media, and light propagation through lenses. In this the wavelength
of the light used is much smaller than the size of the optical elements in the system being
modeled.
In Physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a wave. This model predicts phenomena
such as interference, diffraction, polarization, and other phenomena for which the ray
approximation of geometric optics is not valid.

Coherent sources
Two sources are coherent if they produce waves with the same frequency, waveform and have a
constant phase different between them which does not change with time.
Laser light is a coherent source of light. The light emitted has the same frequency
(monochromatic) and phase. Sound waves are another example of coherent sources. The
electrical signals from the sound waves travel with the same frequency and phase.
Non-coherent means that the amplitude and phase of the emitted light waves fluctuate randomly
in space and time

Interference
This is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower,
or the same amplitude.
Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic,
surface water waves, gravity waves, or matter waves. The resulting images or graphs are called
interferograms.
There are two types of interference: Constructive and Destructive.
In constructive interference the amplitudes of the two waves add together resulting in a
higher wave at the point they meet.
In destructive interference the two waves cancel out resulting in a lower amplitude at the point
they meet. The ‘black holes’ are areas of almost total destructive interference (antiphase).

Constructive and destructive interference result from the interaction of waves that are correlated
or coherent with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have
the same or nearly the same frequency.

From the Principle of Superposition of waves, when two or more propagating waves of the same
type are incident on the same point, the resultant amplitude at that point is equal to the vector
sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.
If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same point, then
the amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes—this is constructive interference.

29
If a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave, then the amplitude is equal to the
difference in the individual amplitudes—this is known as destructive interference.

Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between the waves is an even
multiple of π (180°), whereas destructive interference occurs when the difference is an odd
multiple of π. If the difference between the phases is intermediate between these two extremes,
then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed waves lies between the minimum and
maximum values.

Question
What is difference between interference and superposition?

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Two source interference of light

Consider two waves travelling from the slits to a screen, as illustrated. Each slit is at a different
distance from a given point on the screen. Different numbers of wavelengths therefore fit into
each path. Waves start out from the slits in phase (crest to crest), but they may end up out of
phase (crest to trough) at the screen if the paths differ in length by half a wavelength. This will
result in the waves interfering destructively (a).
If the paths differ by a whole wavelength, the waves arrive in phase (crest to crest) at the screen,
interfering constructively (b).

30
(a) Destructive interference occurs because one path is a half wavelength longer than the other.
The waves start in phase but arrive out of phase.
(b) Constructive interference occurs because one path is a whole wavelength longer than the
other. The waves start out and arrive in phase.

The paths from each slit to a common point on the screen can be illustrated as follows:

If the screen is a large distance away compared with the distance between the slits, the
angle θ between the path and a line from the slits to the screen is nearly the same for each path.

The difference between the paths is expressed as

sin ;
where d is the distance between the slits.

To obtain constructive interference, the path length difference must be an integral multiple of the
wavelength, or

sin =
for m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,……

To obtain destructive interference, the path length difference must be a half-integral multiple of
the wavelength, or

sin = + 12

31
for m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,…..
λ is the wavelength of the light, d is the distance between slits, θ is the angle from the original
direction of the beam and m the order of the interference.

The equations for double slit interference imply that a series of bright and dark lines are formed.

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Interference from single slit

Light passing through a single slit forms a diffraction pattern somewhat different from those
formed by double slits or diffraction gratings. The central maximum is larger than the maxima on
either side, and with the intensity decreasing rapidly on either side.

32
(a) shows the monochromatic light passing through a single slit that has a central maximum and
many smaller and dimmer maxima on either side; (b) shows the bright central maximum and the
dimmer and thinner maxima on either side; (c) shows the path differences at which the maximum
and minimum intensities are observed.

The difference in path length for rays from either side of the slit is seen to be:

sin
The central maxima is observed when m = 0.

Destructive interference is observed when:

sin =
for m = ±1, ±2, ±3

Constructive interference is observed when:

sin = + 12
for m = ±1, ±2, ±3, …..

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Interference in Thin Films

When a wave traveling in a medium a is reflected at an interface between this material and a
different material b, there may or may not be an additional phase shift associated with the
reflection, depending on the refractive indexes na and nb of the two materials.
If the second material b has a greater refractive index than the first na (nb > na) the reflected
wave undergoes a half-cycle phase shift during reflection.
If the second material b has a smaller refractive index than the first na (nb < na) there is no phase
shift.

Constructive interference
2 =
m = 0; ±1; ±2; ….and t is film thickness

Destructive interference

2 = + ;
m = 0; ±1; ±2; …

33
Multiple Slits
Increasing the number of slits in an interference experiment while keeping the spacing of
adjacent slits constant gives interference patterns with the maxima in the same positions as with
two slits, but progressively sharper and narrower.
For an array of a large number of parallel slits, all with the same width a and spaced equal
distances d between centers with maxima given by:

sin =
for m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ……

Diffraction Grating
Diffraction refers to the various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or
opening. It is the bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle or through an aperture into
the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture.
For light, it occurs when a light wave passes by a corner or through an opening or slit that is
physically the approximate size of, or smaller than that light's wavelength.
The most colorful examples of diffraction are those involving light. The closely spaced track on
a CD or DVD acts as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern seen when
looking at a disk.
Generally, a diffraction grating divides (disperses) light composed of lots of different
wavelengths (e.g., white light) into light components by wavelength.

In optics, a diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure that splits
and diffracts light into several beams travelling in different directions. The emerging coloration
is a form of structural coloration. The directions of these beams depend on the spacing of the
grating and the wavelength of the light so that the grating acts as the dispersive element.
Consequently, gratings are commonly used in monochromators and spectrometers.

θm is the angle between the diffracted ray and the grating's normal vector, d is the distance from
the center of one slit to the center of the adjacent slit, m is an integer representing the
propagation-mode of interest, λ is the wavelength of the monochromatic light.

34
After light interacts with the grating, the diffracted light is composed of the sum of interfering
wave components emanating from each slit in the grating. At any given point in space through
which diffracted light may pass, the path length to each slit in the grating varies. Since path
length varies, generally, so do the phases of the waves at that point from each of the slits. Thus,
they add or subtract from each other to create peaks and valleys through additive and destructive
interference.

When the path difference between the light from adjacent slits is equal to half the
wavelength, λ/2, the waves are out of phase, and thus cancel each other to create points of
minimum intensity at angles θm given by
.
sin = + ;

m = ±1; ±2; ±3;……….

Similarly, when the path difference is λ, the phases add together and maxima occur at
angles θm given by

sin =
m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ……

Tutorial Questions
1. Give 4 distinct differences between interference and diffraction.

2. State the two types of diffraction and how they are produced.

3. A diffraction grating has 5000 lines/cm. Calculate the second order angle if a wavelength of
650 nm is used as light.

4. A second order bright fringe has an angle of 18o using a light source with wavelength of 540
nm. How many lines per cm does the differential grating have?

5. A diffraction grating has 10,000 lines (cm)-1. If the 3rd order bright fringe has an angle of 25o,
what is the wavelength of the source?

35