Introduction to the Middle East and the Maghreb Daniela Giraldo Pereira

Final Exam Review Guide

CLASS 1: THE SUNNI-SHIA DIVIDE. THE FUTURE OF WAR UNDER SAUDI - IRANIAN RIVALRY

 The Sunni-Shia split: after Muhammad dies, there’s a split on the decision of who was going to
inherit both the religious and the political authority, Sunni’s have a Caliph, and Shia’s have an Imam:
the divide comes after it was not made clear who would succeed Muhammad.
- Shia: Ali, Hassan, Hussein.
- This divide was merely religious; but now, it is a major geopolitical divide.
- Approximately, the world Muslim population is divided in 85% Sunni’s and 15% Shia’s. But, in
the Middle East (from the Nile River to Iran), the split is almost 50/50.
- Is there a Shia crescent? Iran can have influence in all countries in the Middle East. The Iranian
regime has adopted an interpretation of radical Islam that best serves their geopolitical
needs.
 Ali: a cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who ruled as the fourth caliph from
656 until his assassination in 661.
 Husain: a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a son of Ali. Connected with the divine,
battle of
 Qassem Soleimani: A major general that organized and coordinated Shi’i forces to defeat ISIS in Iraq
also coordinated the defense of Assad regime in Syria, he was overall commander of the 2015 Aleppo
offensive, divisions of the Syrian Arab army. Most popular figure in Iran
o Organized the brigades of the party of God: Kata’ib Hezbollah in 2003 composed by Iraqis –
its mission was the urban street-fighting in Syria, it had 2.000 fighters in Syria
 IRGC: Islamic revolutionary Guard Corp – Iranian state interests = global shi’I interest
o Could capture the presidency of Iran
 "Shia Crescent": coined by the king of Jordan, to say that Iran would influence all the middle eastern
countries, whit their interpretation of radical Islam, Lebanon has a long shii population, - the key
place ,- Bahrain - create a connection between the shii countries,
o Iran has succeeded in surrounding Saudi Arabia – Iraq, Syria and Lebanon, and Yemen
through non-traditional means, they never rose an arm against Saudi Arabia directly.
 PMU/PMF: Popular Mobilization Units/Al-Hashd Ash-Sha‘abi - an umbrella organization – anti-ISIS
militia
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 Principal- agent dilemma: you have a proxy group, but the question is who the puppet is and who is
the puppeteer –

CLASS 2: THE TURKEY-QATAR BLOC AS A THIRD ALIGNMENT IN THE NEW MIDDLE EAST

 Qatar Blockade: Saudi Arabia initiated a blockade from June 2017 till January 2021. Many countries
coted ties with Qatar. Saudi Arabia made 13 demands for them to comply, one of this was that Qatar
would cut all diplomatic ties with Iran, members of the IRGC must be expelled and many more
o They won’t cut the relations with Iran because of the gas connections
o Turkish military presence in Qatar must be immorality terminated
o Developed its soft power through al- Jazeera –
o Blocked by the gulf states
 Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani: second emir of Qatar, reigned from 1995 until 2013. He built up the gas
industry, global investments, created Al-Jazeera, allowed the CENTCOM forward HQ 2002, he
deposed his father as emir, so to avoid a similar situation happening to him, he peacefully transferred
power to his son, who pushed closer relation between Turkey and Qatar.
 Tamim bin Hamad al-Thani : He is the current Emir of Qatar, the fourth son of the previous Emir,
Hamad bin Khalifa Al thani. Tamim had held a variety of government posts within Qatar before
succeeding his father in 2013. He pushed forwards an alliance with turkey.
o In 1992 the country had developed relations with the US with his father, but by 2013
the world had shifted after the Arab spring, and Qatar did not want to rely on the US
too much, so when he took over, he encouraged the relations with turkey.
 Tariq bin Ziyad base: turkey’s first overseas base in Qatar – opened in 2015, it cost 39 million. It was
established on an agreement in 2014. It has 3000 Turkish ground forces plus units and will be
increased to 5000. Turkey is responsible for covering the base’s expenses, but Qatar has repeatedly
investment to support the Turkish economy. For instance, during the summer of 2018, Turkey’s
currency went into free fall losing almost 40% against the dollar and Qatar pledged $15 billion on
investments in the Turkish economy (Turkey brings the boots and Qatar pays).
o It is a base called after the Muslim who conquered Spain, they could have named it
something else, this tells us something about their agenda. They are a rising power,
but how you choose to rise tells you their choices of allies.

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 Mogadishu, Somalia: Turkey’s 50-million-dollar km2 Mogadishu base is its largest facility outside
Anatolia. The construction began in March 2015 and opened in late 2017. Turkey forwards its military
position, as the base can house assets for its own naval, air and ground forces.
o It provides Ankara with a position reasonably close to the Gulf of Aden, the strategic
eastern entry into the red Sea critical for the operation of the Turkey-Qatar maritime
partnership.
 Al-Udeid air base: A military base located west of Doha Qatar and is owned by the Qatar emir air
force. It is home to the headquarter of US central command (USCC) and united state air force central
command (USAFCC). The Al Udeid Air Base Qatar is also home to the 397 Th air expeditionary swing
of the USAF.
o When the war against Afghanistan pealed, there were around 4000 American soldiers
who were stationed at this base. Alling with the American soldiers were two dozen of
soldiers.
 North Dome field: is a natural-gas condensate field located in the Persian Gulf. It houses Qatar Air
Force, United States Air Force, Royal Air Force, and other Gulf War Coalition personnel and assets. It
is by far the world's largest natural gas field, with ownership of the field shared between Iran and
Qatar. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the field holds an estimated 1,800 trillion
cubic feet (51 trillion cubic metres) of in-situ natural gas and some 50 billion barrels (7.9 billion cubic
metres) of natural gas condensates. On the list of natural gas fields it has almost as much recoverable
reserves as all the other fields combined. It has significant geostrategic influence.
 Al-Jazeera: News network funded by Qatar. International Arabic news channel, based in Qatar, is
operated by the Al Jazeera media network created in 1996 during the reign of Emir Hamid bin Khalifa
al Thani.

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CLASS 3: THE TRANSFORMATION OF SAUDI ARABIA

 King Faisal: monarch of Saudi Arabia (1964-1975) – several anti-Israel policies

 OIC: Organization of Islamic Cooperation (formerly Conference) – created in 1969, operating at Inter-
governmental level. Was composed of financial institutions and charities – established under king
faisal’s rule. To counterweight the Arab league led by Nasser
 Muslim World League: created in 1962 - was supposed to be an NGO but started to focus on politics,
it was based in mecca. Funded by Saudi state under King faisal rule. operating at societal level in
various countries. It was an umbrella for many sub-organizations. – influenced by the Muslim
brotherhood. King faisal changed the meaning of charity to something more akin to supporting
militancy groups that were aligned to their ideology “fatwa”, charity that includes private support
for violent struggle.
 GCC: Gulf cooperation council: The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, originally
known as the Gulf Cooperation Council, is a regional, intergovernmental political and economic union
that consists of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.
o The GCC nations and morocco lead the solar revolution, with the KSA and UAE playing the
main roles. These countries heavily depend on desalinization for water supplies
 Abdullah bin Abdulaziz: king of Saudi Arabia from 2005-2015: appointed 30 women to the shura
council – he was close to the US (less to Obama) he kept Saudi Arabia stable during the Arab spring
through the small process of reform. Strong opposition to Iran, died at 90.
 Salman bin Abdulaziz: current king, half-brother of KAA. Consolidated the bureaucracy, removed
several senior figures, appointed his nephew Muhammad bin Nayef (MBN) as crown prince, and his
son Muhamad bin Salman (MBS) as deputy crown prince, he was later made crown prince in 2015
and MBN removed from all positions.
 Muhammad bin Salman MBS: Is the crown prince of Saudi Arabia, and currently serving as the
country’s deputy prime minister and also chairman of the council for economic and development
affairs. He has been described as the power behind the throne of his father, King Salman. He was
appointed crown prince in 2017 after the removals of Muhammed bin Nayef (MBN) from all
positions, making MBS designated heir to the throne.
o MBS has led successful reforms, which includes regulations of the powers of the
religious police, the removal of the ban on female drivers in June 2018 and weakening
the male-guardianship system in August 2019.His Vision 2030 program aims to
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diversify the Saudi economy through investment in non-oil sectors including

technology and tourism. Under MBS they created the Islamic military counter
terrorism coalition (IMCTC) it had a Pakistani commander. There is a repeated joint
military exercise called the Arab shield MBS is learning about the international system,
and how much open you can be in an autocrat. How much the reforms will translate
into democratic reforms stills an open question.
 KAUST: King Abdullah University of Science and Technology- women were allowed into higher
education and not forced to wear head roes, men and women working together – religious police do
not operate on campus
o Gradualism – microcosm of reform intended to serve as model and stimulus to larger
society, create places like KAUST to embrace all people are first line of defense against
extremist
 Aramco: officially the Saudi Arabian Oil Company (formerly Arabian-American Oil Company), is a
Saudi Arabian public petroleum and natural gas company based in Dhahran. As of 2020, it is one of
the largest companies in the world by revenue. Saudi Aramco has both the world's second-largest
proven crude oil reserves and largest daily oil production of all oil producing companies. Saudi
Aramco operates the world's largest single hydrocarbon network, the Master Gas System. Saudi
Aramco operates the Ghawar Field, the world's largest onshore oil field, and the Safaniya Field, the
world's largest offshore oil field.
 Neom: is a global hub for trade, innovation, and knowledge. An independent economic zone, with
its own laws, taxes, and regulations to boost healthy growth and wealth for the region. Energy, water,
mobility, good, technological, and digital science, manufacturing, media, and entertainment.
Automated city, financed by partial sale of Aramco. Neom connecting Saudi Arabia with Egypt and
Jordan (and Israel?)
 Vision 2030: A plan by the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the government expects that its peak electricity
demand will be 120 GW by 2032, it stands now at 82 GW – The Arab Summer, a solar power
revolution in MENA
o Es un marco estratégico para reducir la dependencia de Arabia Saudita del petróleo,
diversificar su economi ́a y desarrollar sectores como salud, educación,
infraestructura, recreación y turismo. Los objetivos estratégicos clave incluyen
reforzar las actividades económicas y de inversión, aumentar el comercio de la

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industria no petrolera entre pai ́ses y promover una imagen más moderada del Reino.
También consiste en aumentar el gasto del gobierno en el ejército, asi ́ como en la
fabricació n de equipos y municiones. Renewables is an existential national imperative,
as all power is generated from Oil and associated natural gas. 1/3 of 3 million barrels
per day (bpd) of oil consumption for energy generation. This is what Saudi consumes.
And SA expects its annual growth in KSA power demand to be 8%. Saudi government
expects that its peak electricity demand will be 120 GW by 2031. Saudi Arabia’s peak
load stands at 82 GW. When oil prices were well over $100 per barrel in 2012, Saudi
Arabia planned to build 41 GW of solar capacity by 2032.
 Abqaiq: is a Saudi Aramco gated community and oil-processing facilities located in the Eastern
Province of Saudi Arabia, located in the desert southwest of the Dhahran-Dammam-Khobar
metropolitan area, and north of the Rub' al-Khali, the second largest sand desert in the world also
known as the "Empty Quarter". The community was built in the 1940s by Aramco (now Saudi
Aramco). The Abqaiq community had a population of approximately 1,500 in 2012, though the
inclusion of the population outside the Saudi Aramco community brings this number closer to 30,000.

CLASS 4: THE NEW EGYPT

 Hasan al-Banna: founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, he opposed all national state and national
government and withdrew the involvement with them. He wanted to create a society completely
run on shari’ah. He believed that each state inhabited by Muslims will become completely Islamic
and eventually merge into a new caliphate.
 Sayyid Qutb: Sayyid Qutb developed the doctrines of Jihadism: instead of waiting to create this
alternate, Muslim society, he wanted to imitate communism movements by calling for violent
revolutionary action to capture the state. The Muslim Brotherhood tried this in 1956, which resulted
in the execution of Sayyid.
- creates a new meaning for jihad – a violent revolutionary action to capture the state, he was
executed in 1966 –
 Muslim Brotherhood: Founded in 1928 in Egypt by Hasan al-Banna. Said the Quran and Sunnah
(experiences of Muhammad) were the « sole reference point for ordering the life of the Muslim
family, individual, community, and THE STATE ». Shift from a religion to an ideology, ISLAM TO
ISLAMISM. He opposed all nation-states and national governments because they « were against the

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Quran ». His solution is to withdraw from society, and create an alternate one, completely based on
Islamic Law. All islamic countries would end merging into a new Caliphate. Strong influence of fascist
and authoritarian movements.
- In the 1950’s sayyid qutb develops doctrine of jihadism – as a violent revolutionary action to
capture the state
- It was supported by the Saudis under King Faisal to undermine Nasser in Egypt.
- It attempted unsuccessfully to kill Nasser.
- In 1982 SMB (Syrian Muslim brotherhood) takes the city of Hama
- A key element in the rise of the Islamism and jihadism –
 Egyptian revolution 0f 1952: Ruled by revolutionary command council with Muhammad Naguib as
figurehead and gemal Abdel Nasser as power behind the thrones, initially backed by the Muslim
brotherhood. Nasser bans political parties in 1963, Naguib resigns, and Nasser puts him under house
arrest. There was popular uprising backed by the Muslim brotherhood, which was suppressed by
Nasser and the Army. In 1954, the Muslim brotherhood attempt to assassinate Nasser.
- Saudis support Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt to undermine Nasser. King Faisal created the
organization of the Islamic Conference as a counterweight to the Arab League.
- Anwar Sadat changes the course in 1971: removes Nasserist’s/socialists, began to remove
Soviet influence, by counterbalancing their control with the Islamists. This got out of control,
and they eventually ended up killing him.
- After the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the U.S. and Egypt became closer, as Sadat continued
cracking down Islamists. In 1977, he visits Jerusalem and addresses Israel’s Parliament. They
signed the first peace treaty between an Arab country and Israel in 1979.
- Islamists, inspired by the Iranian Revolution, became more extremist. In 1981, he is
assassinated by a member of Egyptian Islamic Jihad/al-Gemma, with connections to the
Muslim Brotherhood/Saudi Arabia.
- He is succeeded by Hosni Mubarak (981-2011), who was opposed to Khomeinist Iran and
Saudi-sponsored jihadism.
 ARAB SPRING (2011): movement against corruption, and for liberty. Mubarak was removed from
power by the army, who create a Supreme Council of the Armed Forces that assumes control. They
didn’t want legitimate elections: they removed true democratic candidates and tilted the board
towards the Muslim Brotherhood. They picked Mohammed Morsi, a political inept, who became

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Egypt’s « first democratically elected President ». The Muslim Brotherhood thinks they can make the
changes they want without considering the Army.
- Morsi kept extending his mandate for a change in the Constitution. More and more, people
started to dislike him, as they thought majoritarianism was being implemented (some full
Islamists claim they’re democratic, but they’re majoritarianisms). Then he committed
political suicide by authorizing himself to take any measures to protect the revolution and
immunized himself from legal challenges. People started protesting, he became so
unpopular, that another coup happened, and the Army removed him from power. In the next
democratic elections, Sisi is elected by a 96% vote, and he outlaws the Muslim Brotherhood.
- EGYPT BECOMES ALLIED WITH SAUDI ARABIA: both oppose the expansion of Iranian
Hegemony, and Saudi Arabia seeks alternative to policy of Islamist and Jihadist Movements
 Free Officers Movement: was backed by the Muslim brotherhood and suppressed by Nasser and
army
 Gamal Abdel Nasser: Egyptian army officer, prime minister (1954–56), and then president (1956–
70) of Egypt who became a controversial leader of the Arab world, creating the short-lived United
Arab Republic (1958–61), twice fighting wars with Israel (1956, 1967), and engaging in such inter-
Arab policies as mediating the Jordanian civil war (1970). Nasser was a threat for the monarchies,
and he saw himself as a modernizing agent. He spoke about feminism... etc. Nasser became leader
of the Arab League. Muslim Brotherhood attempted his murder.
- he was an Arab nationalist and socialist and president of Egypt from 1957 to 1970
 Anwar Sadat: president of Egypt during 1970 and 1981, he leads a geopolitical transformation,
through a Corrective Revolution, je plant to change Egypt to balance both lefties and righties, he
removes Nasserist’s, and began to remove the soviet influence from the country.
- 1973, the Yom Kippur war, - a victory for Egypt that helped develop trust with US through
ceasefire negotiations
- He initiated serious peace negotiations with Israel, an achievement for which he shared the
1978 Nobel Prize for Peace with Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. Under their
leadership, Egypt and Israel made peace with each other in 1979.Sadat’s domestic and
foreign policies were partly a reaction against those of Nasser and reflected Sadat’s efforts to
emerge from his predecessor’s shadow. One of Sadat’s most important domestic initiatives
was the open-door policy known as infitāḥ (Arabic: “opening”), a program of dramatic

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economic change that included decentralization and diversification of the economy as well
as efforts to attract trade and foreign investment.
- In May 1979 he signs a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel
- In 1981 he was Assassinated by Khalid Islambouli an Egyptian Islamic jihad
 Mohamed Morsi: becomes Egypt’s first democratically elected president as a candidate of the
Muslim Brotherhood in June 2012.
- He immunizes himself of any legal attacks, and extended the mandate of the constituent
Assembly, he even authorized himself to take any measures to protect the revolution.
- In July 2013 Abdel Fateh EL-Sis, minister of defense and army chief of staff removes Morsi
from power
- Principal agent dilemma. The puppeteer doesn’t realize he was the puppet – and is removed
from power
 Constituent Assembly: temporary parliament, supposed to act as a parliament and draft a new
constitution.
 Abdel Fatteh El-Sisi : Egyptian military officer who became Egypt’s de facto leader in July 2013, after
the country’s military removed Pres. Mohammed Morsi from power following mass protests against
his rule. Sisi was elected president in May 2014 and elected to a second term in March 2018
- Sisi confronted renewed attacks by Islamist militants. Egypt’s return to stability under Sisi
allowed him to keep his approval rating aloft throughout his first term.
 The Zohr Field: is an offshore natural gas field located in the Egyptian sector of the Mediterranean
Sea.
o an Egyptian gas project, plan to hold up to 850 billion cubic meters, that can satisfy Egypt’s
domestic demand, its construction was conceded to ENI.
- The Zohr field is believed to be the largest-ever gas discovery in Egypt and the Mediterranean.
Egypt and ENI sold 30% stake on the exploitation to Russia. Russia has a deep hand in the
eastern Mediterranean energy sector.
- Egypt’s LNG import will stop in June 2018
 Medusa Joint Exercises: A multi-nation joint naval and air exercise kicked off in the Egyptian waters
of the Mediterranean Se Includes forces from Egypt, Greece and cypris. France and UAE participated
in the 2020 edition of the events. Egypt annually holds several military exercises with Arab, African
and western allies to boost military cooperation.

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CLASS 5: TURKEY AT THE CROSS-ROADS – THE NEW TUKEY

 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk: founder of Turkey. General and military leader. President of turkey from
1923 -1938. He exemplified how a Muslim state could follow the west, he focused on secularism and
nationalism, and created Kemalism. He secured the Ottoman Turkish victory at the battle of Gallipoli
(1915) during World War 1. He is related to the Muslim brotherhood and the origins of Islamism.
o 1924: Ataturk banned the Caliphate. « It will cease to be a political instrument, as had been
the case in the past ».
o 1928: Ataturk closed down the Sufi Orders. Saying it became corrupt, superstitious.
o 1926: Changed the Turkish script to the Roman alphabet
o Reforms of the Turkish Republic: creates a modern, secular, democratic nation- state.
 Kemalism: founding ideology of the republic of Turkey (1923). Series of reforms designed to separate
the new Turkish state from its Ottoman predecessor and embrace a modernized lifestyle, including
the establishment of secularism, and state support of the sciences and free education. Principles:
republicanism people rule; nationalism based on modern language populism; etatism state as the
center of politics and as an engine of society (different to USA or UK); secularism; revolution dynamic
change, modernization. 1925 Hat Law, 1926 full civil code, 1934 full political rights for women, 1937
principle of secularism in constitution.
 AKP: Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi (justice and development party), founded in 2001, it is a conservative
populist political party. It is the largest in turkey and has been in power almost continuously since
2003, whit its leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan.
o It became discredited in Kurdish issues, far right secular nationalists support AKP.
 Recep Tayyip Erdogan: President of turkey who implemented the Ottoman Islamist foreign policy.
He founded AKP in 2001, whit him the economy was liberalized, and the GDP grew %% every year.
He also increased military power and used democracy as a tool to introduce his own network into
power. He indented to be the leader of the Arab world. He had conflicts with Morsi in Egypt.
o From 2011- 2013 he carried out authoritarian actions. He opposed the establishment
of Kurdish states in the north of Syria and south of turkey.
 Gezi Park protests: One of the last green places left. Erdogan wanted to destroy it, large
demonstrations based on freedom of press, expression, and assembly, as well as the political
islamists government wanted to build a mask and recreate Ottoman military groups. Police acted
against the population using guns. In CNN turkey instead of casting the protests, a penguin
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documentary was emitted, so the penguin became the symbol of the protests. Erdogan used to
create a moderate civil class, and even some conservative. An AKP attack on society.
 PKK: Kurdistan worker’s party: Is a Kurdish militant political organization and armed guerrilla
movement. They look for an independent Kurdish state. The PKK was founded in 1978. The
movement helped the military control the region. In the 90’s Dirty war took place in turkey and
people were ready for a change. So that is why Erdogan won.
 Abdullah Ocalan: Kurdish nationalist and political prisoner, founding member of PKK. He led into the
Kurdish-Turkish conflict in 1984, he was mostly based in Syria, which provided sanctuary to the PKK
until the late 1990’s
 HDP: Halklrarn Demokratik Partisi – people’s Democratic Party: Equal to PDEMOS, founded in 2012,
a left-wing anti-capitalist, pro minority political party in Turkey. It aspires to fundamentally challenge
the Turkish Kurdish divide. Funded at the same time Erdogan started carrying out authoritarian
actions.
 July 15 Coup Attempt: in 2016, Kurdish coup d’etat attempt against state institutions and President
Erdogan. It was carried out by a faction within the Turkish armed forces that organized themselves
as the peace at home council whose members have never been identified. They attempted to seize
control of several places in Ankara, Istanbul, Marmaris and elsewhere. It failed, people in the streets
where against the coup.
 TANAP: trans-Anatolian natural gas pipeline: it is the principal natural gas pipeline in Tukey,
conducting gas from Azerbaijan to Europe. is a quest to free Turkey from Russian gas, and to
become the energy hub » that would connect Middle Eastern energy sources to the European
Market? It needs other suppliers, cause in 32 years, Azerbaijan will run out of gas, THEY NEED NEW
SUPPLIERS and Israel is an interesting partner.
 S-400: An anti-aircraft weapon system developed in the 90’s by russia’s Almaz Central Design Bureau
as an upgrafe for the S-300 family. It has been in service with the Russian Armed forces since 2007.
Saudi Arabia, turkey, India and Belarus have all acquired it.
 Turkey-Libya, GNA Maritime Boundary: to establish an exclusive zone in the Mediterranean Sea,
which means that they could claim right to ocean bed resources. This was the first agreement ever
to be signed between them. In November 2019, a boundary of 18.6 nautical miles was established
between them.

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- A military agreement was signed benefiting turkey, as long as the GNA government continued
and finished governing the country.
 TRNC: Turkish Republic of Norhten Cyprus: the island of Cyprus is divided in half, since 1974 as a
result of a violation of the constitution. In 1981 the northern area became the Turkish republic fo
Cyprus (only recognized by turkey). A referendum to enter the EU was arranged, and Cyprus entered
the Union. EU law is suspended un the Turkish part of the island.

CLASS 6: DEVELOPMENT OF GLOBAL JIHAD – ORIGINS OF AL-QAEDA

 Islamism: it is a heterogeneous set of political movements whose ideology and political program
consists essentially in the adaptation of political life to the religious mandates of Islam.
- Religious authorities have power
- Anything based in the people should rule is not Islamism
- Islamism = a tool for combating democracy
- Islam transformed into an ideology for socio-political and economic arrangements of a
modern state
 Al-Azhar: The Islamic university – the prime Sunni institution for study (its like a seminar) the most
prestigious university to study Islam, Muhammad Abduh became head of the university during a
certain time.

Osama bin Laden: an alienated lost rich kid, in 1984, 20 Arabs were provided training in Afghanistan, he
being one of them. He got politicized in Jidda, from a high school teacher from the Syrian MB. He was
the main sponsor of the Services Bureau, he disposed of $300k. he was able to build public goods and
raise money.

- 1985 he led the recruitment efforts in Saudi Arabia. He settles in 86 in Pakistan and sets up
separate camps for Arabs that would later be called the Lion’s Den.
- Creates a distance with Azzam because he was rigid, asking for islamists credentials and MB
members, Bin laden recruited persons with shade pasts and born-again Muslims.
- 1989, Soviet Union withdrawal from Afghanistan – eruption of the afghan civil war. Azzam is
killed. Bin laden becomes leader of Al-Qaeda. He is not an islamists scholar or a fighter, he is
a networker. Al-Qaeda focuses on the Far enemy (US and West).

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 Abdullah Azzam: the founder of Al-Qaeda. Was born in Jenin a British mandatory Palestine, later
annexed by Jordan (west bank). Becomes a member of the Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood at Al-
Azhar. He took a position in Saudi Arabia King Abdul Aziz university in Jeddah (where is possible, he
met Osama bin laden). He preached the jihad of the Muslims to help the Afghan mujahideen against
the soviet invaders. He raised funds, recruits and organized international Islamic volunteer effort of
Afghan Arabs during the 80’s and emphasized the political aspects of Islam
 Afghan Jihad: Against Soviet Union – Muslim brotherhood exercised influence over it.
 Jihadism: ideology of revolutionary violent to capture the state.
 Jihad: struggle for a praiseworthy aim- later changed by qub to - struggle through the use of force to
preserve the practice of the faith.
 Ayman al-Zawahiri: En los años 1980 viajó a Afganistán para participar en las acciones guerrilleras y
terroristas de los muyahidines contra el Gobierno afgano y sus aliados soviéticos. Ahí conoció a
Osama bin Laden, quien dirigía una base de muyajidines llamada Majtab al-Jidamat; ambos
trabajaron bajo la tutela del palestino Abdullah Azzam. Con el fin de la guerra de Afganistán, Az
Zawahirí y Azam mantuvieron posiciones encontradas con respecto a las siguientes etapas de la
estrategia de lucha. Al final, Bin Laden se decantó por la estrategia de Al Zawahirí, de enfrentamiento
contra los regímenes musulmanes seculares (especialmente en su país natal, Egipto). Por eso, para
muchos este médico egipcio fue el verdadero ideólogo detrás de Al Qaeda, por encima de Bin Laden,
que se ocupaba de la financiación y era el líder simbólico.
 fard 'ayn: individual obligation for all Muslims:
- Praying 5 times a day
- Fast during ramadam
- He hajj
- Jihad for all Muslims around the world
- Radical departure
 Al-Qaeda Al-Sulba: the solid base: Azzam says that you need an actual territory as a solid base. Al-
Qaeda was first the territory then the terrorist group. Everybody must come to Afghan because it
can be the solid base for jihadism.
 Services Bureau: Maktab al-Khidmat: Azzam afghans embryonic a- Qaeda was the services bureau,
financed by Osama bin laden. Raised funds and recruit mihadin for the war against the soviets in
Afghanistan

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- media activities, magazines Al-Jihad and produce series and videos.

CLASS 7: DEVELOPMENT OF GLOBAL JIHAD – THE RISE OF ISIS

 Abu Musab al-Zarqawi: a Jordanian jihadist who ran a terrorist training camp in Afghanistan. He
became know after going to Iraq and being responsible for a series of bombings, beheadings, and
attacks during the Iraq war, turning an insurgency against US troops into a Shia-Sunni civil war. He
transforms bin Ladens Al-Qaeda to ISIS. He was not educated or rich but a tough street criminal –
nicknamed “the green man”. He was sent to prison in 1992, where extremist networks operated, he
converted into Sunni extremism (he removed his tattoos with razors).
o In 2000 he goes to Afghanistan to join al-Qaeda, but bin laden rebuffed him – he was too
extreme even for Bin laden.
o To not make him an enemy, Osama finances him to set up a training camp near the Iranian
border.
o September 2001, US invades Afghanistan and Zarqawi is injured fighting. He received medical
treatment in Iran, which refused Jordan’s request for his extradition. He is sent to Iraq, and
with his networks in Syria, creates a base in Iraq, where he develops chemical weapons, Iraq
also refused the extradition.
o 2002, Zarqawi’s group kills USAID director Laurence Foley in AMMAN, then fled to Syria who
also rejected the extradition.
 Why did they choose not to destroy Zarqawi?
o It had to do with the Iraq war; they wanted to invade Iraq and attacking Zarqawi would’ve
ended the international support for the invasion. Instead, Zarqawi was used to try to link
Saddam Hussein’s regime to al-Qaeda.
o US Secretary of State Collin Powell was a general that picked up the US army after the
defeat of Vietnam. He was a critical person, was in the George Bush Sr. Administration,
National Security Advisor, and had a critical role in the success of the Persian Gulf War.
During the Bush Jr. Administration, he becomes the US Secretary of State. Nobody trusted
Bush, but they trusted Powell; he was sent to the UNGA (2003) in efforts to gain UN

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authorisation for an invasion, speaking for 7 minutes and mentions Zarqawi’s name 21
times.
o Zarqawi’s status in the Jihadist networks became elevated overnight (most infamous
jihadist after bin Laden). He also got a cue went underground. Zarqawi in the shadows
prepares to fight the Americans with greatly enhanced leadership status.
 AQI: Al-Qaeda in iraq: is an insurgent Sunni action, created and leaded by the Jordanian militant Abu
Musab al-Zarqawi and initially branded as Jamal at tawhid wal jihad, while affiliated with al-Qaeda
as Zarqawi pledged allegiance to Osama bin Laden. Its headquarters are in Fallujah, in the Iraqi
province of Al Anbar.
- Based on a Salafist jihadist ideology, it adopted a radical religious program in order to impose
an interpretation of the Islamic law- Sharia’s – known as Wahhabism.
- In 2005, a 4 stage plan to control Iraq was established:
o 1. The expulsion of the US forces from the country
o 2. Establishing in Iraq a caliphate
o 3. Extent the jihad outside Iraq`s borders.
o 4. The clash with Israel.
- In 2006 it became the Islamist State od Iraq what lead to the creation of ISIS as an
autonomous group.
- After Zarqawi’s death the leadership was assumed by the Egyptian militia, Abu Ayyub al-Masri
– it is the deadliest factions.
- During the Syrian civil, ISIS attacked the Kurds with the support of the US and led them to lose
Aleppo and other cities. After that turkey started supporting the group. Russia also
intervened against ISIS in 2015, with an Air campaign, northwestern Syria offensive in Aleppo.
 Saddam Hussein: Dictator of Iraq, totalitarian part of a Sunni minority suling over a Shia majority.
 Takfir: non-Muslims – legally subjects to violence
 al-Askari Shrine Bombing: 2006 bombing in the Iraqi city of Samarra, at about 6:44 am. The attack
on the mosque, one of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, is not claimed by any group. Us president Bush
suggested that the evidence indicates that it was an Al-Qaeda plot. The mosque was severely
damaged, but no one was injured.
 Islamic State of Iraq (ISI): a former unrecognized proto-state that follows a Salafi jihadist doctrine.
ISIL was founded by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi and gained global prominence in 2014 when it drove Iraqi

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security forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive, followed by its capture of Mosul and
the Sinjar massacre.
 The Surge: 2007-2008. Killing of Zarqawi provides enough political capital to implement the surge.
Us significantly increases troops presence in Iraq. Troops are sent into Sunni neighborhoods to
provide security. Sunnis abandoned jihadist.
 Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi: Zarqawis 2nd sucesor. He declares the caliphate in 2014
 ISIS: Also know as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) rebranded in 2014 as Islamic state of
syria or Daesh in its Arabic acronym, is a transnational Sunni insurgent group which follows salafist
jihadist ideology. It was part of AQI, but when the Islamic state of Iraq was declared, al-Baghdadi
separated and created ISIS. They were joined by al-Shisani (the Chechen). Their operations are
focused in Iraq and Syria, countries in which they gained territories from January 2014. Known as
the. most successful jihadist organization
o Captures a territory larger than Portugal and ruled over 5 million people.
- They gained control over Raqqa in Syria and Fallujah to Mosul in Iraq. In 2014 they declared
the creation of the Islamic State, a worldwide caliphate, leaded by Baghdadi, becoming a big
international player.
- That same year ISIS gained oil and natural gas fields.
- In 2019, the leadership of Abu Ibrahim al- Hashimi al Qureshi was announced, and it’s the
current leader.
- It its known for its videos of civil and soldiers’ beheadings. The UN has declared ISIS a terrorist
group.
 Caliphate: is an Islamic state under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph a
person considered a politico-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of
the entire Muslim world (ummah).

Class 8: SYRIA AND THE CIVIL WAR

Belligerents in Syrian civil War:

- Syrian Arab republic (Assad regime) supported by Iran, Hezbollah and Russia
- Syrian opposition: free Syrian army, supported by turkey and HTS
- ISIS

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- Democratic federation of Northern Syria (Rojava), dominated by the Kurds, allied ethnic
l=militias, and the combined joint tasks of the US and the UK.
 Bashar al-Assad: Current president of Syria, his family are ideologically heterodox alawites a minority
which identifies as descendants or followers of ALI and dominate the air force and the country. Assad
graduated as a doctor in Damascus and entered the Syrian army, he rose to power in 2000 as
president of the Syrian armed forces and regional secretary of the Arab socialist ba’ath party’s branch
in Syria. He fought in the Syrian civil war, supported by the army, Hezbollah and al-Abas militia.
- He supported the Kurds (YPG) and the ISIS during the civil war (he believed ISIS was effective
in fighting his opponents and that eventually he could end the group, however they cut a
deal)
- Opponents during the war: Qatar, Saudi Arbia, Turkey, The free Syrian army and Jabhat al-
Nusra (Al-Qaeda).
- During the war, Aleppo was the strategic point to maintain his power.
 Hafez al-Assad: A Syrian politician who served as the president of Syria from 1971 to 2000
 HTS: Hayat Tahir al-Sham: Also known as organization for the Liberation of the Levant, is a Sunni
Islamist militant group, involved in the Syrian war based on a Salafist Jihadism ideology. Established
in 2017 as a deserted group from the Jabhat al-Nusra. Aligned with Al-Qaesa.
- Its main operation area is in Idlib, now dominated by them, its also present in Aleppo and
Hama.
- Leaded by Abu Mohammed al-Golani and its main objective is to transform Syria into an
Islamic Emirate.
 Free Syrian Army (FSA): a loose faction of the Syrian civil war, created in 2011 by officer of the Syrian
armed forces to bring the presidency of Assad through military action. It’s a decentralized, well-
armed group and was considered to be the main Syrian military defectors group in 2011. They are
based in guerilla warfare with the main operational focus on Damascus.
 Raqqa: Northern Syrian city, near Aleppo, under the control of the Autonomous Administration of
North and East Syria. After the Battle of Raqqa, during the Syrian Civil War, the city eas declared
under the control of the Free Syrian Government and militants form the Al-Nusra front, amongst
others. It was the first city proclaimed by the rebels and Al-Qaeda and its affiliate Al-Nusra front
settle a Sharia’ a court, being declared as ISIL headquarters in 2013. ISIL officially took control of the
city in 2014, but it was lost to the Syrian Democratic Forces, supported by the US, in 2017 in the

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Second Battle of Raqqa. It was subject to migration from Aleppo, Idlib and Homs during the Syrian
Civil War.
 2015 Russian Intervention – Turkstream: natural gas pipeline running from Russia to Turkey.
Replaced the south stream project, which was cancelled in 2014, after the shootdown of a Russian
fighter jet by turkey in November 2015
 Astana Dialogue: Astana talks in 2017. Similar to the congress of berlin, modern version. Russia, Iran
and Turkey were all in and in opposition to the US. Russia and Iran supported Assad, turkey supported
ISIS and the US supported the Kurds (YPG). They want to defend their interests. They establish a de-
escalation zone, however in 2018 escalations commenced.
 YPG: peoples protection units: a main Kurdish light infantry militia in Syria and the main component
of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), settled in 2011 and currently active. Its main operational focus
is the Kurdish regions in the north-easter part of the country. They describe themselves as a national
legitimate multi-ethnic and multi-nationality military institution. Its main objective is to protect
wester Kurdistan and it pledges to defend the gains and values of freedom and social democracy.
- Until 2016 an important US ally in the fight against the Islamic state, it’s the military militia
with most women.
 Rojava: West turkey (Syria) aka Syrian Kurdistan, Kurdish inhabited areas of Syria. It is one of the four
lesser Kurdistan’s that comprises greater Kurdistan, alongside Iranian Kurdistan, Turkish Kurdistan,
and Iraqi Kurdistan. Turkish government wanted to create ISIS free zones.
 Kobane: Kurdish-majority city in northern Syria. Because of Syrian civil war, the city came under the
control of YPG militia
o A predominantly Kurdish city located in the Governorate of Aleppo, in northern Syria, in the
Syrian-Turkish border. During the Syrian Civil War, the city has been under the control of
YPG in 2012, transforming into the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria; in
2014 was attacked by ISIL, suffering major destruction; in 2019, the Syrian Army and the
Russian Military Police entered the city in order to keep it from being taken over by the
Turks.
 Sochi Agreement 2018: signed in 2018, Russia and turkey agreed to make a demilitarized zone
between turkey and Syria, surrounded by Russian viewpoints to control the situation supported by
Russian and Turkish air-forces.

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o Russia and turkey agreed on establish a demilitarized sone in the Syrian province of Idlib to
avoid a full-scale Syrian offensive- designed to look like a horseshoe and established through
checkpoints.
o The area should make up for 15km with both Russian and Turkish outposts and patrols
o The jihadist rebels must retreat further in the province
o Removal of all tanks and rocket launching systems.
o The reopening of M4 and M5 highway linking Aleppo and latakia.
 Turkey did not comply with its part – resulting in HTS taking a big part of it.
 Additional Protocol: part of Turkish involvement in northwestern Syria. Syria keeps all territorial
gains, new border in m4, they trapped the jihadists.
 M-4 Highway is a highway in northwest Syria, which runs parallel with its northern border with
turkey. In October 2019, the highway became warzone, as Turkish- backed Syrian rebel forces
advanced into the Kurdish controlled region of Rojava.
 Al-Nusra Front: A Salafist jihadist group, also known as Al-Qaeda in Syria or in the Levant. Established
in 2012 during the Syrian civil war in order to combat the government, being a rebel force. Its lead
by Abu Mohammad al- Julani, the group aims to establish a Islamic State in Syria.
- In 2015 it joined another rebel groups creating the Army of Conquest renaming itself as
Jabhat Fatah al-Sham, Front for the conquest of the Levant.
 Operation Euphrates Shield: a cross-border military offensive launched by Turkey. Turkey and its
allies fought against the ISIL and SDF and the operation were carried out alongside the river
Euphrates, in the area of Aleppo, in order to secure the Turkish-Syrian border. Resolution: opponents
withdrawal to the east side of the Euphrates
 Operation Olive Branch: : launched by the Turkish to get Afrin. They fought against the YPG and the
SDF. In March (2018), Turkey takes over Afrin. At the same time, Assad and his allies launched an
offensive against HTS in Hama in January, and in February an offensive against the Ghouta region.
 Operation Spring of Peace: operation launched by Turkey with the support of the Syrian National
Army (SNA) against SDF and the Syrian Arab Army (SAA)in northern Syria (Aleppo, Hasakah and
Raqqa). In October 2019, the US and Turkey declared a 5-day ceasefire which was partially rejected
by the Syrian Democratic Forces. Days after, Russia and the Turkish signed a memorandum of
understanding. The ceasefire was extended and then made permanent. The Trump Administration

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order the complete withdrawal of the US forces from the Aleppo and Raqqa governorates, but just
partially in the Hasakah governorate.

CLASS 9: ALGERIA ON THE BRINK

 FLN: Front de liberation nationale, founded in 1954 (the year Nasser came to power in Egypt). They
launched the Algerian war of independent, which ended in 1962 with the Evian accords, Algeria
became an independent country.
 Houari Boumediene: In 1965 Houari Boumédiè ne overthrows Ben Bella in Bloodless Coup: 1965-
1976 Chairman of revolutionary Council, 1976-78 president. Centralized state planning a la URSS o
Nasserist Egypt, Good relations with Westand Soviet Bloc, FM Abdelaziz Bouteflika, Died in 1978.
 Abdelaziz Bouteflika: foreign minister of Boumediene. President of Algeria form April 199 until April
2019, when popular unrest forced his resignation. Tried to implement a series of reforms during the
Arab spring, but they didn’t take place.
 FIS: Front Islamique du Salut, Islamic salvation front: Founder Abbasi Madani and Ali Belhadj. Islamic
state run on sharia, vaguely defined with utopian promises of prosperity and no corruption.
Islamization and Arabization as post-colonial resistance.
- June 1990 local election, the FIS 54% votes – it was dissolved in 1992
 La Sale Guerre: The dirty War: it is the start of the Algerian civil war (1991-2002). Up to 250.000
people killed, extreme violence against civilians. Began whit FIS and their Islamic State army. GIA
emerged.
 Le Pouvoir: The power: Means the elite that stays in power
 Hirak: protests movement in 2019, hang garbage bags in places designated for candidates, campaign
posters, massive protests in Algeria. Major cities calling for a boycott of the elections. General strike.
in Algeria, protests had been illegal since June 2001 (it was the first protest sine then). protests
brought people together, religious, and non-religious, lawyers etc. succeeds foiing the Le pouvour
but fails to provide credible alternative for a transition process.
 AbdelMadjid Tebboune: won 58% of votes. served as communications minister and housing
minister under Bouteflika. In 2017 served as prime minister but was fired 3 months later.
Announces a series of political reforms similar to Bouteflika but were put in paper only. Tebboune

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left without his main support in Le pouvoir that would enable him to make concessions. Hirak
demanded the resignation of the President, prime minister and salah
 Tuareg: Los tuaregs, o tamasheq son un pueblo bereber (o amazigh) de tradición nómada del
desierto del Sáhara. Su población se extiende por seis países africanos: Argelia, Libia, Níger, Malí,
Mauritania y Burkina Faso.
 GIA: Group islamique arme: founded by Algerian veteran of the afghan jihad, expanded Takfirsm,
declared Algerian jihad an individual obligation on all Muslims males. Targeted journalists,
intellectuals, and families of soldiers. Attacks in France, Christmas eve hijack of air France flight,
bombing, plot to attack the world cup.
 Abdelmalek Droukdel: becomes leader of Al-Qaeda I the Islamic magreb (AQIM) in 2004. His mentor
was Zarqawi.

Ramadan Massacres:

 GSPC: Group Salafist pour la Predication et le Combat: founded by GIA commander Hassan Hattab,
operated from the mountains in Kabyle region. Is a more radical section of the GIA. In 2003 declare
support for Al-Qaeda.

Operation Serval:

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CLASS 10: TUNISIA: CIVIL SOCIETY AND STRUGGLE FOR DEMOCRACY

 Habib Bourguiba: Founder of the Tunisian Republic. He was president from 1957 to 1987. Motivates
a modernization and reform, keeping Tunisia more open to the west and the other Arab socialists’
nations. In 1080 whit the economic crisis, he was no longer mentally fit for office.
 Zine El Abidine Ben Ali: president from 1087 to 2011, promised more democracy and term limits but
didn’t comply. Whit the economic reforms there was a tremendous GDP growth (5% per year) but
he, his family and the elite working with the military increasingly start to control the country’s wealth.
- Youth unemployment, his decision to ban the islamists Ennahda party, his strict censorship
and violence against the press, imprisonment and torture to political opposition generate the
evolve of an authoritarian state.
- January 2011, he fled from Tunisia amid protests and loss of the army support.

THE JASMINE REVOLUTION 2010- 2011

 Mohamed Bouazizi: 26-year-old guy who self-immolated. Was the trigger of the Jasmine revolution.
He was the older brother and sole supporter of a family of 8, that was an independent fruit and
vegetable vendor. His cart and scales were confiscated by the police, and he was no able to pay bribe
and was allegedly beaten by police. He went to the governor’s office to complain but was refused to
be heard, so he went to his office with a can of gasoline and lit himself on fire on December 2010.
He died in January 2011 and 10 days later Ben Ali flees Tunisia because of the rising of nationwide
protests. He becomes a martyr
 Al Bawsala (The Compass): it’s a non-governmental Tunisian non-profit organization that during the
constituent assembly process made debates on constitution writing accessible to all Tunisian citizens.
- That promotes government transparency and accountability promotion, individual freedoms
advocacy and Tunisian legislative process monitoring.
- In early 2019, was able to sue the president for abuse of power and a breach of the
constitutions without fear of the consequences. The outcome of these legal proceeding is still
pending.
 Ennahda: Renaissance party: founded by Rachel Ghannouchi. It was founded as Islamic tendency
movement in 1981, inspired by Mawdudi and Sayyid Qutb) Muslim Brotherhood. Rachel evolved

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Ennahda as Tunisian form of moderate Islamism, renouncing violence and advocating for democracy
and pluralism. Between 1990 and 1993 Ben Ali regime arrested 30.000 Ennahda members.
- Its similarly influenced by the experience of Algerian Civil War and Al-Qaeda.
- In October 2011, constituent assembly election (first free elections in Tunisia) Ennahda wins
37% ov votes, the strongest party.
 Rached Ghannouchi: in 1988 he was released from prison and then lived in the UK for 22 years.
Returned to Tunisia in January 2011
 Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet: a group of 4 civil society organizations that ere central
mediators in the effort of consolidating democratic gains and a constitutional settlement, following
the regime change of the Jasmine revolution.
- The National Dialogue Quartet comprises the following organizations in Tunisian civil society:
o Tunisian General Labor Union (UGTT, Union Générale Tunisienne du Travail)
o Tunisian Confederation of Industry, Trade, and Handicrafts (UTICA, Union Tunisienne
de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de l’Artisanat).
o Tunisian Human Rights Defense League (LTDH, La Ligue Tunisienne pour la Défense
des Droits de l’Homme).
o Tunisian Order of Lawyers (Ordre National des Avocats de Tunisie).
- They developed horizontal connections (work together for the country, for a common
interest). They were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2015.
 Kais Saïed: constitutional Law professor, very socially conservative based on his religious personal
values, but does not consider himself islamists. Independent candidate used his outsider status to
portray himself as a man of the people. Considers women less.

CLASS 11: MORROCO AND THE NEW MIDDLE EAST

 Alaouite Dynasty: arab dynasty founded in 1931 and covered morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Mali and
some other countries
 Amazigh: free people of North Africa that fought against and with invading Arabs. Complex
relationship between Amazigh and Arabs. – Dihya queen, symbol key of Amazigh (Berber)
nationalism.
 King Mohammed V: Sultan of Morocco under French and Spanish colonialism, who became a symbol
of Morrocos independence. In 1944 there was a proclamation of independence by nationalist

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activists with the king as head of state. In 1953, France forced Mohammed and his family to leave
morocco and go into exile in Corsica, in 1954 he was transferred to Madagascar, and in 1955 returned
triumphant from exile and negotiated Morocco’s independence. In 1957 he assumes the title of King
of Morocco and died in 1961. His son Hassan II assumes the throne.
 Hassan II: comes to power in 1061 and was pro US during the Cold war. His main focus was the
economic development (focusing in agriculture) and recovering territories under colonial rule. 1963,
he fought the Sand War against Algeria over border dispute. He suffered an assassination attempt
during a failed military coup supported by Libya. He dies in 1999, and rules over the years of Lead.
 Years of Lead: 1960nto 1990, heavy repression, moderate reform took place after the URSS fall.
 Polisario Front: frente Popular de Liberacion de Sagia el Hamra y Rio de Oro, formed in 1973 in
western Sahara to conduct a guerrilla campaign against Spanish rule. Supported by Algeria.
 SADR: Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic – declared by the Polisario front. Its admitted into the
African union in 1984. Morocco quits. 70 countries recognize the SADR, mostly African countries,
while Europe deems it as an autonomous region within Morocco.
 The Green March: King Hassan II calls for Moroccan citizens to march across the border into northern
part of Spanish Sahara, accompanied by Moroccan army troops. Took place on March 5, 1975.
Continuation of the revolution of the king and the people.
 Madrid Accords: Madrid accords administrative control, not a transfer of sovereignty but Spain gave
control to morocco over western Sahara. And Mauritania. Spain removes all its forces by 1976, the
next day the polisario front declares the SADR.
 The Berm: Sand barrier in the Moroccan Western Sahara Wall, it took 7 years to build, separates
Morocco’s southern provinces from the SADT’s liberated territories.
 Baker Plan:
- Baker Plan 1 → 5 years of autonomy with Morocco responsible for defense and foreign affairs,
and then a referendum on whether to join Morocco or be independent. This plan was
rejected by Polisario Front and Algeria.
- Baker Plan 2 → 5 years autonomy under Western Sahara Authority, elected only by pre-1975
population, followed by a referendum on whether to join Morocco or be independent.
Referendum vote by entire population including post-1975 arrivals from Morocco. It was
rejected by Morocco, declaring that independence is no longer an option.

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 Muhammad VI: in 1994 becomes commander in chief of Moroccan Armed forces and ascends to the
throne in 1999. In 2004 creates a reform of personal status law (family law) Mudawana (legal age for
marriage raised to 18, women cannot be married against their will, women and man share authority
over family matters.) and creates a truth commission: Instance Equite et Reconciliation (IER)
 PJD: Justice and Development Party: defended liberalization of economy and human rights, pro-
Europe. Improvement of relations with the GCC and promoted Islamic identity. 2011 they won most
seats and Benkirane was appointed PM. Re appointed in 2016. In 2017 the king appointed PJD
political Othmani to form government after Benkiran’ negotiation stalled.
 Al-Boraq : a 323 Kilometer high-speed rail service between Casablanca and tangier, operated by
ONCF in Morroco.
 Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe (IRCAM) : In 2001 King Mohammed VI created it to reinforce the
berber language in Media and society promoting it in the educational system.

CLASS 12: A DIVIDED LYBIA: CIVIL WAR AND RECONCILIATION

 Muammar Gaddafi: One of the longest rulers in the Arab world for almost 42 years. He developed a
islamic socialism, pan Arabism. Very radical
 Libyan Civil War: 2011 protests erupt as part of the Arab Spring. Gaddafi orders security forces to
fire into crowds of protestors. Opposition declares itself to be a Transitional National Council
government. UNSC freezes Gaddafi’s and his inner circles’ assets and restricts their travel.
- Gaddafi’s forces re-captures towns and push east to Benghazi. NATO bombing campaign
against Gaddafi. The rebels capture Tripoli. They declare the "Liberation of Libya".
- Prelude to War: clashes erupt between former rebels in Benghazi ni sign of discontent with
the TNC. Benghazi-based TNC officials campaign to re-establish autonomy for the region,
further increasing tension with the TNC in Tripoli.
- Elections for General National Congress (GNC). TNC hands over power to GNC September
2012 Attack on US consulate in Benghazi.
- GNC creates the Libya Revolutionary Operations Room to establish security in Tripoli. They
kidnap the Prime Minister.
- February 2014 protests erupt in response to the General National Congress refusal to
disband after mandate expires.

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- Haftar claims government is not legitimate, launches "Operation Dignity" to "purge the
islamists from Libya".
- Elections called. GNC clashes with the newly formed House of Representatives.
- The HOR flees to Tobruk. Libya has two governments. The supreme court in Tripoli deems
the HOR illegitimate.
 GNA: Government of National Accord: it was an interim government for Libya that was formed
under the terms of the Libyan Political Agreement, a UN- led initiative signed on December 2015. Its
based in Tripoli. In the easter side there is the Haftar government. But there is also a role played by
ISIS in Libya, There are interests regarding oil reserves of Libya.
 Fayyez al-Sarraj: prime minister of the GNA from 2016-2021. Also, a member of the parliament of
Tripoli.
 LNA: Libyan national army, commanded by Khalifa Haftar, they led the operation food of dignity
 Khalifa Haftar: commander of the Libyan National Army. In September 2016, LNA seized key oil
export terminals in the east, and in July they ejected ISIS from Benghazi after a 3 year campaign. In
July 2018 the LNA claims full control of Derna, last islamists stronghold in the east. Egypt, Greece,
cypris and France support Haftar.
 Operation Dignity: Haftar claims government is not legitimate, launches operation dignity to purge
the islamists from Libya.
 Bayraktar TB2: Turkish medium altitude ling endurance (MALE) unmanned combat aerial vehicle
capable of remotely controlled or autonomous flight operations. Manufactured by Turkeys Baykar
company primarly for the Turkish Armed forces.
 Operation Flood of Dignity also known as operation liberation Tripoli. - Haftar is showing his force,
April 7, moving out of easter Libya trying to take Tripoli.

Libyan Political Agreement” (Skhirat Agreement)

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Fathi Bashagha

Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh

ENERGY AND SECURITY IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND LIBYA

 LNG: Liquified Natural Gas changes the rules of the game. Qatar built a pipeline from the Qatar
peninsula to the UAE; during the Qatar blockade, they did not stop supplying gas to the Emiratis
cause that would mean economic suicide. But UAE was diverting its energy suppliers away from
Qatar
 ENI: Claudi Descalzi, CEO of « Eni ». They own 40% of Libya’s oil and natural gas. He proposed Cyprus
and Israel gas be conducted to Egypt, and then exported from there. Back then, the price of gas in
Europe was already cheap enough, but the current gas prices make the plan feasible. Egypt is now
moving ahead to the Eastern Mediterranean Energy Hub, liberalising the energy market with the help
of te EU. Problem: Turkey is totally isolated.

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CLASS 14: ISLAM, LAW AND STATE IN JORDAN

 King Hussein: Son of Abdallah I who became king of (Trans-)Jordan in 1952. In 1967 it lost areas of
the West Bank. In the 1970 war with PLO, and expels PLO to Lebanon. In 1993 he made the Peace
Treaty with Israel. In 1999 died.
 King Abdalah II and Queen Rania try to promote modernisation and democracy, they were not
trusted by Bedouin tribes and and non-Palestinian Jordanians. Queen Rania was born to a
Palestinian family, living in Kuwait. They were criticised by Islamic Action Front (IAF), political party
of Muslim Brotherhood.
 Islamic action Front (IAF): A political party of Muslim Brotherhood that critized King Abdallah II and
Queen Rania.
 Article 340 – Jordanian Constitution: provides for the reduction or elimination of the penalty for
the commission of homicide by a man on his wife committed for reasons of honor to the family: If a
man surprises his wife or wife "illegally" in the act of adultery, he can kill her / hurt her or both (her
and him). The Sharaf (Honor) of the family is considered the main victim. Even though it violates
women’s equal protection under law, it is much more important the social order and the honor of
the family.
 Article 308 – Jordanian Penal Code: Does not protect honor, it protects culprit. In late 2012 Civil
society activists started a campaign for repeal of Article 308 in which Dr. Slama Nims and
Taqaddam were involved. In 2016 Article 308 was amended but allows the marriage loophole in
the case of victims 15-18 years. On 1 August 2017 the Parliament abolished Article 308.
 Jordanian National Commission for women: Established in 1992 by the Prime Minister and chaired
by Princess Basman bin Talal. Domestically it is a central advocacy organization on women’s affairs
in Jordan’s public sector while it also, internationally, represents the Kingdom at international level
on matters pertaining to women. Its mission is to support the mainstreaming of a gender-equality
perspective in all policy areas and to narrow the gap between formal acknowledgement of
women’s rights as detailed by legislation and the actual societal attitudes towards women
 Marriage Loophole: It is the idea that the rapist of a minor can avoid punishment if the rapist marries
his victim. Although western people see that here the victim is the woman, Muslims believe that the
victim is the family’s honor (which they are trying to protect with this norm). People want this
Loophole to be repeal, and there were protest to achieve it (it was contrary to the constitutional
ideas defended by Muhammad VI in 2004). A part of the article of this marriage loophole was
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 Introduction to the Middle East and the Maghreb Daniela Giraldo Pereira

removed. In 2014 amended law was passed unanimously. However, marriage loophole continues
outside
 Honour killing: if a woman is raped, she can be killed by a male family member, so the family is not
embarrassed.

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