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Overview of Characteristics of the Citrus Genus

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 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 31

CHAPTER II
OVERVIEW OF CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE Citrus GENUS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Murat TURAN*

Prof. Dr. Ramazan MAMMADOV**

*
Erzurum Technical University, Faculty of Science, Molecular Biology and Genetics,
Erzurum, Turkey. [email protected]
**
Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Faculty of Science, Molecular Biology and
Genetics, Muğla, Turkey. [email protected]
32 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 33

INTRODUCTION

The genus Citrus L., which belongs to the Rutaceae family, consists of
different forms such as trees, shrubs, and herbs in the world (Upadhyay
et al, 2010; Javed et al, 2013; Sicari et al., 2018, Wang et al., 2019a).
Citrus is the most cultivated and traded fruit variety in the world as a
garden plant (Lv et al., 2015; Adenaike & Abakpa, 2021; Wu et al.,
2021) and one of the most important commercial fruit crops grown on
all continents of the world. It is grown especially in tropical and
subtropical regions and some countries of the Mediterranean Basin such
as Greece, Italy, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey, as well as important citrus
producers, in regions with Mediterranean climate such as Australia,
California, Florida, and South Africa (Zou et al., 2016; Amutha et al.,
2017; Vitale et al., 2021). Although most researchers say that the
homeland of citrus is South East Asia, it is claimed that the origin of
citrus fruits is not known with certainty (Okwu, 2008). In ancient times,
citrus was used not only as food but also in folk medicine against many
complaints such as bronchitis, tuberculosis, cough, cold, menstrual
irregularity, hypertension, anxiety, depression, and stress (Pallavi et al.,
2016).

Citrus fruits are grown in an ever-expanding area around the world; The
most well-known and commercially preferred Citrus species are
mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco), orange (Citrus sinensis (L.)
Osbeck), pomelo (Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.), lemon (Citrus limon
(L.) Osbeck), lime (Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle) and citron
(Citrus medica L.), grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfad.) (Wang et al.,
34 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

2019a). Citrus fruits are among the most accepted and preferred fruits
in the world not only with their taste but also with their taste and general
health benefits (Amutha et al., 2017).

C. limon is a small evergreen plant with an acidic juice, with thorny

branches, white flowers with purple edges, polyembryonic, usually
grown in subtropical regions (Chekani et al., 2021; Ehiobu et al., 2021).
C. limon contains vitamin C, potassium, flavonoids and essential oils
(Garcia Beltran et al., 2017). Thanks to many phytochemical
components such as alkaloid, flavonoid, saponin, steroid, terpenoid,
cardiac glycosides found in C. limon peel and leaf, it has antimicrobial,
antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, antioxidant effects (Chekani et al.,
2021; Ehiobu et al., 2021).

Citrus limetta Risso and Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck are widely grown
in Central and Southeast Asia, as they are a source of vitamin C, folic
acid, potassium and pectin (Gupta et al., 2021).

Citrus aurantium L., known as sour orange, bitter orange or Seville

orange, which has commercial value, is used as a medicinal and
nutritional supplement, although it is not used as an edible fruit due to
its sour and bitter taste. The sour taste of C. aurantium is mainly due to
the presence of naringin, neohesperidin. It is used as an alternative to
lemon juice in vegetable salads and appetizers in Turkey. Its use is
common in the western and southern regions of Turkey (Karabıyıklı et
al., 2014). Its by-product bark is mostly used as animal feed, its fruits
are generally used as jam and flavoring due to its anticancer,
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 35

antioxidant, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, antiobesity, antioxidant

effects (Hosseini et al., 2016; Ersus & Cam, 2007; Wang, et al., 2019b).
C. aurantium has been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat
depression-like symptoms (Suntar et al., 2018).

Although Calamansi (Citrus × microcarpa Bunge) (In Malaysia it is

known as limau kasturi) does not have a sharp taste like lemon or lime,
it is used in the preparation of soft drinks by mixing sugar, especially
in Southeast Asia, and has a very high commercial value (Hoyle &
Santos, 2010).

The blood orange (C. sinensis) is the orange variety most commonly
grown in Italy (Moro, Tarocco, and Sanguinello). These varieties have
more anthocyanins, vitamin C, flavanones, hydroxycinnamic acid than
regular oranges (Rapisarda et al., 2001). Major anthocyanins in blood
oranges; cyanidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin 3-(600 malonyl)-glucoside.
The fact that it has a higher antioxidant ratio than the normal orange is
associated with the level of anthocyanins (Rapisarda et al., 2009).
Besides having strong antioxidant and chemoprotective properties,
anthocyanins play a role in defense against many diseases such as
capillary fragility, diabetic renopathy, and human platelet aggregation
(Mazza & Miniati, 1993; Wang et al., 1997; Natella et al., 1999;
Kähkönen & Heinonen, 2003; Rapisarda et al., 2009).

Grapefruit (C. paradisi) is one of the most consumed Citrus species.

Although the most common type is the C. paradisi Marsh with its bitter
taste, it was desired to reduce the bitterness by crossing it with orange,
36 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

but in these crosses, a decrease in color opening and ascorbic acid ratio
and an increase in fructose ratio is observed (Sicari et al., 2018). Thanks
to the secondary metabolites with antioxidant properties in grapefruit,
it has been found that it reduces atherosclerotic plaque formation (Cerda
et al., 1994), prevents breast cancer cell proliferation and tumor
formation in breast cells (Sicari et al., 2018). Thanks to the high amount
of naringenin, naringin and flavonoids in its content, positive results
have been obtained in many studies such as anticancer activities and
inhibition of platelet aggregation (Sicari et al., 2018).

Clementine (Citrus clementina Hort. ex Tan.) is a citrus variety grown

in the southern regions of Italy. It is a rich source of bioactive
substances containing vitamin C and phenolic compounds (Strano et al.,
2021).

Essential oils are hydrophobic aromatic oils obtained from many parts
of the plant (such as flowers, buds, bark, fruit) (Olantunya & Akintayo,
2017). The Citrus genus has essential oils that give it its unique scent.
Glands give the fruit its characteristic odor and the interior is rich in
soluble sugars, ascorbic acid, pectin, fibers, different organic acids,
potassium salt, which gives the fruit its unique citrine flavor (Okwu,
2008). Citrus essential oils are a by-product of the fruit. Essential oils
have antimicrobial, antifungal, anticancer, antiviral, antioxidant
properties and are used in gastronomy to flavor beverages and foods,
and in the cosmetics industry for soap and perfumes (Okwu, 2008;
Upadhyay et al., 2010; Rafiq et al., 2018). Essential oils from citrus are
important flavoring ingredients in foods and beverages. The
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 37

consumption of essential oil in the last ten years is estimated to be

56,200 tons per year (Schmidt, 2010).

In a study, 14 Citrus species were studied, and it was found that the
essential oils (EO) obtained varied between 0.95% and 2.8%. More than
two hundred compounds have been identified, accounting for 92.84-
99.67% of the total EOs recorded. It has been found to consist of
terpenes (most abundant), alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones, acids,
and minor amounts of other substances. All samples contained D-
limonene (39.77-80.13%), α-pinene (1.83-13.97%), myrcene (0.8-
7.63%), okimene (0.01-4.52%) and linalool (0.13-8.52%) as major
compounds (Guo et al., 2018).

In a study, C. sinensis and C. maxima essential oils were examined and

as a result of GC analysis, C. sinensis and C. maxima major compounds
were found to be DL-Limonene with 90.66% and 31.83%, respectively
(Singh et al., 2010).

1. CITRUS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION WITH DATA

Citrus production in the world reached 91,879 thousand tons (orange:

46,062 thousand tons, tangerine: 31,568 thousand tons, lemon: 7,550
thousand tons, grapefruit: 6,699 thousand tons) in 2019. In
consumption, a total of 70,177 thousand tons were consumed in the
world in 2019 (orange: 28,324 thousand tons, tangerine: 30,117
thousand tons, lemon: 5,664 thousand tons, grapefruit: 6,072 thousand
tons). In 2019, 10 million tons of citrus fruits were exported around the
world. Orange had the highest share in exports with 45%, followed by
38 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

mandarin with 27%, lemon with 19% and grapefruit with 9%. In the
world orange export, which was approximately 4.6 million tons in 2019,
Egypt takes first place with a share of 33%. Egypt is followed by South
Africa with 28% export share and the USA with 11% share. In the same
year, the leading countries in tangerine exports were Turkey 31%,
China 26% and Morocco 14%, respectively. Mexico has 39%, South
Africa 21% and Turkey 19% in lemon exports. In the grapefruit export,
South Africa took its place with a share of 30%, China with a share of
28% and Turkey with a share of 21%.

Although Turkey produced approximately 4.3 million tons of citrus

fruit in 2019, almost all of the production is provided from the Aegean
and Mediterranean Regions.

In 2019, 1.5 million tons of citrus fruits were exported in Turkey.

Tangerines had a share of 44%, lemon 31%, orange 16% and grapefruit
9% from this export. When we look at the leading countries in Turkey's
citrus exports in 2019; It is seen that Iraq, Russia and Ukraine are the
leading three countries in the export of oranges and tangerines, Iraq,
Russia and Saudi Arabia in the export of lemons, and Russia, Poland
and Ukraine in the export of grapefruit.

While importing 67 thousand tons of citrus fruits in Turkey in 2019, it

is seen that orange takes first place in imports with a share of 63%.
Orange is followed by tangerine with 33%, lemon with 3% and
grapefruit with 1%, respectively. When the data of the last 5 years are
examined; It is observed that total citrus imports decreased by 5%
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 39

compared to 2015. While the highest decrease was seen in grapefruit

imports with a rate of 67%, the only increase was seen in tangerine
imports with a share of 15%.

While the most important importing country for Turkey's orange and
tangerine imports in 2019 was the TRNC (Turkish Republic of
Northern Cyprus), the TRNC and Brazil for lemons and China, TRNC
and South Africa for grapefruit (OrduTB, 2021).

2. CONTENTS AND STUDIES OF CITRUS GENUS

Citrus fruit, one of the most popular fruits in the world, is used in
gastronomy due to its attractive appearance, characteristic flavors,
tastes and aromas and it is used in the field of basic sciences and the
pharmaceutical industry due to its nutraceutical compounds (vitamins,
phenolic compounds, flavonoids, etc.) and many health benefits
(Smeriglio et al., 2019; Acoglu &Yolci Omeroglu, 2021; Gupta et al,
2021).

In addition to its beautiful appearance and delicious taste, the Citrus

contains many important phytochemicals (Hashempour et al., 2013).
One of these, which is known all over the world and has a very
important place in the food industry, is ascorbic acid, that is, vitamin C
(Hoyle & Santos, 2010).

Citrus genus produces and accumulates a wide variety of

phytochemicals, including essential oils, carbohydrates, fiber, mineral,
pectin, sugar, organic acids, quercetin, myricetin, rutin, tangeritin,
40 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

naringenin, naringin, nairutin, hesperidin, thiamine, niacin, riboflavin,

hydroxybenzoic acid, hydrocinnamic acid, acetophenol, terpenoid,
flavonoid, stilbene, tannin, vitamins A, B6, C, E, dietary fiber,
potassium, folate, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper,
pantothenic acid, coumarins, alkaloids, limonoids, carotenoids, phenol
acids (Kim et al., 2008; Okwu, 2008; Fasola et al., 2011; Lv et al., 2015;
Pallivi et al., 2016; Chhikara et al., 2018; Acoglu & Yolci Omeroglu,
2021; Kundu et al., 2021).

The total vitamin C value in Citrus is the sum of ascorbic acid and
dehydroascorbic acid (Magwaza et al., 2017). Vitamin C is found
naturally in a variety of fruits and vegetables. This water-soluble
vitamin cannot be synthesized by human metabolism (Chebrolu et al.,
2012). It is involved in the formation of collagen, the primary
component of connective tissue in the body (Sicari et al., 2018). Many
studies are showing that vitamin C has properties that protect against
neurodegeneration, fight cardiovascular diseases, and prevent cancer
(Li & Schellhorn, 2007; Hoyle & Santos, 2010). Vitamin C, which has
high antioxidant properties and important tasks in protecting against
diseases, has a very important place in human nutrition. The
recommended daily intake of vitamin C in healthy people is 100-120
mg/day (RDA) (Naidu, 2003). Orange juice in a 200 mL glass meets
30-80% daily vitamin C needs (Magwaza et al., 2017).

Ascorbic acid is a secondary compound that helps the antioxidant

capacity of plant tissues in stress environments, as well as acting as a
reducing agent in biochemical reactions (Fotopoulos et al., 2008). It acts
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 41

as a cofactor for enzymes and is also involved in the regulation of genes

involved in defense (Magwaza et al., 2017). It has been reported that
there are generally four biosynthetic pathways for the biosynthesis of
ascorbic acid in different plants. These biosynthetic pathways are L-
galactose, L-gulose, myoinositol and D-galacturonic acid pathways.
The L-galactose pathway is generally preferred in citrus. The ascorbic
acid content in citrus can be affected by many factors (climatic
conditions, fruit maturity, etc.) (Zheng et al., 2021).

In one study, using Cyclic voltammetry, Limau kapas (Citrus

aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle), limau kasturi (Citrofortunella x mitis
(Blanco) J.W.Ingram & H.E.Moore), limau manis (C. sinensis) and
lemons (C. limon) vitamins were compared and the highest vitamin C
was found in lemon, while the lowest vitamin C was found in limau
manis (approximately 28% lower) (Hoyle & Santos, 2010). In a study,
Citrus deliciosa Ten. and Citrus unshiu (Yu.Tanaka ex Swingle) were
used and the highest ascorbic acid value was found in C. deliciosa with
a value of 1.887 ± 0.21 g/100 g (Piga et al., 2002).

Free radicals are produced as a normal part of the metabolism in auto-

oxidant reactions triggered by mitochondrial activities, enzyme
reactions, aging and cellular disruptions during respiration. Metabolism
can neutralize these free radicals and progress in balance, but external
factors such as environmental pollutants, ultraviolet light, smoking,
alcohol intake cause oxidative stress. As a result, free radicals are
overproduced, oxidative stress occurs, chain reactions begin, and then
it can cause pathophysiological damage such as neurodegenerative
42 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

disorders, cardiovascular diseases, cell and tissue damage, diabetes,

cancer, Alzheimer, and the functioning of metabolism is impaired (Lee
et al., 2004; Fasola et al., 2011; Olatunya & Akintayo, 2017; Irawaty &
Ayucitra, 2018).

A balanced diet consisting of antioxidant-rich plant sources can prevent

the formation of pathophysiological disorders caused by free radicals
(Irawaty & Ayucitra, 2018). Plant polyphenols, due to their high
antioxidant activities, play an important role against chronic diseases
such as Type-2 diabetes, heart disease, and various types of cancer
(Zhang et al., 2014). Alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, flavonoids,
terpenoids and phenolic compounds are all included in plant
polyphenols (Okwu, 2008). Phenolic compounds are powerful
antioxidants that can minimize or dampen the damage caused by free
radicals, which prevent the oxidation of fatty acids and oils, as well as
their ability to donate hydrogen atoms or electrons (Kim et al., 2008).
Although natural antioxidants are found in almost all edible plants,
some plants are significantly higher (Irawaty & Ayucitra, 2018). Plant
phenolics are not only found in the edible parts of the plant, but also
other parts of the plant (Rafiq et al., 2018). Plant-derived phenolic
compounds play a role in many mechanisms such as deactivation of
procarcinogens, maintenance of DNA repair, and inhibition of N-
nitrosamine formation (Kim et al., 2008). Phenolic compounds are
effective in the quality, color, taste, aroma and nutritional value of the
fruit and have a very important role in human health due to their
antioxidant properties. The phenolic content and density of fruits are
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 43

affected by environmental factors and post-harvest processing

conditions (Benvenuti et al., 2004; Pellati et al., 2004; Hashempour et
al., 2013; Oh et al., 2013; Olatunya & Akintayo, 2017).

Flavonoids are powerful antioxidants distributed in different parts of

plants, which have an important role in protecting both plants and
humans against many diseases (Montanari et al., 1998; Tapas et al.,
2008; Sammani et al., 2021). Although flavonoids are considered non-
nutritive chemicals, they have anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic,
antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, antiviral potential and
take part in the expression of genes (Anwar et al., 2008; Zhao et al.,
2017; Raeessi-Babaheydari et al., 2021). In addition, flavonoids are
involved in many functions such as pigmentation in flowers, protection
from the damage of insects and microorganism (Juca et al., 2020).
Methanol extracts of citrus peels are rich in flavones and glycosylated
flavanones, while hydrolyzed citrus peel extracts are rich in flavonols
and phenolic acids (Bocco et al., 1998).

In citrus, there are higher amounts of flavonoids in the peel and fruit
than in other parts (Senevirathne et al., 2009). Since citrus genus
contains many important flavonoids such as hesperidin, nariutin,
naringin, catechin, neohesperidin, it is thought to have anticarcinogenic,
anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiviral, antitumor effects, and many
studies are carried out in this area (Zheng et al., 2021).

The main problem of freshly squeezed citrus juices is the bitter feeling,
mainly due to naringin, which is found in the fruit skin and is easily
44 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

dissolved in the juice thanks to its high solubility (Ziyatdinova et al.,

2020). Naringenin is a flavonoid that is generally consumed by humans
through citrus. It has been reported to induce cytotoxicity and apoptosis
in various human cancer cells (Raeessi-Babaheydari et al., 2021).

Limonoids are intensely oxygenated, modified triterpenes that

predominate in citrus fruits (Patil et al., 2017; Adenaike & Abakpa,
2021). Limonin and nominene are common citrus limonoids (Sun et al.,
2005). Limonoids exhibit a wide variety of biological properties,
including anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, and
antiviral activities (Tundis et al., 2014; Adenaike & Abakpa, 2021).
Limonoids have the potential to inhibit colon cancer, ovarian cancer
and neuroblastoma and inhibit the growth of estrogen receptor negative
and positive human breast cancer cells (Patil et al., 2017; Adenaike &
Abakpa, 2021).

Hesperidin is the most abundant flavanone glycoside from citrus peels.

It can maintain vascular integrity and reduce vascular fragility, anti-
inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, and inhibit low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation (Cirico & Omaye, 2006; Yeh et al., 2007,
Londoño-Londoño et al., 2010).

Pectin is an acidic and negatively charged complex polysaccharide with

a high molecular mass between 50-250 kDa, found in the primary cell
wall and non-toxic (Jayani et al., 2005, Chen et al., 2021). There are 3
main types in plant cell walls: homogalacturonan,
Rhamnogalacturonan, Rhamnogalacturonan-II (Ridley et al., 2001).
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 45

Although pectin is found in most plant cell walls, it is most commonly

found in citrus fruits (lime, lemon, and grapefruit, orange) (Fasola et
al., 2011). It is frequently used as a stabilizer, thickener, and emulsifier
in many products, especially in the food (especially in jams, jellies) and
beverage industry (Grassino et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2021). Pectin plays
a role in reducing the fat in the blood, preventing the growth of cancer
cells and metastasis (Chen et al., 2021). Citrus peels contain 20-35%
pectin, apple pulp contain 10-15% pectin, sugar beet contain 5-8%
pectin, and potato contain 2-5% pectin. Factories producing fruit juices
produce large amounts of fruit peel waste and this waste can be used in
pectin extraction (Rajulapati et al., 2021).

Carotenoids (carotenes), which are fat-soluble hydrocarbons, are found

in green leaves, yellow and red fruits, and the roots of many plants
(Walia et al., 2019). The pigment found in many fruits and vegetables
are carotenoids and chlorophylls (López-Muñoz et al., 2015). Citrus
contains many carotenoid patterns (Dugo & Giuffrida, 2011; Adenaike
& Abakpa; 2021). The overall orange color of Citrus is due to the main
carotenoids, xanthophylls, violaxatin, β-cryptoxanthin, anteroxanthin
(Zacarías-García et al., 2021). The colors of citrus fruits are determined
by carotenoids and chlorophylls, which tend to accumulate and
deteriorate during ripening (Tadeo et al., 2020). They cannot be
synthesized by animals. The most abundant carotenoids in fruits and
vegetables are lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene, and pro-vitamin A
carotenoids, α- and β-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin (Adenaike &
Abakpa, 2021).
46 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

The acylation of xanthophylls with fatty acids increases their lipophilic

character and is a very important requirement for their storage in
chromoplasts (Mariutti & Mercadante, 2018). Carotenoids are
important in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases due
to their antioxidant and immunological properties (Rao & Rao, 2007).
Chlorophylls decrease with maturation and the amount of carotenoids
increases (López-Muñoz et al., 2015).

In a study, ascorbic acid content, total phenolic content and total

carotenoid content experiments were performed with orange, Jaffa
orange, grapefruit, pink grapefruit, Florida orange, apple, pineapple,
and the highest ascorbic acid content was 1385 ± 36 µM in orange.
Total phenolic content was found in orange with 755 ± 18 µg/mL of
gallic acid equivalents, while the highest total carotenoid content was
found in pink grapefruit with 8.3 ± 2.0 µg/mL of β-carotene equivalents
(Gardner et al., 2000).

In a study, orange juice and orange wine of oranges of Kozan variety

were compared. Two hydroxybenzoic acids; gallic and protocatechuic
acid, were detected in orange juice and wine. Ferulic acid was the most
dominant hydroxycinnamic acid in orange juice (24.06 mg/L) and wine
(9.91 mg/L), as it accounted for the largest proportion of the total
hydroxycinnamic acids contents. The EC50 value of orange juice (0.31
mg/mL) was found lower than orange wine (0.46 mg/mL). EC 50 is
inversely related to the antioxidant capacity of a compound, as it
expresses the amount of antioxidants needed to decrease the radical
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 47

concentration by 50%. The lower EC50 value the higher the antioxidant
activity of a compound (Brand-Williams et al., 1995; Kelebek et al.,
2009).

In a study, in Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC), the

Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) experiments of 10
different Citrus species, the highest value in the TEAC experiment was
observed in Citrus reticulata × Citrus paradisis with 43.85 ± 1.2 µmol
Trolox/g fresh weight. In the FRAP experiment, the highest value was
observed in the C. reticulata × C. paradisis species with 57.72 ± 0.4
µmol Fe (II)/g fresh weight (Ramful et al., 2010).

In a study, electron-beam irradiation was applied to C. unshiu pulp, and

its antioxidant activity was investigated. The total phenolic content of
70% ethanol extracts increased from 0.086 mg/g in the non-irradiated
control to 0.096 mg/g at a radiation dose of 37.9 kGy (Kim et al., 2008).
In a study with C. unshiu, C. reticulata, C. sinensis, Citrus
changshanensis K.S. Chen et C.X., the highest total phenolic content
was found in C. changshanensis with 916 mg CAE/100 g FW. The
highest total flavonoids were found in 713 mg RE/100 g FW and the
most carotenoids were found in C. reticulata with 1.36 mg BCE/100 g
FW. The most ascorbic acid was found in C. reticulata with 45.3
mg/100g FW (Fresh Weight) (Abeysinghe et al., 2007).

In a study, as a result of the analysis of Citrus lumia Risso albedo with

RP-LC-DAD-FLU, major phenol compound was found chlorogenic
acid with 151.512 ± 4.842 mg/100g FW, major flavon was found
48 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

eriocitrin with 1012.407 ± 22.764 mg/100g FW, major flavonol was

found in Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (Rutin) with 10.923 ± 0.358. In the
same study, FRAP, ABTS, ORAC, DPPH experiments were carried
out. The results suggest that the extract acts as a powerful scavenger of
different free radicals, with primary antioxidant activity probably
depending on the reducing ability of hydroxylated phenolic structures
and glycosylation degree (Barreca et al., 2016; Smeriglio et al., 2018;
Smeriglio et al., 2019).

In a study, C. aurantium and C. reticulata immature (green),

semimature, (yellow), commercial mature (orange), total phenolic
content was found in C. reticulata immature. In the total flavonoid
content experiment, the highest value was found in C. reticulata
semimature (Moulehi et al., 2012). Seven flavonoids were identified
and measured in the hot water extract of immature kumquat (Citrus
japonica var. margarita (Lour.) Guillaumin) (mg/100 g fresh fruit):
30,50-di-Cb-glucopyranosylphloretin (DGPP, 285.9 ± 2.9 mg/ 100 g),
acacetin 8-C-neohesperidoside (margariten, 136.2 ± 2.6 mg/100 g),
acacetin 6-C-neohesperidoside (izomargariten, 119.1 ± 1.8 mg/100 g),
apigenin 8-C-neohesperidoside (16.9 ± 0.1 mg/100 g), poncirin
(izosakuranetin 7-O-neohesperidoside, 5.1 ± 0.1 mg/100 g) ve rhoifolin
(apigenin 7-O neohesperidoside, 2.0 ± 0.1 mg/100 gr). Antioxidant
activity, total phenolic content and identified flavonoids increased
when immature kumquat was dried at 110 and 130 °C for 0.5 h (Lou et
al., 2015). In one study, 261 ± 9 µM Trolox equivalents (TE) were
found in the DPPH experiment with C. limetta juice, 1446 ± 30 µM
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 49

Trolox equivalents (TE) in the ABTS experiment, and 318 ± 8 µM

Trolox equivalents (TE) in the FRAP experiment. In the same study,
the major compound hesperidin was found with a value of 4.29 ± 0.53
mg/L in HPLC–DAD–ESI-MS/MS analysis (Barreca et al., 2011). In a
study of C. aurantium with two cultivars (cv “Morocco Sour Orange
(MSO)” (originated from Morocco), and “United Sour Orange
(USO)”), the total phenolic content of MSO (584.2 ± 11.4 mg GAE)
/100 g FW) was found to be higher than the total phenolic content of
USO (113.8 ± 4.1 mg GAE/100 g FW). In terms of total flavonoid
content, MSO (485.2 ± 19.4 mg CE/100 g FW) is higher than USO
(59.2 ± 2.3 mg CE/100 g FW). In the DPPH experiment, MSO showed
more activity with a value of 13.31 ± 0.55 μmol TE/g FW (Wen et al.,
2021). In a study, DPPH experiment was performed with
polysaccharides isolated from C. aurantium and it was found that it
showed a weak antioxidant activity (Wang et al., 2014).

In a study, high speed drying (HSD) and freeze drying (FD) methods of
Citrus genus were dried and their flavonoid content was examined.
Hesperidin was found as the major compound in both methods, and
367.45 ± 3.91 mg/100 g was found in the FD method, while it was found
to be mg/100 g in the HSD method. According to the result of the study,
it was found that the amount of flavonoids was preserved more since it
was dried with the FD method (Senevirathne et al., 2009).

In a study, the flavonoids of C. grandis, C. limon, C. sinensis and Citrus

tangerina Yu.Tanaka were analyzed by UPLC-PDA. Naringin was
found in C. grandis with the major compound 4508.22 ± 1577.02
50 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

mg/kg. Hesperidin was found in C. tangerina with the major compound

7977.62 ± 845.92 mg/kg. Hesperidin was found in C. sinensis with the
major compound 7397.70 ± 1193.59 mg/kg. Eriocitrin was found in C.
limon with the major compound 4704.73 ± 1229.95 mg/kg (Zhao et al.,
2017).

In a study, the essential oils of the fresh and dried bark of three species
of Citrus found in Nigeria were extracted and their chemical
components and antioxidant properties were investigated.

In the study, the highest oil rate was observed in dried tangerine with
3.33%, while the lowest oil rate was observed in lime with 1.33%. In
the chemical component analysis, the most limonene was found in all 3
species, and different terpene classes were also found. Dried samples
were found to have higher terpene groups than fresh samples. DPPH
free radical scavenging activity was used in the antioxidant experiment,
and the highest activity was observed in dried species. According to the
result of the study, it was found that Citrus species can work from dried
samples stored in the right conditions rather than being evaluated as
fresh for use in many sectors so that more efficiency can be obtained
and it does not lose value for metabolic health (Olatunya & Akintayo,
2017).

In a study, two varieties of grapefruits (C. paradisi) (Marsh and Star

Ruby), phytochemical properties and antioxidant potentials were
studied and it was found that Marsh variety had the highest TSS (Total
Soluble Solids) value (13.44%), while Star Ruby value was found to
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 51

have 10.78%. The ascorbic acid concentration in Marsh and Star Ruby
grapefruit (680.03 ± 7.03 and 455.55 ± 4.02 mg/L, respectively) was
found to be similar to the ascorbic acid content found in yellow oranges
grown in the same geographic area. In the same study, HPLC analysis
was performed with the juice of two varieties and 5 different flavanones
were determined: narirutin (naringenin 7-β-rutinoside), naringin
(naringenin 7-β-neohesperidoside), hesperidin (hesperetin 7-β-
rutinoside), neohesperedin (hesperetin 7-β- neohesperidoside) and
poncirin (isosakuranetin-7-oneohesperidoside). While the total
phenolic content was found in Star Ruby with 167.22 ± 0.98 mg/L in
the experiment, the amount of ascorbic acid was observed with 660.03
± 7.03 mg/L in Marsh variety (Sicari et al., 2018).

In a study, the antioxidant activity of the hexane, ethyl acetate, water

residue of the bark of Kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC.) was investigated.
The IC50 values of DPPH radical scavenging activity observed in ethyl
acetate and water residue were found with 0.029 ± 0.001 mg/mL. The
ability of the fractions of C. hystrix peel to chelate Fe2+ presented as
IC50, the fraction of ethyl acetate exhibited the lowest IC 50 value of
0.117 ± 0.014, whereas the fraction of hexane and water residue have
IC50 values of 18.502 ± 2.154 and 1.188 ± 0.474 mg/mL, respectively.
The potential inhibitions of samples on the α-amylase inhibitory
activity of IC50 values of the hexane fraction, ethyl acetate fraction and
water residue were observed 125.00, 0.09, and 1.53 mg/mL,
respectively. The results of the study showed that ethyl acetate was the
52 | O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E

most effective solvent for removing phytochemicals from the ethanolic

crude extract of C. hystrix bark (Irawaty & Ayucitra, 2018).

CONCLUSION

Citrus is the most consumed fruit in the world and is used in many
sectors thanks to the chemicals useful for metabolism. Citrus is very
valuable because not only the fruit is used, but also other waste parts
can be used. Citrus grown in many countries of the world helps both the
country's economy and people's health. With each new contribution, a
new feature of citrus fruit is brought to the literature, and it is thought
that it will be used in many more studies. More specific studies are
needed on the parts of citrus that cannot be considered as waste.
 O V E R V I E W O N H O R T I C U L T U R E | 53

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