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History (As Level)

The document outlines the causes of instability in France from 1790-1795, highlighting disagreements among decision-makers, radical changes in governance, and social divisions. It details the emergence of revolutionary groups such as the Jacobins, Feuillants, and Girondins, each with distinct aims and views. The failure of King Louis XVI to restore the monarchy and the subsequent rise of the National Assembly marked critical moments leading to the revolution.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

13 views105 pages

History (As Level)

Uploaded by

simplyshriya

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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Download as TXT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

What were the main reasons for instability during 1790-1795?

-lack of agreement
among decision makers over governance of country -compicated by deep antagonism
between domination of paris and other countries -radical changes in a short
period of time:      -abolition of absolute monarchy  
   -religious changes      -new calender
What were the major issues for the french during 1789/1790?-get king to accept
changes -whether the national assembly was capable of implementing changes -
most of the members agreed on these changes:      -semi monarchy/
no absolute onachy/ limits to royal power      -church
priviledges abolished      -fair taxation    
 -fairer system of justice and accountability -no clear plan on how to
achieve this -members of the national assembly were inexperienced in deciding
national policy and he ministers and the king didnt help -1790: absence of
leadership from king and ministers
Who were the principle revolutionary groups? -three main groups emerged like
modern political parties -representing conservatives. moderate reformers and
re=adical reformers -jacobins: 1789 -Feulliants: 1791 -Girondins: 1791
Aims and views of the Jacobins -most influencial -powerful in paris and had
a strong connection with the parisian working classes -most radical, arguing
strongly for the execution f the king and the end of the roman catholic church -
largely responsible for the terror (1793-94) -pushing for republicanaism and
direct democracy -representing interests of the urban poor 
Aims and views of the Feuillants? -society of the friends of the
constitution -opposed decision to go to war w austria -strong opponents of
the jacobins -conservitave, right side f the assembly -strong supports of
constitutional monarchy -led by lafayette -aiming to preserve monarchy within
a framework of limited reforms 
Aims and views of the Girondins -members came from the gironde region -
moderate republicans -not as radical and jacobis, not concerned with PSE
equality -opposed execution of the king and wanted more consideration of the
french public -supported foreign war to spread revolution 
What was the failure of the King in restoring the monarchy -all attempts to restore
the bourbon monarchy were unsuccessful -lack of realism on the part of those who
wished to restore monarchy -king failed to realise depth of resentment towards
the system of govt -could not accept major limits to his power, and that he
would have to rule with consent of his people -his sickly heir died 2 years
after his execution -future king louis the XVIII issued declaration od verona
from his exile in italy insisting ancien regime be restored. 
France in the late 18th century -ruled by an absolute monarch -population of
27 million -different legal systems in each region which dated back
centuries - different systems of taxation and customs barriers meaning trade
could not move around freely in the country
Social Divisions in France: The Third Estate -80 percent of the population was
poor peasants -agriculture was not highly developed or efficient -heavily
taxed by the govt, landlord, and the church -they needed to maintain roads work
that they were not paid for -forced to use landlords wine presses and flour
mills at a high price -very less good harvests due to the extreme weather
conditions which resulted in rural poverty and hunger -aristocracy and the
church enjoyed their lives in luxury -the legal system was against the peasants
and was another means of control
Social divisions in france: the middle class -middle class was growing -1780
they owned 20% of the land in france -vast majority of future revolutionary
leaders came from mid class -in addition to having no political power, it wasn't
possible for them to join the top levels of government, military or judicial
system -resented the system where they had no say in how their money was
spent -money influenced local administration and the law
The church and the aristocracy -the roman catholic church with over 130000
clergy, monks and nuns -it was a wealthy organisation -owned 10 percent of
the land across the country and paid no taxes -determined to maintain all
control over life in france to keep their wealth -most of the senior posts in
the church went to the members of the aristocracy who were usually inexperienced
and disinterested in religious duties -the church payed a contribution to the
govt but this was paid by the lower clergy -these factors led to a division
between the rich and the poor among all three estates -the aristocracy owned 30
percent of the land, and most of the wealth, exempt from conscription, and paid no
taxes.
King Louis XVI and the parlements -king had been crowned in 1775 when he was
young and inexperienced -to be cont.
"what was ""the enlightenment'" -18th century had the greatest thinkers and
writers of the period -it was an intellectual and philosophical movement. -
they had a major influence on the revolution
most important figures of the enlightenment -Voltaire who was critical of the
church and french legal system -Montesqueu was critical of despotism and
autocratic power. he wanted an elected parliament like the british system and
advocated the rule of the law -Diderot was an advocate of independent thinking
and promoted a critical and questioning attitude to everything -rousseau argued
for more education and wrote about power and liberty for men -Quesnay argued
against the constraints on the free production and movement of goods
France during the late 1700s -confidence in the french govt was low -famine
which led to riots -1763 france lost a war to britain and lost most of its
overseas empire -little confidence in the austrian king (1775) and his wife
marie antoinette was hated -the ancien regime collapsed after 1789
1778 alliance with america -decision was made to form an alliance with american
colonists -americans were fighting for independence against britain -france
declared war on britain
what did arj turgot advise the king and what eventually happened in the war?
-he was the finance minister -he warned against anymore involvements in
wars -'the first gunshot will drive the state to bankruptcy' -king took
advice from his foreign minister Comte de Vergennes who was only concerned about
prestige -turgot was dismissed in 1776 -he predicted correctly that the war
would do little damage to britain but would drive france bankrupt
who was Jacques Necker -1777 new finance minister appointed -not french
aristocrat but a middle class banker of swiss origin and a protestant -many
people in the court disliked him including the queen -appointment of necker
shows that state finances were dreadful -he advised the king to call the estate
general in 1789
how did jacques use his influence -he did not deliver reform -he funded the
war against britain through borrowing at extremely high interest rates -in 1781
he published a public account of the royal finances and said they were in good
condition when they was not -he hid the huge cost of the war with britain
"<div>who was calonne and how did he try to
reform</div>" -new finance minister charles de calonne in
1783 he submitted a series of needed reforms: -reform system of taxation -
inc taxes for the wealthy -encourage commerce and industry -borrow money at
lower interest rates
what decision was taken for the financial status of france king wanted to submit
these proposals to the assembly of notables -made up of nobles and clergy met
for the first time since 1626
Which position was Calonne in? -he was disliked by a vast majority of the
notables -he had little serious support from the king -many chose to believe
neckers statement that all was well with the royal finances -calonne was sacked
in april 1787
who was the next finance minister and what was the king doing after 1787? -
etienne brienne who was president of notables assembly -king disliked and
distrusted him which meant he had limited royal support -king refused to produce
accurate account of the royal finances and dismissed the assembly
what did the meeting and dismissal of the notables show? -depth of france's
financial crisis -failings of the king and his court -public had been lied to
The beginnings of a widespread revolt -brienne had to raise money so he inc
taxes, but found it difficult to persuade bankers to loan -parlement refused to
support tax inc until accurate picture of financial state was given -king got
his ego hurt, and thought they were attacking his royal powers and dismissed the
council. -alliance between middle and lower class as they took to the streets
to protest
What how did the king manage the revolts in 1787 and how were the social divisions
changing -king recalled the paris parlement in nov 1787 -he mismanaged it and
undermined ministers who were trying to negotiate -when parliament refused to
support new taxes they were arrested and imprisoned in the Bastille -divisions
were emerging among the clergy and nobility whether to support the taxes and middle
class was alienated
How did things in France worsen in 1788? -anger at kings refusal to become
involved in a civil war in the netherlands -the army was viewed as unreliable
although it was the only way to keep order in france -august 1788 the state was
virtually bankrupt and this was publicly admitted -brienne was dismissed by the
king when he was tryna find solutions -tension was made worse by series of
hailstorms
What was the solution to the situation in 1789? -kings solution was to recall
necker and decided to summon the Estates General -the list of issues put
forward before the estates general met was called cahiers de doleances -march
1789
what were the Cahiers de doleances? --before estates general met a list of issues
from each district was put forward -these lists were called the chaiers de
doleances
what were the demands stated in the cahier? -in march 1789 from dourdan the
cahier contained many typical requests -the clergy; -church to be
the ultimate dictator, control over everything, no privelidges revoked, freedom
from taxation, reform for fairer justice, adequate food supplies, landlords be
prevented from imposing high charges on peasants -the nobility: -
only king should have power to make laws, estates generals would be given power
and the distinction between the three estates should be strenghthened, same as
clergy -The peasantry: -national debt paid, taxes shared, compulsory
work for landlord end, salt tax abolishment, no hunting,school in every town,
reform of church, local election 
when and where did the meeting of the estates general occur? -5 may 1789 for
the first time since 1614 -gathered at the royal palace of versailles -
background of large scale and widespread social, economic and political unrest
 -prospect of national bankruptcy
what was the estates general and what were the hopes and conflict that arose?
-nearest thing that france had to a national law making and
 representative body -its precise role was never identified -
predecessors had never called it since it threatened their absolute power. -
the aims were very conflicting -the king expected the first two estates to be by
his side if the third estate tried to make any radical changes
What were the main aims of the three estates during the opening meetings? -King:
find a solution to the financial issues -Educated middle class: more extensive
overhaul of government, economics and society -clergy and noblemen: ready to
accept few major reforms -unrepresented minorities: basic improvements to daily
life
what were the issues within the first two estates? -they were more concerned
with protecting their own priviledges than the good of the country -the estates
were divided over supporting the reforms as they were aware that the anger will
boil over into dangerous consequences -there was no clear leadership from the
king or the court 
when was the national assembly formed and why -17 june 1989 -the third estate
formed it to show that the sovreignity and supreme power lay with the people of
france (the assembly) -to prove this they assumed control of the national
taxation system -the tennis court oath was taken to keep meeting till they
established a reformed constitution -this was the first critical step towards
the revolution
What decisions did the king make during this period of the start of the revolution?
-1789 he made some unhelpful decisions as the situation became more dire for
common public in the countryside -he refused to give any authority or power to
the national assembly and wanted to continue outvoting the third estate -he
moved troops to paris and versailles which was seen as an attempt to stop the
reforms by force  -he dismissed necker, who was seen as the only person
capable of fixing the problem. this showed the people of france the the problem was
infact louis
when and how did the reform  movement become a revolution? -14th july
1789 -the old fortress in Bastille was attacked by a Parisian mob -Bastille
was seen as a symbol of royal tyranny even tho is had a few prisoners and was
mainly an arsenal for artillery -Bastille was destroyed and the governer was
killed
what was the immediate results of the oncoming revolution? -it inspired a greater
breakdown of law and order -'great fear' summer of 1789 -lead to mass refusal
to pay taxes, grain shipments were attacked and looted, leaders who opposed the
reform were killed.
What were the August Decrees? -the assembly removed what was left of feudalism in
France -all privileges of the nobles -duties owedby the peasant to his noble
landlord -the parlements and their old legal processes -the provincial
estates created in the middle ages 
What were the declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen -august
1789  -one of the key statements of the whole revolutionary period -
established the principles on which the new system of govt would be based 
What happened after the formation of the national assembly?-the assembly started to
put reform ideas into practice -the king and courtiers did nothing -October
1789 Decree of fundamental principles of government was made, which showed the
assembly setting out their wishes for a new constitution -the king was unwilling
to accpt the limitations to his power
Why did the Women's march take place and what did it lead to? -5th october
crowds of women marched from paris to the Versailles royal palace -7000 womens
marched together and managed to obtain weapons -the assembly sent some women to
the king as a pacifier and persuaded him to accept the august decrees -they
demanded that the king and queen return to paris -the royal family was escorted
back to paris with a crowd of 60,000 as prisoners
What internal divisions and issues with leadership led to the failure of counter-
revolutionairries  -among 40000 emigres who fled france there was no agreement
about the aims or how to achieve them  -some wanted the ancien regime to
return, some felt concessions had to be made (constitutional monarchy within
limits), others advocated killing all revolutionairries -they underestimated the
loyalty of many iin the rev, and thought common public would support them -they
lacked effective leadership -no charismatic figure with clear and realistic
aims  -louis XVI was incompetant and mistrusted (guillotined in 1793) -
young louis XVII died two years later  
What foreign support did the counter-revolutionairries deal with? -royalists
lacked effective foreign support  -austria, prussia, the netherlands and
britain fought against revolutionary france but none were able to defeat it -
france still had one of the best armies in europe -servicemen were now promoted
on the basis of ability and not birth -french army proved to be superior over
all, and drove back all invaders -britain was the most durable however was not
interested n putting a bourbon back on the throne instead wanted to weaken frnace
and obtain weakened territory -one major expidition against france (quiberon
expedition 1795) was smashed by general hoche
What was the outcome of the failure of counter-revolutionairries? -the terror
and the ruthless actions of the revolutionarries deterred many from supporting the
royalists -after 1793 many counter-revolutionarries were executed 
What immediate concerns were addressed by the Assembly? -to solve immediate
financial crisis assembly tried 2 policies for fairer taxt system -sell of lands
and valuables belonging to rcc, and issued temporary paper currency called
assignats -new system of income tax where the bruden of tax fell on the
rich -hated taxes like salt tax were abolished -changes dealt with major
grievances which existed before 1789 -local govt was refomed, old system
established centuries earlier was abolished -83 new administrative areas created
aiming to end old regional differences, effective local govt structures at all
levels and elections for key officials 
What other changed in terms of the justice system and the RCC were made? -the
justice system was open and free to everyone, and properly accountable.  -
no longer run in the interests of lawyers and aristrocracy -local admin of
justice, keeper of law and order, justice of the peace was to be lected by the
people -the church became an agent of the state, church lands were taken over by
the state -monasteries abolished, no. of bishops reduced and clergy came under
state control 
What was the outcome of the revolution? -by the end of 1790 it appeared that the
revolution was over and greatest greivances had been dealt with -many problems
like the role of the king in the future still faced politicians  -bad
harvest in the summer of 1790, hunger for the poor and popular unrest during 1790-
91 -issue of who should have the vote in elections for the Assembly in
future.  -Some radicals suggested that women might be given the vote. (THEY
AINT RADICALS WHAT) -Censorship was gone.
What were the changes inn government from 1790 to 1795 -people hoped new
constitution would solve frances problems but there was lack of agreement on its
terms -also faced with continuing poor harvests, erratic king behaviour,
counter-rev movement and inc in radicalism -these issues led to rapid political
and social changes
What happened during the Flight to Varennes  "-june louis and his family
tried to escape from france to austrian netherlands -captured by supporters of
the revolution at the town of varennes in northern france and returned under gaurd
to paris -he became a prisoner of the poeple  -his attempted flight inc
suspicions that he was determined to oppose all changes occured and bring back
ancien regime -he was looking to gain support from the queens austrian
family  -kings capture led to many emigres (nobility) escaping france and
setting up centres of opposition abroad and seen as real threat -some moderates
in the assembly felt that they should try to negotiate with the king and keep him
as constitutional monarch -growth in more radical views  -Antoine
Barnave, a noted contributor to Assembly discussions who was later executed, asked:
‘Are we going to
finish the revolution or are we going to begin it afresh?’"
What was the Champ de Mars -massacre in the champs de mars  -the
national gaurd fired on a grp of citizens trying to petition the assembly and make
sure king was dealt with firmly -more than 50 ppl killed -possible counter ev
action and attempt for king to regain power 
what decision did the assembly make to control the king? -september 1791 assembly
created new constitution -retained monarchy and king still had right to veto new
laws -transferred sovereignity and right to make new laws to legislative
assembly -legislative assembly to be elected by the people of france -
constitution established separartion of powers (legislature, executive (govt) and
judiciary (judges and legal system) were independent -designed to prevent
tyranny in the future -constitution made france into a constitutional monarchy,
significant step towards democracy
What were the persistant issues still remaining after constitutional monarchy?
-poor harvests, people disliked aoth that clergy had to take agreeign to
civil constitution of the clergy -king was mistrusted and growing counter rev
movement in france and abroad -assembly members felt the rev had a long way to
go  -hoped to create a republic with no monarchy 
What were the main four issues that arose during 1791-92? -during winter of 1791-
92 four issues arose that made change more likely  -austria and priussia
(european powers ruled by absolute monarchs) would intervene to support
louis -nobles feared for life, fled abroad, appealed for help to restore proper
law and order -some left behind like the queen who contacted influential friends
and family  -harvest of 1791 was poor. shortage of bread, prices of food
rising -refusal of some clergy to take the oath agreeing to cvc was causing
anger 
What was the war with austria all about 1792? -inexp/radical memers of assembly
demanded was against austria and prussia -neither country wanted to invade
france tho -radicals hoped king would be forced to pick a side
(support/abdicate) -war of liberation would play part in ending feudalism and
absolutism in EU; improve economy -assembly declared war on austria (april
1792) -france was unprepared, exp ministers had left -campaigns began with
military disasters and officers deserted to the austrian side -marie ant. was
supporting austrians, king wanted enemy to succeed -led to an alliance between
working and middle class
What were the september massacres? -crisis in august 1792 -the journee or the
september massacres -outbreak of violence in paris (known as the second
revolution) hungry working class of paris got frightened by  --------
the people of paris were frightened by enemies do they took control of the city.
"Evidence: -Journee, september massacres, 'second revolution' -
outbreak of violence in paris, august 1792 -national guard stormed the tuilleres
palace  <div>Explanation:</div><div>
•
Hungry working-class directed the National
Guard to storm the palace and killed a large number of
guards.</div><div> • The Swiss Guard surrounded the palace but was later
killed by the mob.</div><div> • Power had been passed to the Parisian
mob.</div><div> • King and his family arrested and imprisoned; monarchy
ended.</div><div> • Murder of the Swiss Guard marked the beginning of the
Terror.</div><div> • Assembly dissolved and replaced by the National
Convention.</div> "
"France had the most democratic electoral
system in Europe." "<div>Evidence:
The National Convention was elected by universal male
suffrage.</div><div> • Explanation:</div><div> • All French
men, except servants and the unemployed, were allowed to
vote.</div><div> • Fewer than 25% of those entitled to vote actually did
so.</div><div> • The men in the Convention were much more experienced
than those in 1789.</div><div>
•
They were strongly influenced by the
King’s hostility.</div> "
<div>The two years of 1793-95 saw the greatest period of instability throughout
the revolutionary process.</div> "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • In 1792, the National Convention ended the monarchy and
made France a republic.</div><div>
•
Louis XVI’s death increased the number of
enemies abroad.</div><div> • France was constantly at war.</div><div> • Provinces
disagreed with each other.</div><div>
•
Hunger riots and radical groups
emerged.</div><div> • The sans-culottes were a major
influence.</div><div> • Explanation:</div><div> • Louis XVI was
condemned to death and executed in 1792.</div><div> • The cost of
war was high, and conscription kept people hostile.</div><div> • There were no
experienced men in government or democracy due to the
monarchy.</div><div> • Vendée and Brittany revolts opposed the death of the
King and attacks on the Church.</div> "
"There was another constitution drafted in
1793 which led to radical action." "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • A new Law of Suspects was
introduced.</div><div> • Many people were imprisoned, and the Queen was
executed.</div><div> • Explanation:</div><div> • The
constitution was drafted after the execution of the King.</div><div> • The National
Convention had one chamber with total control, and executive power passed to the
Committee of Public Safety.</div><div>
•
By autumn 1793, the worst of the fighting
was over:</div><div> • Austria was defeated.</div><div> • Food prices
dropped.</div><div> • Control over the economy
improved.</div><div> • Provinces were brought under
control.</div><div> • Heavy taxation of the rich was
implemented.</div><div> • The army dealt with unrest in Vendée and Brittany by
brute force.</div><div> • Law of Suspects: Used for suspected
opponents.</div><div> • 500,000 people arrested.</div><div> • 16,000
executed.</div><div> • 10,000 died from ill-treatment.</div><div> • 15,000 killed
without trial.</div><div> </div> "
Robespierre was a ruthless politician and initiated the reign of terror.
"<div>Evidence:</div><div>-the laws of 1794 officially established the reign of
terror </div><div> -he introduced the cult if the supreme being to replace
the church</div><div> -he got his opponents (like georges danton) arrested
and executed using guillotine</div><div>
-he was executed due to his ambitions to
become a dictator</div><div>
</div><div>Explanation:</div><div>
-the laws
stated: </div><div> -the
revolutionary tribunal, instituted to punish enemies, enemies are those who destroy
public liberty, reestablish monarchy, oppose NA, prevent army succes, help enemies
of republic, spread false news, support aristocracy.</div><div> -penalty for
these offences was death</div><div>
-he called for replacement of roman
catholicism w a republic of virtue which emphasized duty</div><div> -he led the
ceremonial processions to replace the worship of christian
god</div><div>  -belief that
he saved the revolution from defeat vs dictatorial nature of his rule+
executions</div><div> -he was highly principled </div><div> -he was
determined to remove opponents of his version of revolutionary
france</div><div> -after a failed suicide attempt, deputies arrested
robespierre, and was executed with 80 supporters </div><div> -the
revolution started to kill its own.</div> "
<div>Robespierre’s death led to the white terror and government
instability.</div> "<div>Evidence:</div><div> -divisions remained between the girondins and
jacobins</div><div> -hard winter during 1794-95 and more bad
harvests</div><div> -those linked with the reign of terror were hunted down
and killed</div><div> -paris ran out of food, mob attacked
convention</div><div> -troops arrested sans cuolottes</div><div> -king luois
the xiii was proclaimed but he was exiled, and there was no return of the monarchy
in sight.</div><div>Explanation: </div><div>
-divisions within the govt between
moderates and extremists, right and left parties</div><div> -foreign
threat was gone, bad harvests, prices soared</div><div> -the white terror was
revenge against the people of the jacobin terror</div><div> -jacobin club
was closed</div><div> -terror came to an end in 1795, mob wanted power to be
transferred to local communities</div><div> -they wanted greater democracy,
radical measures</div><div> -uncrowned king louis the xii dies, his uncle
proclaimed king, exiled in italy</div><div> -the constitution of 1793 had
failed.</div><div> </div>"
"<div>Point: Germany was not a unified country
in 1815 but consisted of different states.</div> " <div>• Evidence:
Most of the territory was part of an organization called the German
Confederation.</div><div> • Explanation: Germany’s division into multiple states
meant there was no central authority or national unity.</div> 
Point: The Napoleonic Wars led to the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire and the
reorganization of German states. <div>The Impact of Metternich’s System on
Germany</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • The Holy Roman Empire, a collection of
semi-independent states under the Austrian emperor, collapsed in 1806 due to
Napoleon’s invasion.</div><div> • Napoleon reorganized the western German states
into the Confederation of the Rhine.</div><div> • Explanation: Napoleon’s dominance
ended the old political order and introduced new structures that challenged
traditional authority.</div> 
<div>Point: French armies introduced Enlightenment ideas that reshaped German
society.</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • Enlightenment ideas emphasized
reason, equality, and legal reform.</div><div> • The French replaced the diverse
legal systems of German states with the French Napoleonic Code.</div><div> •
Explanation: French reforms aimed to create uniformity but undermined local
traditions and authority, provoking resistance among German thinkers.</div> 
<div>Point: German intellectuals reacted by emphasizing their cultural
identity.</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • J.G. Herder promoted Volksgeist
(“spirit of the people”), stressing shared heritage and language as the basis of
national identity.</div><div> • Romantic writers focused on emotion, imagination,
and Germany’s historical past, rejecting the rationalism of the French
Enlightenment.</div><div> • Explanation: German thinkers fostered national pride
and identity in response to the dominance of French culture and ideas.</div> 
<div>Development of Nationalism in Germany</div> <div>Point: The defeat of
Napoleon strengthened German nationalism.</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> •
After Napoleon’s defeat, Prussia reorganized its government and army, joining
Austria and Russia to expel French forces.</div><div> • The Battle of Leipzig
(1813) was a major defeat for Napoleon and a symbol of German pride.</div><div> • A
91-meter monument was built at Leipzig to commemorate the victory, despite the fact
that German-speaking troops fought on both sides.</div><div> • Explanation:
Military success against France fostered unity and national pride, despite regional
divisions.</div> 
<div>The Post-War Settlement (Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815)</div> <div>Point:
The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore monarchies and prevent liberal
revolutions.</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • The congress included Austria,
Prussia, Britain, and Russia.</div><div> • France, although present, had no
decision-making power.</div><div> • The congress was led by Prince Klemens von
Metternich of Austria.</div><div> • Explanation: The congress aimed to redraw
Europe’s boundaries and ensure stability through conservative policies.</div> 
<div>Point: The leaders at the Congress of Vienna feared liberal and nationalist
ideas.</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • Liberalism and nationalism were seen
as threats due to their association with the French Revolution.</div><div> •
Metternich described liberty and equality as “evil” because they could mislead the
masses.</div><div> • Explanation: Conservatives like Metternich feared uprisings
and believed liberal ideas could weaken monarchies, especially in multi-ethnic
empires like Austria.</div> 
<div>The Metternich System and Repression</div> <div>Point: Metternich used
repression to maintain the monarchy and suppress nationalist movements.</div> 
<div>Evidence:</div><div> • The Carlsbad Decrees (1819) implemented press
censorship, banned nationalist symbols, and dissolved student
organizations.</div><div> • Universities were monitored, and liberal professors
were removed.</div><div> • A Central Investigating Commission in Mainz intercepted
communications to root out radical groups.</div><div> • Explanation: These harsh
measures kept nationalist movements weak but stoked resentment among the German
population.</div> 
<div>Point: The Six Articles (1832) and Ten Articles further suppressed nationalist
activities.</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • The Six Articles limited the
powers of elected assemblies.</div><div> • The Ten Articles banned political
meetings and nationalist gatherings, even outlawing the wearing of nationalist
colors.</div><div> • Explanation: Metternich’s policies ensured control but
highlighted the government’s fear of political uprisings.</div> 
<div>The German Confederation (Bund)</div> <div>Point: The German Confederation
was designed to prevent German unification and maintain Austrian dominance.</div>
<div>Evidence:</div><div> • The Confederation consisted of 39 states, ranging
from large kingdoms to city-states.</div><div> • It was based on the boundaries of
the old Holy Roman Empire and included non-German regions like Bohemia and
Luxembourg.</div><div> • The Diet (assembly) met in Frankfurt and was chaired by
Austria.</div><div> • The Confederation had no army, civil service, or economic
unity.</div><div> • Explanation: The Confederation’s structure ensured the German
states remained politically fragmented, maintaining Austria’s influence.</div> 
<div>Point: Austria used its dominance to control the Confederation’s
policies.</div><div> </div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • Austria had veto
power over constitutional changes.</div><div> • Southern Catholic states like
Bavaria and Baden often supported Austria.</div><div> • While these states granted
civil rights, rulers retained significant power.</div><div> • Explanation:
Austria’s leadership strengthened its position and weakened Prussia’s influence,
ensuring conservative control.</div> 
<div>Point: Liberalism was primarily supported by middle-class professionals and
businesspeople.</div> <div>Evidence:</div><div> • Supporters included
lawyers, doctors, professors, and merchants.</div><div> • University attendance
doubled in Germany between 1817 and 1831.</div><div> • Explanation: The educated
middle class sought political representation and freedoms but feared full
democracy, associating it with mob rule.</div> 
"<div>Point: Middle-class liberals wanted
representative assemblies but not full democracy.</div> "
<div>Evidence:</div><div> • They supported constitutional monarchies with
parliaments elected by property owners.</div><div> • They demanded free speech,
fair trials, and civil rights.</div><div> • Explanation: Middle-class liberals
wanted political influence without overthrowing monarchies.</div> 
<div> Economic hardship increased unrest in German states.</div> 
<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Population growth: Prussia’s population grew from
10.3 million (1820) to 19.4 million (1840).</div><div> • Poor harvests in 1846 and
1847 raised food prices.</div><div> • A recession in the textile industry led to
wage cuts and unemployment.</div><div> • Factory workers faced long hours and poor
conditions.</div><div> • Explanation: Economic distress led to protests, fueling
calls for political reform.</div> 
"<div>Point: The 1848 revolutions were
triggered by events in France and spread across Germany.</div> "
<div>Evidence:</div><div> • The fall of King Louis Philippe in France
(February 1848) inspired uprisings.</div><div> • In Baden, the Grand Duke
introduced reforms like a free press and trial by jury.</div><div> • In Bavaria,
King Ludwig I abdicated after protests over his mistress, Lola Montez.</div><div> •
The Vorparlament (pre-parliament) met in Heidelberg in March 1848 to plan a
national assembly.</div><div> • Explanation: Middle-class liberals demanded
reforms, but the revolution lacked coordination and failed to unite different
social groups.</div> 
"<div>Point: The revolution in Prussia
highlighted the growing demand for political change.</div> "
<div>Evidence:</div><div> • King Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected demands for a
constitution, stating that no “written paper” should come between God and the
monarchy.</div><div> • In April 1847, he dissolved the United Diet after demands
for reforms.</div><div> • News of Metternich’s fall led to protests in Berlin in
March 1848.</div><div> • Explanation: Economic grievances and calls for reform
fueled unrest, but divisions between working-class and middle-class revolutionaries
weakened the movement.</div> 
<div>Point: The Holy Roman Empire existed before its collapse in 1806.</div> 
<div>Evidence: The Holy Roman Empire was a collection of semi-independent
states under the Austrian Emperor.</div><div> • Explanation: The collapse of the
Holy Roman Empire left a political vacuum and contributed to the fragmented state
of Germany.</div> 
<div>Point: The lack of strong national identity hindered Germany’s
unity.</div> <div>Evidence: Germany consisted of multiple states with no
central authority or shared governance.</div><div> • Explanation: This disunity
delayed the development of a collective German identity and national
goals.</div> 
"Point: Napoleon reorganized German states
under the Confederation of the Rhine." "<div>Evidence: The western German states were consolidated into this
structure after the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire.</div><div> • Explanation:
This reorganization disrupted traditional structures and created a foundation for
future nationalist movements.</div> "
<div>Point: Napoleon’s legal reforms introduced the Napoleonic Code.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Diverse legal systems were replaced by the Napoleonic Code in
German states.</div><div> • Explanation: These reforms aimed to create uniformity
but undermined local laws and customs, fostering resentment among
traditionalists.</div> 
<div>Point: J.G. Herder’s concept of Volksgeist shaped early nationalism.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Volksgeist stressed a shared cultural heritage and language as
essential to national identity.</div><div> • Explanation: Herder’s ideas inspired
German thinkers to prioritize cultural unity as a reaction to French
dominance.</div> 
<div>Point: German-speaking troops fought on both sides during the Battle of
Leipzig.</div> <div>Evidence: Despite the victory being a symbol of German
pride, Germans were divided and served under different banners.</div><div> •
Explanation: This division underscored the fragmented state of Germany even as
nationalism began to take root.</div> 
<div>The Post-War Settlement (Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815)</div><div> • Point:
Austria’s empire was ethnically diverse and vast.</div> <div>Evidence: The
empire included Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Croats, Poles, and Italians,
covering 647,000 square kilometers with a population of 25 million.</div><div> •
Explanation: The ethnic diversity of Austria made nationalism a direct threat to
its stability.</div> 
"<div>Point: Metternich regarded liberty and
equality as sources of evil.</div> " <div>Evidence: Metternich
feared these ideals would mislead the masses and destabilize monarchies.</div><div>
• Explanation: His opposition to these values drove his conservative and repressive
policies.</div> 
"<div>Point: Metternich avoided stationing
troops in their home regions.</div> " <div>Evidence: He believed
this would prevent nationalist opposition from organizing.</div><div> •
Explanation: By decentralizing troop placement, he sought to minimize the risk of
rebellion.</div> 
"<div>Point: A network of secret agents spied
on radicals.</div> " <div>Evidence: Secret agents intercepted
correspondence and monitored political activists.</div><div> • Explanation: This
surveillance stifled political movements but created widespread
resentment.</div> 
<div>Point: The Bund included non-German regions and excluded some German-speaking
areas.</div> <div>Evidence: Non-German areas like Bohemia and Luxembourg were
part of the Confederation, while parts of Prussia were excluded.</div><div> •
Explanation: This inconsistency in territorial inclusion further weakened the
concept of a unified Germany.</div> 
<div>Point: Southern Catholic states supported Austria’s dominance.</div> 
<div>Evidence: States like Bavaria and Baden culturally aligned with Austria
due to shared religion.</div><div> • Explanation: These states reinforced Austria’s
leadership and limited Prussia’s influence.</div> 
<div>Point: A federal defense force failed to materialize in 1821.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Disputes over command and funding prevented its
creation.</div> • Explanation: The lack of a unified military further weakened the
Confederation’s cohesion. 
<div>Point: University attendance doubled between 1817 and 1831.</div> 
<div>Evidence: The rise of university-educated professionals fueled liberal
ideas.</div> • Explanation: Education helped spread liberal ideologies among
middle-class intellectuals. 
<div>Point: Literacy and newspapers contributed to political awareness.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Increased literacy rates and a thriving press allowed for
greater public engagement in politics.</div><div> • Explanation: These factors
helped the middle class become more politically active and aware.</div> 
<div>Point: Prussia experienced significant population growth.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Its population grew from 10.3 million in 1820 to 19.4 million
in 1840.</div><div> • Explanation: Rapid population growth increased pressure on
resources and contributed to economic hardship.</div> 
<div>Point: Poor factory conditions exacerbated unrest.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Workers endured long hours and unhealthy environments in
factories.</div><div> • Explanation: These conditions fueled protests and demands
for reform.</div> 
<div>Point: Specific reforms were introduced in Baden.</div> <div>Evidence:
Grand Duke Leopold implemented a free press, trial by jury, and other
reforms.</div><div> • Explanation: These concessions were attempts to placate
revolutionary demands.</div> 
<div>Point: The Heidelberg Vorparlament planned for a national assembly.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Representatives from six states met to organize elections for
a national parliament.</div><div> • Explanation: This initiative reflected a
growing desire for German unity and reform.</div> 
<div>Point: Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected constitutional demands.</div> 
<div>Evidence: He stated that no “written paper” should come between God and
the monarchy.</div><div> • Explanation: This statement highlighted his conservative
resistance to liberal reforms.</div> 
<div>Point: Berlin faced unrest due to crop failures and food price
hikes.</div> <div>Evidence: Economic distress among workers and craftsmen
fueled protests in the capital.</div><div> • Explanation: Economic grievances
intensified political unrest in Prussia.</div> 
<div>Point: Lack of unity weakened the revolutionary movement.</div> 
<div>Evidence: Divisions between middle-class liberals and working-class
radicals were exploited by traditional rulers.</div><div> • Explanation: These
divisions undermined the movement’s effectiveness and allowed monarchies to regain
power.</div> 
<div>Point: Zollverein membership expanded from 18 to 25 states.</div> 
<div>Evidence: The union represented 26 million people and created Europe’s
largest free-trade area.</div><div> • Explanation: This economic integration laid
the groundwork for Prussia’s leadership in Germany.</div> 
Point: Railways became central to Prussia’s economic growth. <div>Evidence:
Rail networks centered on Berlin stimulated industrialization and trade.</div><div>
• Explanation: This infrastructure development positioned Prussia as an economic
powerhouse.</div> 
Point: Austria’s refusal to join the Zollverein had long-term consequences.
"<div>Evidence: Austria maintained high
import duties and relied on internal trade, isolating itself from economic
integration.</div><div> • Explanation: This decision weakened Austria’s influence
and allowed Prussia to assume leadership in German economic
affairs.</div> "
"<div>Point: The Directory was created to
balance power and avoid dictatorship after the fall of
Robespierre.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence: The Convention drafted a new constitution in August
1795.</div><div> • Explanation: The system sought a middle ground between the
Jacobin Reign of Terror and the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The structure of the Directory prevented power
centralization.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Two legislative councils:</div><div> • The
Council of Five Hundred (500 elected members) proposed laws.</div><div> • The
Council of Ancients (250 members) accepted or rejected laws.</div><div> •
Explanation: This system ensured legislative balance and prevented dominance by a
single group or leader.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The executive branch consisted of five directors to ensure
collective governance.</div> 
 
" "<div>• Evidence: The Council of Ancients
selected the directors from a list drawn up by the Five
Hundred.</div><div> • Explanation: This structure was designed to maintain
stability and avoid another dictatorship like Robespierre’s.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The first five directors were committed revolutionaries who
had survived the Terror.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Barras: Former nobleman, led the fall of
Robespierre, became the most dominant director.</div><div> • La Révellière-Lépeaux:
Anti-monarchist, strongly opposed the Catholic Church.</div><div> • Reubell:
Moderate republican, expert in foreign affairs, had voted for the execution of King
Louis XVI.</div><div> • Le Tourneur: Engineer and military expert.</div><div> •
Carnot: Military organizer, opponent of Jacobin extremism.</div><div> •
Explanation: These men were determined to protect the gains of the revolution and
prevent the return of the monarchy.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The Directory aimed to maintain revolutionary gains and
restore order.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence: Directors were middle-class men who had benefited from the
revolution (acquired land, status, and political power).</div><div> • Explanation:
Their primary goal was to preserve these gains while stabilizing France.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The Directory struggled with severe economic and financial
problems.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • The treasury was empty.</div><div> • The
government was near bankruptcy.</div><div> • Conscription was unpopular.</div><div>
• Inflation and currency shortages forced many to resort to barter
trade.</div><div> • Explanation: The economic crisis led to widespread discontent
and loss of public trust.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: Political divisions and infighting prevented any faction from
seizing total control.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Jacobins, Royalists, and moderate Republicans
fought for power.</div><div> • Explanation: While these divisions weakened the
government, they also prevented any single faction from overthrowing it.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The army supported the Directory out of
self-interest.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence: Soldiers feared that a royalist victory would end the war,
leading to mass unemployment.</div><div> • Explanation: The Directory depended on
the military to suppress uprisings and maintain order.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: Popular unrest intensified due to economic hardship.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • The severe winter of 1795–96 led to food
shortages and riots.</div><div> • Many demanded the abolition of the 1795
Constitution.</div><div> • Explanation: The Directory’s failure to address public
suffering made it vulnerable to challenges from radical groups.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The Babeuf Plot (1796) was an early attempt to overthrow the
Directory.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Gracchus Babeuf and his followers called for a
‘Republic of Equals’.</div><div> • They published radical newspapers and stockpiled
weapons.</div><div> • The plot was uncovered by police spies, and Babeuf was
executed.</div><div> • Explanation: This failed revolutionary attempt demonstrated
continued opposition from radical leftist factions.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: Royalists gained strength in the 1797 elections, threatening
the Directory.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • The press and Catholic clergy spread anti-
Directory sentiment.</div><div> • The Royalists blamed the government for economic
failures.</div> • Explanation: This increased fears of a royalist coup and prompted
the Directors to act.

"
"<div> • Point: The Coup of Fructidor (1797) was a decisive moment in the
Directory’s decline.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Radical Directors ignored election results and
suppressed royalists by force.</div><div> • Press censorship was
imposed.</div><div> • Moderate directors were removed.</div><div> • Explanation:
While the coup secured the revolution, it also weakened faith in the
government.</div>

"
"<div>Point: The Directory faced continuous instability and opposition.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Political conflict persisted with Royalists,
Jacobins, and moderates.</div><div> • Taxes, anti-Catholic policies, conscription,
and war fatigue fueled resentment.</div><div> • Explanation: The government was
increasingly unpopular, making it ripe for overthrow.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: Military failures in 1799 weakened public confidence in the
Directory.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • At the Battle of Novi (1799), France suffered
over 10,000 casualties. <div> • Explanation: Military setbacks increased calls for a
stronger leader.</div> </div>

"
"<div> • Point: Napoleon’s military success made him a national
hero.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • His victories in Italy secured control over
northern Italy and Belgium.</div><div> • The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)
confirmed these gains.</div><div> • Explanation: He was seen as a capable leader
who could restore order.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: Napoleon strategically shaped his public image.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • He ran two newspapers—one for soldiers and one
for civilians—to spread pro-revolutionary propaganda.</div> • Explanation: He
positioned himself as the savior of the revolution.

"
"<div> • Point: Despite his failed Egyptian campaign (1798–99), Napoleon
remained popular.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • The British navy crushed his fleet, forcing his
retreat.</div><div> • He downplayed the failure, focusing on his previous
victories.</div><div> • Explanation: He maintained public and military support,
despite setbacks.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: Sieyès saw Napoleon as a tool to overthrow the
Directory.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Abbé Sieyès, a Director, wanted to restructure
the government and needed a strong military leader.</div><div> • Explanation:
Napoleon used this opportunity to seize power for himself.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: The Coup of 18 Brumaire (November 1799) overthrew the
Directory.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence:</div><div> • Key conspirators: Napoleon, Lucien Bonaparte,
Sieyès, Fouché, and Talleyrand.</div><div> • The Council of Ancients and Five
Hundred were forcibly dissolved.</div><div> • Napoleon became First Consul,
effectively making him the ruler of France.</div>

"
"<div> • Point: Napoleon justified the coup as a move to restore
order.</div> 
 
" "<div>Evidence: In a letter to Citizen D’Andigne (December 1799), Napoleon
declared:</div><div> • “Too much blood has flowed… Enlightened men wish to create a
government solely concerned with order, justice, and freedom.”</div><div> •
Explanation: He framed his rule as necessary for national stability.</div>

"
"What was Lenin’s most immediate task after the October Revolution?
 
" "To secure the survival of the Bolshevik regime and establish stability to
create a socialist state.

"
"What were the major challenges faced by the Bolsheviks immediately after the
revolution?
 
" "War with Germany, strikes by civil servants and bank clerks, fighting in
Moscow, opposition in rural areas, and threats from Vikzhel.

"
"Who were the Vikzhel, and how did they challenge the Bolsheviks?
 
" "The railway workers’ union threatened to cut off supplies to Petrograd
unless the Bolsheviks formed a coalition with the Mensheviks and SRs.

"
"Why did Lenin initially agree to talk with other parties after the October
Revolution?
 
" "To appease Vikzhel and maintain control, but he broke off talks in early
November when he felt strong enough.

"
"What was Lenin’s belief regarding ‘democratic centralism’?
 
" "That only the Bolshevik Party represented the workers and that multi-party
democracy was a deception preserving bourgeois power.

"
"What was Sovnarkom, and who led it?
 
" "The Council of People’s Commissars, the main governmental body of the
Bolsheviks, chaired by Lenin.

"
"What was the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party?
 
" "The highest authority in the Bolshevik Party, responsible for directing the
October Revolution and guiding the party between annual congresses.

"
"What was the Politburo, and when was it created?
 
" "A five-member executive body created in 1919 to serve as the real center of
power in the Soviet Union.

"
"What were the first decrees passed by the Bolshevik government?
 
" "The Decree on Land, the Decree on Peace, and the Decree on Workers’ Control.

"
"What did the ‘Decree on Land’ achieve?
 
" "Legalized peasant seizures of land from landlords, accelerating military
desertions as soldiers returned home to claim land.

"
"What did the ‘Decree on Peace’ state?
 
" "Russia would withdraw from WWI without paying indemnities or annexing
territory, appealing to war-weary soldiers.

"
"What was the purpose of the ‘Decree on Workers’ Control’?
 
" "It recognized the takeover of factories by workers' committees.

"
"What measures did the Bolsheviks take to create a police state?
 
" "Banning the opposition press, arresting rival politicians, and admitting the
Left SRs into Sovnarkom for opportunistic reasons.

"
"What was the Cheka, and when was it created?
 
" "The Bolshevik secret police, formed in December 1917, modeled on the tsarist
Okhrana.

"
"Who led the Cheka, and what was his policy?
 
" "Felix Dzerzhinsky, who advocated a ‘battle to the death’ against counter-
revolutionaries.

"
"What was the Red Terror, and how many people died in its first year?
 
" "A campaign of arrests, torture, and executions, killing at least 8,500
people in 1918-19.

"
"Who were the main targets of the Red Terror?
 
" "Tsarists, political opponents, priests, better-off peasants, grain hoarders,
black marketeers, and suspected bourgeois individuals.

"
"What happened to the former tsar and his family?
 
" "They were executed in July 1918 in Ekaterinburg by local Bolsheviks with
government approval.
 
 
"
"What was the result of the November 1917 elections for the Constituent Assembly?
 
" "The Bolsheviks won 24% of the vote (175 seats), while the Socialist
Revolutionaries won 40% (370 seats).

"
"Why and when did Lenin dissolve the Constituent Assembly?
 
" "On 5 January 1918, after the SRs opposed Bolshevik policies, Red Guards
forcibly dispersed it.

"
"How did Lenin justify dissolving the Constituent Assembly?
 
" "He called it ‘a complete and open liquidation of democratic forms for the
sake of revolutionary dictatorship’.

"
"What was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and when was it signed?
 
" "A peace treaty between Bolshevik Russia and Germany, signed on 3 March 1918.

"
"What territory did Russia lose under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
 
" "1 million square kilometers, including Poland, Finland, the Baltic states,
and most of Ukraine.

"
"What percentage of Russia’s industry and population were lost in the treaty?
 
" "50% of its industry, 33% of its population.

"
"Why did Lenin insist on signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk despite opposition?
 
" "To ensure Bolshevik survival, arguing that revolution would later spread to
Europe.

"
"Who opposed the treaty, and why?
 
" "Many Bolsheviks and Left SRs, who favored a revolutionary war against
Germany.

"
"What was Trotsky’s position on Brest-Litovsk?
 
" "He proposed ‘neither war nor peace,’ delaying negotiations to wait for a
German collapse.

"
"What was Lenin’s response to Trotsky’s approach?
 
" "He believed it was unrealistic and that Russia risked total collapse without
immediate peace.

"
"What were the main factions in the Russian Civil War (1918-1920)?
 
" "The Reds (Bolsheviks), Whites (monarchists and conservatives), Greens
(peasant rebels), and nationalist separatists.

"
"Who were the key White generals?
 
" "Denikin, Wrangel, Kolchak, and Yudenich.

"
"Why did the Whites fail in the Civil War?
 
" "Disorganization, geographical fragmentation, lack of unified ideology,
reliance on unpopular foreign aid, and failure to win peasant support.

"
"What was War Communism?
 
" "Bolshevik economic policy of nationalizing industry, abolishing private
trade, and forcibly requisitioning peasant grain.

"
"How did War Communism impact the economy?
 
" "Industrial production fell by 82% (compared to 1913), and food shortages led
to famine by 1920.

"
"What was the Kronstadt Uprising, and when did it occur?
 
" "A February-March 1921 rebellion by sailors demanding free elections and
civil liberties.

"
"How did the Bolsheviks suppress the Kronstadt Uprising?
 
" "60,000 Red Army troops, led by Trotsky, crushed the rebellion, killing and
imprisoning thousands.

"
"What was the NEP (New Economic Policy), and why was it introduced?
 
" "A partial return to capitalism, allowing small-scale private trade to
stabilize the economy after War Communism.

"
"What was Lenin’s justification for the NEP?
 
" "He compared it to Brest-Litovsk, saying it was a temporary retreat to
strengthen socialism.

"
"What was Gosplan?
 
" "A central planning agency created under the NEP to oversee industrial
development.

"
"What political change accompanied the NEP?
 
" "Factions within the Communist Party were banned, making Russia a one-party
state.

"
"How was the former tsar and his family executed?
 
" "They were shot in July 1918 in Ekaterinburg by Bolsheviks, with government
approval.

"
"Who were the White Armies in the Russian Civil War?
 
" "Various anti-Bolshevik forces, including tsarists, conservatives,
nationalists, and socialist opponents.

"
"What was the role of the Czech Legion in the Russian Civil War?
 
" "A 35,000-strong force of former Austro-Hungarian POWs who clashed with
Bolsheviks, sparking widespread conflict.

"
"What was the Tambov Rebellion?
 
" "A major peasant uprising in 1920-21, crushed by the Red Army using poison
gas and brutal tactics.

"
"When did Russia officially become a one-party state?
 
" "After the October Revolution, when the Bolsheviks eliminated all rival
parties and consolidated power.

"
"What was the impact of War Communism on food supply?
 
" "It led to famine by 1920 as peasants produced only for subsistence, fearing
Bolshevik grain requisitioning.

"
"How did the Bolsheviks use propaganda during the Civil War?
 
" "They created posters, films, and speeches portraying Reds as defenders of
socialism and Whites as traitors.

"
"Why did foreign powers intervene in the Russian Civil War?
 
" "To support the Whites, punish Russia for withdrawing from WWI, and prevent
Bolsheviks from spreading revolution.

"
"Why was control of the railways important in the Civil War?
 
" "The Bolsheviks used railways to move troops and supplies quickly, giving
them a strategic advantage over the scattered Whites.
 
 
"
"How did Trotsky use an armored train during the Civil War?
 
" "He traveled across the frontlines in a heavily armed train, boosting morale
and directing Red Army operations.

"
"What was the impact of mass conscription on the Red Army?
 
" "By 1920, the Red Army had 5 million soldiers, more than double the total
number of White troops.

"
"What were the ‘commanding heights’ of the economy under the NEP?
 
" "Major industries, banking, and large enterprises remained state-controlled
while small businesses were privatized.

"
"What was the significance of Lenin’s ban on factionalism?
 
" "It eliminated internal party dissent, consolidating Bolshevik power and
preventing challenges to leadership.

"
"What was the Workers’ Opposition, and what did they demand?
 
" "A faction within the Communist Party that wanted greater worker control and
trade union independence.

"
"How did the Cheka function as a secret police force?
 
" "It arrested, tortured, and executed opponents, enforcing Red Terror to
eliminate threats to Bolshevik rule.

"
"Why was the Russian capital moved from Petrograd to Moscow?
 
" "In 1918, due to the German advance after Brest-Litovsk, making Petrograd too
vulnerable to attack.

"
"How did Germany’s military threats in February 1918 influence Lenin?
 
" "Forced Lenin to push for immediate peace, fearing a German invasion of
central Russia.

"
"How did industrial production decline under War Communism?
 
" "By 1920-21, large-scale industry had fallen by 82% compared to 1913,
worsening the economic crisis.

"
"What was the ‘tax in kind’ under the NEP?
 
" "A system replacing grain requisitioning, allowing peasants to pay tax in
produce and sell surplus freely.

"
"Who were the Nepmen, and why were they significant?
 
" "Private traders and small businessmen who benefited from the NEP,
stimulating economic recovery.

"
"What was state rationing, and why was it introduced?
 
" "Abolishing money in 1920 under War Communism, replacing it with food
distribution controlled by the state.

"
"Why did peasants oppose Bolshevik policies?
 
" "Forced grain requisitioning, restrictions on trade, and political repression
fueled widespread rural uprisings.

"
"What was the slogan ‘Loot the looters’?
 
" "A Bolshevik policy encouraging workers to seize property from the wealthy
during the early revolution.

"
"What were the key problems faced by the Provisional Government?
 
" "Internal instability, weak authority, food distribution issues, land
seizures by peasants, opposition from soviets.

"
"How did the emergence of soviets threaten the Provisional Government?
 
" "Soviets were not highly organized but coordinated enough to challenge the
government’s authority.

"
"Why did peasants lose faith in the Provisional Government?
 
" "They expected land redistribution but had to seize land themselves since the
government did not act.

"
"What tactical move did the Bolsheviks make to gain peasant support?
 
" "They adopted the Socialist Revolutionaries’ land redistribution policy,
recognizing land seizures as 'revolutionary legality'.

"
"Why did the Provisional Government continue fighting in WWI?
 
" "They believed it was a matter of national survival and were pressured by
allies providing financial aid.

"
"How did the war affect soldiers’ loyalty?
 
" "Heavy casualties, war-weariness, and Bolshevik agitation led soldiers to
disobey officers and abandon the war effort.

"
"What event in April 1917 sparked demonstrations against the Provisional
Government?
 
" "Foreign minister Pavel Milyukov declared Russia would fight until victory,
provoking street protests.

"
"What was the outcome of Milyukov’s statement on the war?
 
" "He was forced to resign, and the government tried to broaden support by
including moderate socialists.
 
 
"
"How did the failed June Offensive affect the government?
 
" "Up to 60,000 Russian soldiers were lost, showing the army was incapable of
fighting and further damaging Kerensky’s reputation.

"
"What happened during the July Days?
 
" "Kronstadt sailors set up their own government, and Petrograd saw worker and
soldier demonstrations from 3-6 July.

"
"Who was blamed for the July Days uprising?
 
" "Mensheviks blamed the Bolsheviks, while Bolsheviks claimed it was started by
SRs and Mensheviks.

"
"What was the outcome of the July Days?
 
" "The uprising was poorly organized, Kerensky restored order, Lenin fled to
Finland, and the Bolsheviks’ Pravda newspaper was shut down.

"
"Who was Lavr Kornilov, and what did he attempt in August 1917?
 
" "Commander-in-chief of the army, attempted to march on Petrograd to restore
stability.

"
"Why did Kornilov’s plan fail?
 
" "Railway workers refused to transport his troops, and he was arrested.

"
"How did the Kornilov Affair benefit the Bolsheviks?
 
" "They led the resistance, gained popularity, and by August had majorities in
the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets.

"
"What were Lenin’s two key insights about revolution?
 
" "The need for a disciplined revolutionary party and the importance of
industrial workers over peasants.

"
"How did Lenin return to Russia in April 1917?
 
" "The Germans transported him in a 'sealed train' to Petrograd,
hoping he would destabilize Russia.

"
"Why was Lenin accused of being a German agent?
 
" "The Bolsheviks had received financial support from Germany, as their goals
aligned in ending Russia’s war effort.

"
"What was Lenin’s main message upon arrival in Russia?
 
" "He rejected cooperation with the Provisional Government and called for its
overthrow.

"
"What slogan helped Lenin win mass support?
 
" "'Peace, Land, and Bread' – appealing to war-weary soldiers, land-
hungry peasants, and hungry workers.

"
"Why was Trotsky central to the Bolshevik takeover?
 
" "He was a skilled orator, chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, and head of the
Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC).

"
"What was the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC)?
 
" "An armed group under the Petrograd Soviet, officially for defense but
actually used to overthrow the Provisional Government.

"
"What were the short-term causes of the October Revolution?
 
" "Provisional Government’s lack of control, continued war losses, land reform
failure, and Kerensky’s declining authority.

"
"How did Lenin persuade the Bolsheviks to act in October 1917?
 
" "He feared the Constituent Assembly elections in November and pushed for an
immediate takeover.

"
"What event triggered the October Revolution?
 
" "Kerensky tried to move Petrograd troops to the front, prompting the MRC to
seize the city.

"
"How long did the October Revolution last?
 
" "From 25 to 27 October 1917.

"
"How was the Winter Palace taken?
 
" "With minimal resistance; only five people were killed, as most Provisional
Government troops had left.

"
"What mistake did the SRs and Mensheviks make after the October Revolution?
 
" "They walked out of the Congress of Soviets, giving Bolsheviks full control.

"
"What is the argument that the October Revolution was a coup?
 
" "Only 30,000 actively participated, mass strikes didn’t occur, and it was
carried out by a small minority.

"
"What is the argument that the October Revolution was a popular revolution?
 
" "Government authority had already collapsed, peasants and workers were
already acting independently, and Bolsheviks had soviet support.

"
"How did the Bolsheviks consolidate their power after taking over?
 
" "They eliminated rivals, centralized power in Sovnarkom, and prevented
democratic participation.

"
"Why was food distribution a major issue for the Provisional Government?
 
" "Russia was in a wartime emergency, making food supply difficult; peasants
hoarded grain instead of selling it.

"
"Why did land seizures by peasants increase dissatisfaction with the Provisional
Government?
 
" "Peasants expected legal redistribution but had to take land themselves, as
the government was reluctant to act.

"
"What was the 'Savage Division', and what role did it play in the
Kornilov Affair?
 
" "An elite, warlike unit under Kornilov, meant to restore order in Petrograd,
but it failed due to rail worker resistance.

"
"What were the key points in Lenin’s 'April Theses'?
 
" "Denounced cooperation with the Provisional Government, called for a second
revolution, and pushed for 'All Power to the Soviets'.

"
"Why was the slogan 'Peace, Land, and Bread' so effective?
 
" "It promised to end the war, redistribute land to peasants, and provide food
to workers, directly addressing their struggles.

"
"What was 'Marxism-Leninism'?
 
" "Lenin’s adaptation of Marxism, arguing that Russia could skip the capitalist
stage and proceed directly to a socialist revolution.

"
"How did Lenin return to Russia from exile?
 
" "The Germans transported him in a 'sealed train', hoping he would
destabilize Russia and end the war.

"
"Who were the Red Guards, and what role did they play in the October Revolution?
 
" "Armed Bolshevik workers organized by Trotsky; they led the seizure of key
locations in Petrograd.

"
"What is the argument that the October Revolution was a coup?
 
" "It was led by a small, disciplined group, lacked mass participation, and had
little immediate resistance.

"
"What is the argument that the October Revolution was a popular revolution?
 
" "It followed mass dissatisfaction, soviet dominance, peasant uprisings, and
government collapse.

"
"How many people actively participated in the October Revolution, according to
Trotsky?
 
" "Around 30,000, only 5% of Petrograd’s workers and soldiers.

"
"How did the Bolsheviks use propaganda to gain support?
 
" "They used slogans, posters, and newspapers like Pravda to spread their
message and discredit the Provisional Government.

"
"What were the immediate steps taken by the Bolsheviks after seizing power?
 
" "They dissolved the Constituent Assembly, centralized power in Sovnarkom, and
suppressed rival political groups.

"
"What was Trotsky’s role in the October Revolution?
 
" "He organized the Red Guards, led the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC),
and directed the seizure of Petrograd.
 
 
"
"What did Lenin mean by 'All Power to the Soviets'?
 
" "A slogan used to gain support, though in reality, power was centralized
within the Bolshevik Party.

"
"Why were mass strikes not seen in October 1917, unlike in February?
 
" "The revolution was primarily carried out by organized Bolshevik forces
rather than mass popular movements.

"
"Why did Russia claim it went to war in 1914?
 
" "To protect Serbia from Austria-Hungary, which was seen as a threat to Slavic
nations.

"
"Why was Russia's decision to enter WWI unwise?
 
" "It had major weaknesses in its economy, military, and political system,
making prolonged war difficult to sustain.

"
"How did the Russian people initially respond to WWI?
 
" "There was patriotic unity, support for the tsar, and only the Bolsheviks
opposed the war.

"
"How did Russia's military compare to Germany's in 1914?
 
" "It was larger and mobilized faster, but was poorly organized and relied on
outdated tactics like cavalry charges.

"
"What were the weaknesses of the Russian military?
 
" "Ineffective use of modern weapons, poor command, reliance on bayonets, and
logistical failures.

"
"What was the significance of the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914?
 
" "A major Russian defeat where Germany intercepted radio messages, killing
70,000 and capturing 92,000 Russian troops.

"
"How did WWI impact Russian soldiers and civilians?
 
" "Mass casualties, poor supply chains, half a million peasant households
displaced, and widespread hardship.

"
"What does Table 4.2 of WWI casualties reveal about Russia?
 
" "Russia had the highest number of mobilized troops and casualties,
highlighting its struggle in war.

"
"What was Russia's main economic issue during WWI?
 
" "Poor organization; food and raw materials couldn't be transported
effectively due to railway failures.

"
"What organizations attempted to support Russia’s war effort?
 
" "Union of Towns and Union of Zemstvos, later merged into Zemgor, which helped
organize hospitals and relief efforts.

"
"Why did inflation rise during WWI in Russia?
 
" "The war cost 15 times more than the Russo-Japanese War, leading to
borrowing, money printing, and soaring prices.

"
"How did inflation affect the lower classes?
 
" "Average incomes doubled in 1914-16, but food and fuel prices quadrupled,
leading to strikes and food hoarding.

"
"What was the Progressive Bloc?
 
" "A group in the Duma, including liberals and conservatives, that criticized
the tsar and called for reforms.

"
"Why did Nicholas II take personal command of the army in August 1915?
 
" "He wanted to restore military fortunes, but lacked experience and leadership
skills.

"
"Why was Nicholas II's decision to lead the army a mistake?
 
" "He was blamed for defeats, left a power vacuum at home, and was unaware of
growing unrest in Petrograd.

"
"What was the Brusilov Offensive?
 
" "A 1916 attack on Austria-Hungary that briefly succeeded, but German
reinforcements pushed Russia back with 1 million casualties.

"
"Who was Rasputin, and why was he influential?
 
" "A peasant healer who claimed to treat Alexei's hemophilia, gaining the
trust of the tsarina Alexandra.

"
"Why did Rasputin’s influence damage the monarchy?
 
" "He was seen as corrupt and uneducated, dismissed ministers, and fueled
rumors of German influence through Alexandra.

"
"Who killed Rasputin, and why?
 
" "Conservative courtiers murdered him in December 1916 to restore the
monarchy’s reputation.

"
"What sparked the February Revolution?
 
" "Strikes at the Putilov steel works (18 Feb) and mass demonstrations on
International Women’s Day (23 Feb).
 
 
"
"Why did soldiers refuse to suppress protests in February 1917?
 
" "Many sympathized with protesters, refused orders, and even shot their
officers.

"
"Why did the February Revolution succeed?
 
" "The tsar was absent, the army turned against him, and the Duma formed a
provisional committee.

"
"How did Nicholas II respond to the February Revolution?
 
" "He attempted to return to Petrograd but was diverted to Pskov, where he was
forced to abdicate.

"
"When did Nicholas II abdicate, and why?
 
" "On 2 March 1917, under pressure from army leaders and the Duma, who believed
he could no longer rule effectively.

"
"Why did the Romanov dynasty end after Nicholas II’s abdication?
 
" "His brother, Grand Duke Michael, refused the throne, leading to the
monarchy’s collapse.

"
"What was the role of the Bolsheviks in the February Revolution?
 
" "Minimal; Lenin was in exile, and most Bolshevik leaders were not in Russia
at the time.

"
"Why did the Provisional Government form?
 
" "After Nicholas abdicated, the Duma committee took control to maintain order.

"
"What were the weaknesses of the Provisional Government?
 
" "It lacked legitimacy, shared power with the Petrograd Soviet, and failed to
implement land reforms or end the war.

"
"Who led the first Provisional Government?
 
" "Prince Georgy Lvov, a moderate reformer, from March to July 1917.

"
"Who replaced Lvov as prime minister?
 
" "Alexander Kerensky, a Socialist Revolutionary, became prime minister in July
1917.

"
"What was Order Number 1, and why was it significant?
 
" "Issued by the Petrograd Soviet in March 1917, stating soldiers would follow
Duma orders only if they aligned with Soviet policies.

"
"Why did 'dual authority' weaken the Provisional Government?
 
" "The Petrograd Soviet controlled the army, making it impossible for the
government to enforce decisions.

"
"Why did Russia enter WWI in 1914?
 
" "To defend Serbia from Austria-Hungary and expand influence in the Balkans.

"
"What was Tsar Nicholas II’s role at the start of WWI?
 
" "He was the symbolic leader, gaining initial patriotic support, but was
blamed for military failures.

"
"Why were bayonets ineffective in WWI?
 
" "They required close combat, leaving Russian soldiers vulnerable to enemy
gunfire before reaching their targets.

"
"Why did Russia’s cavalry charges fail?
 
" "Modern machine guns made cavalry ineffective; horses also required excessive
food and transport.

"
"How many Russian soldiers were killed at the Battle of Tannenberg?
 
" "70,000 Russian troops were killed, revealing Germany’s military superiority.

"
"How many Russian soldiers were captured at the Battle of Tannenberg?
 
" "92,000 Russian soldiers were taken prisoner by Germany.

"
"What was Russia’s total number of casualties in WWI?
 
" "Over 1.7 million dead, 4.95 million wounded, and 2.5 million missing or
captured.

"
"How did inflation affect Russia during WWI?
 
" "Money printing led to runaway inflation; average incomes doubled but food
prices quadrupled.

"
"Why did Russia’s railway system fail during the war?
 
" "The military had priority over civilian needs, causing food shortages and
transport disruptions.

"
"How did WWI lead to food shortages in Russia?
 
" "Peasants hoarded grain as inflation devalued money; food rotted in depots
due to transport failures.

"
"How many peasant households were displaced during WWI?
 
" "Half a million households fled eastward between 1914 and 1916, causing
further instability.

"
"Why did Tsar Nicholas II take personal command of the army in 1915?
 
" "To restore military morale, but he had no military training and was blamed
for defeats.

"
"What was the impact of Tsarina Alexandra’s rule in Petrograd?
 
" "She was unpopular, suspected of German sympathies, and heavily influenced by
Rasputin.

"
"Who killed Rasputin, and why?
 
" "He was murdered by conservative courtiers in December 1916 to save the
monarchy’s reputation.

"
"What happened on 18 February 1917 at the Putilov Steel Works?
 
" "Workers went on strike, marking the beginning of mass unrest in Petrograd.

"
"Why was 23 February 1917 significant in the February Revolution?
 
" "Thousands of women joined protests on International Women’s Day, escalating
unrest.

"
"Why did soldiers refuse to suppress the protests in February 1917?
 
" "They sympathized with demonstrators, mutinied, and shot their officers
instead.

"
"What was Sergei Khabalov’s response to the February protests?
 
" "As Petrograd’s governor, he declared martial law and ordered soldiers to
restore order, but they refused.

"
"Why was the role of the Cossacks important in the February Revolution?
 
" "They had been loyal to the tsar but refused to suppress protests, signaling
his loss of support.

"
"Why did Nicholas II’s abdication on 2 March 1917 end the monarchy?
 
" "His brother, Grand Duke Mikhail, refused the throne, leading to the
establishment of the Provisional Government.

"
"What role did Mikhail Rodzianko play in the February Revolution?
 
" "As Duma president, he urged Nicholas II to form a government with popular
support, but was ignored.

"
"Who was Prince Lvov, and what role did he play in 1917?
 
" "He was the first prime minister of the Provisional Government but was weak
and naive about governing in wartime.

"
"What was 'Dual Authority' in 1917 Russia?
 
" "A power-sharing system between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd
Soviet, weakening government control.

"
"Why did the Provisional Government fail to redistribute land?
 
" "It delayed action, angering peasants, who seized land themselves.

"
"Why did the Provisional Government continue WWI?
 
" "It wanted to maintain Russia’s honor and alliances, but the war was deeply
unpopular.

"
"What was the impact of the planned Constituent Assembly elections?
 
" "The Provisional Government hesitated, fearing Bolshevik and Socialist
Revolutionary dominance.

"
"Why did the Bolsheviks have little role in the February Revolution?
 
" "Most key Bolsheviks, including Lenin, were in exile and taken by surprise by
events.

"
"How did peasants contribute to food shortages?
 
" "They hoarded grain instead of selling it due to inflation and poor
government policies.

"
"Why did Russia print money during WWI?
 
" "To cover war costs, leading to hyperinflation and economic instability.

"
"What happened to food supplies in Russian cities during the war?
 
" "Food rotted in depots due to logistical failures, worsening urban hunger.

"
"What was General Brusilov’s role in WWI?
 
" "He led the Brusilov Offensive in June 1916, initially successful but ending
in massive Russian casualties.

"
"Why was Nicholas II isolated at Mogilev?
 
" "He was 600 km from Petrograd at military HQ, unaware of political unrest.

"
"Why was the Duma suspended multiple times during the war?
 
" "Nicholas II feared it would challenge his authority, but recalling it in
1916 increased opposition.

"
"What was Mikhail’s response to Nicholas II’s abdication?
 
" "He refused the throne, leading to the monarchy’s collapse and the
Provisional Government’s rise.

"
"What reforms did the Petrograd Soviet introduce?
 
" "Amnesty for political prisoners, universal voting rights, trade union
recognition, and the abolition of capital punishment.

"
"What was the size and population of Russia at the end of the 19th century?
 
" "Russia covered almost 123 million square kilometres with a population of
around 130 million.

"
"Who ruled Russia from 1894 to 1917?
 
" "Tsar Nicholas II, an autocrat with unlimited power, ruled Russia from 1894
to 1917.

"
"What was Tsar Nicholas II's stance on reforms?
 
" "He was staunchly opposed to reforms that could reduce social inequalities.

"
"What was the policy of 'Russification'?
 
" "It was the enforcement of Russian language, Orthodox Christianity, and laws
throughout the empire, alienating ethnic minorities.

"
"What percentage of Russia's population were ethnic Russians at the end of the
19th century?
 
" "Only 45% of the population were ethnic Russians.

"
"Which religious minority faced frequent persecution in Russia?
 
" "Jews faced persecution and pogroms, leading many to flee or join
revolutionary activities.
 
 
"
"What was the primary social structure of Russia in the late 19th century?
 
" "A vast majority (82%) were peasants, with a small ruling class, upper class,
and middle class.

"
"How did the emancipation of serfs in 1861 impact peasants?
 
" "Peasants remained poor, had to make redemption payments, and lived under
strict commune rules (mirs).

"
"Why was agriculture inefficient in Russia?
 
" "Outdated farming methods, lack of modernisation, and government policies
that favored landlords over peasants.

"
"What was the role of the Orthodox Church in Russian society?
 
" "It was controlled by the tsar and reinforced loyalty to his rule, especially
in rural areas.

"
"Who was Sergei Witte and what were his economic reforms?
 
" "Sergei Witte was Russia’s finance minister who pushed for rapid
industrialisation through foreign loans, railway expansion, and protective tariffs.

"
"What was the 'Great Spurt'?
 
" "A period of rapid industrial growth in Russia under Witte, making Russia the
4th largest steel producer and 2nd in petroleum production.

"
"What were the negative effects of Witte’s policies?
 
" "High national debt, heavy taxation on peasants, and lack of investment in
social services.

"
"What was the political ideology of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)?
 
" "They aimed to redistribute wealth among peasants and had a terrorist wing
for political assassinations.

"
"Who were the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks?
 
" "They were factions of the Social Democrats; Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) wanted
a disciplined, small revolutionary party, while Mensheviks favored broader
membership.

"
"What were the main causes of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)?
 
" "Competition over influence in Manchuria and Korea, with Russia wanting Port
Arthur as an ice-free harbor.

"
"What was the outcome of the Russo-Japanese War?
 
" "Russia suffered a humiliating defeat, leading to political unrest and
contributing to the 1905 Revolution.

"
"What was 'Bloody Sunday'?
 
" "On January 9, 1905, peaceful protesters led by Father Gapon were shot by the
tsar’s soldiers, killing around 130 people.

"
"What were the main demands of the 1905 revolutionaries?
 
" "Political reforms, civil liberties, land redistribution, fair taxation, and
workers' rights.

"
"How did the tsar respond to the 1905 Revolution?
 
" "He issued the October Manifesto, promising limited reforms and an elected
Duma.

"
"What were the limitations of the October Manifesto?
 
" "The tsar retained autocratic power, could veto laws, and dismissed the first
two Dumas when they opposed him.

"
"Who was Pyotr Stolypin and what were his reforms?
 
" "Stolypin was prime minister who aimed to improve agriculture by encouraging
peasants to become landowners (kulaks).

"
"What was 'Stolypin’s Necktie'?
 
" "A term referring to the widespread use of executions by hanging to suppress
uprisings after the 1905 Revolution.

"
"What was the impact of Stolypin’s land reforms?
 
" "Agricultural production increased, but only 15% of peasants adopted private
land ownership before his assassination in 1911.

"
"What were the key features of the first Duma (1906)?
 
" "Dominated by Kadets who demanded more power, leading to its dissolution by
the tsar after only two months.

"
"How did the electoral laws change for the third Duma?
 
" "The franchise was changed to favor landowners and urban property owners,
making it more conservative and pro-tsarist.

"
"What happened to the fourth Duma (1912-1914)?
 
" "It was suspended when World War I broke out.

"
"What were the weaknesses of the tsarist system before WWI?
 
" "Failure to modernize, repression, economic inefficiency, peasant
dissatisfaction, and opposition from workers and national minorities.

"
"What was the significance of the Lena gold mine massacre (1912)?
 
" "270 striking miners were killed by the army, increasing discontent among
workers.

"
"How did the Romanov dynasty celebrate its 300th anniversary in 1913?
 
" "With elaborate ceremonies and a national tour, but unrest persisted beneath
the surface.

"
"How did the tsar attempt to maintain power through repression?
 
" "Censorship, secret police (Okhrana), arresting dissidents, and using the
Black Hundreds to attack revolutionaries and Jews.

"
"What was the role of the Black Hundreds?
 
" "A far-right paramilitary group that terrorized revolutionaries and targeted
Jews with state approval.

"
"What was the overall stability of the Russian Empire in 1914?
 
" "Russia appeared stable but had deep underlying tensions; WWI would be the
ultimate catalyst for revolution.

"
"Did Bismarck actively seek war with France?
 
" "No, but he was willing to accept it if necessary for German unification.

"
"Why did Bismarck believe war with France could help Prussia?
 
" "It could unite North and South Germany against a common external enemy.

"
"Why did relations between Prussia and France worsen after the Austro-Prussian War?
 
" "Napoleon III sought compensation for Prussia’s growing power, but Bismarck
refused his demands.

"
"What did Napoleon III want in exchange for accepting Prussian expansion?
 
" "He wanted parts of the Rhineland and later Luxembourg.

"
"How did Bismarck manipulate the Luxembourg crisis?
 
" "He encouraged France to pursue Luxembourg, then stirred German nationalist
outrage to block the deal.

"
"How did the Luxembourg crisis help Bismarck?
 
" "It turned the South German states against France and increased tensions.

"
"What was the Spanish succession crisis of 1868?
 
" "Queen Isabella of Spain was overthrown, and Spain sought a new monarch.

"
"Who did Spain choose as its new monarch?
 
" "Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a Catholic related to Prussia.

"
"Why did France oppose Leopold’s candidacy?
 
" "They saw it as a Prussian attempt to encircle France.

"
"What was King Wilhelm I’s stance on Leopold’s candidacy?
 
" "He was initially hesitant about Bismarck’s encouragement of Leopold’s
acceptance.

"
"What was the Ems Telegram?
 
" "A telegram from Wilhelm I to Bismarck about his meeting with the French
ambassador, Benedetti.

"
"How did Bismarck manipulate the Ems Telegram?
 
" "He reworded it to make it seem like France made unreasonable demands and was
humiliated.

"
"What was the result of Bismarck releasing the edited Ems Telegram?
 
" "It provoked public outrage in both France and Germany, leading to war.

"
"Why did France declare war on Prussia in July 1870?
 
" "Napoleon III, pressured by public opinion, saw war as a matter of national
honor.

"
"Why was France diplomatically isolated before the Franco-Prussian War?
 
" "Britain, Italy, Russia, and Austria refused to support France, leaving it
without allies.

"
"Why did Britain refuse to support France in 1870?
 
" "Britain saw France as unjustified in its war over the Spanish throne.

"
"Why did Italy refuse to support France in 1870?
 
" "Italy wanted French troops to leave Rome so it could unify its territory.

"
"Why did Austria refuse to support France in 1870?
 
" "Austria was weakened by its 1866 defeat and focused on internal stability.

"
"What was the advantage of Prussian military organization?
 
" "Prussia had a well-trained, conscript-based army with superior logistics.

"
"What were the weaknesses of the French army?
 
" "It relied on long-serving professionals with poor mobilization and lacked
clear strategy.

"
"What were the advantages of the French army?
 
" "They had superior Chassepot rifles and early machine guns but lacked
tactical efficiency.

"
"What was the outcome of the Battle of Sedan (September 1870)?
 
" "100,000 French troops were encircled; Napoleon III surrendered and was
overthrown.

"
"Why was the siege of Paris significant?
 
" "Paris held out through winter, using guerrilla tactics, but surrendered in
January 1871.

"
"How did Bismarck use nationalism to unite Germany?
 
" "He framed France as a common enemy, pushing South German states to support
unification.

"
"What was the impact of the Franco-Prussian War on German unification?
 
" "It fully united Germany under Prussian dominance.

"
"What was the title given to Wilhelm I after unification?
 
" "He was proclaimed 'German Emperor' (Kaiser) in January 1871 at
Versailles.

"
"Why did Bismarck choose the Hall of Mirrors for Wilhelm I’s proclamation?
 
" "It symbolized France’s humiliation after their defeat.

"
"What were the harsh peace terms imposed on France in 1871?
 
" "France had to pay 5 billion francs, German troops occupied parts of France,
and Alsace-Lorraine was annexed.

"
"Why was Alsace-Lorraine annexed by Germany?
 
" "It was seen as a security buffer to prevent future French aggression.

"
"How did the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine affect France?
 
" "It created deep resentment, contributing to tensions leading to World War I.

"
"How did the new German constitution favor Prussia?
 
" "Prussia controlled 17 of 58 Bundesrat votes and had military dominance.

"
"Why was the Reichstag politically weak?
 
" "It lacked control over military spending and had limited influence over
policies.

"
"How did the new German Empire differ from the 1848 revolution?
 
" "Unification was imposed by force, not achieved by popular revolution.

"
"What role did Bismarck play in German unification?
 
" "He combined diplomacy, war, and nationalism to isolate opponents and unify
Germany under Prussia.

"
"What other factors besides Bismarck contributed to German unification?
 
" "Prussia’s economic strength, military superiority, and the mistakes of
Austria and France played key roles.

"
"How did Prussia’s military improve after 1866?
 
" "Moltke modernized artillery and logistics, improving war efficiency.

"
"How did Bismarck secure Bavaria’s loyalty to the German Empire?
 
" "He bribed King Ludwig II with money from Hanover’s confiscated wealth.

"
"Why did Bismarck impose harsher terms on France than on Austria?
 
" "He saw Austria as a potential ally but viewed France as a long-term enemy.

"
"How did the Franco-Prussian War shape future German-French relations?
 
" "It created lasting French resentment and contributed to future conflicts.

"
"Why was Bismarck’s foreign policy successful?
 
" "He isolated enemies diplomatically before engaging in war.

"
"What was the role of Moltke in the Franco-Prussian War?
 
" "He led the Prussian army with superior strategy and preparation.

"
"How did Prussia’s railway system help in the war?
 
" "It enabled rapid mobilization and transport of troops to the frontlines.

"
"Why was France’s military leadership ineffective in 1870?
 
" "It lacked coordination, had poor planning, and failed to use superior
weapons effectively.

"
"What was the significance of the German victory in 1871?
 
" "It permanently altered the balance of power in Europe, making Germany the
dominant state.

"
"What was Bismarck’s attitude towards war with France?
 
" "Refer to Bismarck’s attitude towards war with France for details in the
text.

"
"What was French reaction to Luxembourg?
 
" "Refer to French reaction to Luxembourg for details in the text.

"
"What was Bismarck’s manipulation of public opinion?
 
" "Refer to Bismarck’s manipulation of public opinion for details in the text.

"
"What was Impact of the Luxembourg crisis on South German states?
 
" "Refer to Impact of the Luxembourg crisis on South German states for details
in the text.

"
"What was French fears of Prussian encirclement?
 
" "Refer to French fears of Prussian encirclement for details in the text.

"
"What was Wilhelm I’s hesitation?
 
" "Refer to Wilhelm I’s hesitation for details in the text.

"
"What was French diplomatic pressure on Prussia?
 
" "Refer to French diplomatic pressure on Prussia for details in the text.

"
"What was Ems Telegram details?
 
" "Refer to Ems Telegram details for details in the text.

"
"What was Bismarck’s edits to the telegram?
 
" "Refer to Bismarck’s edits to the telegram for details in the text.

"
"What was How the edited telegram inflamed tensions?
 
" "Refer to How the edited telegram inflamed tensions for details in the text.

"
"What was French public reaction?
 
" "Refer to French public reaction for details in the text.

"
"What was German public reaction?
 
" "Refer to German public reaction for details in the text.

"
"What was Impact of the telegram on war declaration?
 
" "Refer to Impact of the telegram on war declaration for details in the text.

"
"What was Why France was diplomatically isolated?
 
" "Refer to Why France was diplomatically isolated for details in the text.

"
"What was Britain’s refusal to support France?
 
" "Refer to Britain’s refusal to support France for details in the text.
 
 
"
"What was Italy’s neutrality and Rome?
 
" "Refer to Italy’s neutrality and Rome for details in the text.

"
"What was Austria’s lack of involvement?
 
" "Refer to Austria’s lack of involvement for details in the text.

"
"What was Prussia’s superior military strategy?
 
" "Refer to Prussia’s superior military strategy for details in the text.

"
"What was French military weaknesses?
 
" "Refer to French military weaknesses for details in the text.

"
"What was Chassepot rifles vs. Prussian weapons?
 
" "Refer to Chassepot rifles vs. Prussian weapons for details in the text.

"
"What was Napoleon III’s capture?
 
" "Refer to Napoleon III’s capture for details in the text.

"
"What was Paris siege and guerrilla warfare?
 
" "Refer to Paris siege and guerrilla warfare for details in the text.

"
"What was Reasons for France’s surrender?
 
" "Refer to Reasons for France’s surrender for details in the text.

"
"What was Wilhelm I’s proclamation as Kaiser?
 
" "Refer to Wilhelm I’s proclamation as Kaiser for details in the text.

"
"What was Hall of Mirrors symbolism?
 
" "Refer to Hall of Mirrors symbolism for details in the text.

"
"What was German Empire’s structure?
 
" "Refer to German Empire’s structure for details in the text.

"
"What was Why Alsace-Lorraine was annexed?
 
" "Refer to Why Alsace-Lorraine was annexed for details in the text.

"
"What was French resentment and future conflicts?
 
" "Refer to French resentment and future conflicts for details in the text.

"
"What was Prussian dominance in the Reich?
 
" "Refer to Prussian dominance in the Reich for details in the text.

"
"What was Bismarck’s handling of Bavaria?
 
" "Refer to Bismarck’s handling of Bavaria for details in the text.

"
"What was Reichstag’s limited power?
 
" "Refer to Reichstag’s limited power for details in the text.

"
"What was Impact of Franco-Prussian War on European balance?
 
" "Refer to Impact of Franco-Prussian War on European balance for details in
the text.

"
"What was Bismarck’s long-term strategy?
 
" "Refer to Bismarck’s long-term strategy for details in the text.

"
"What was Why Bismarck was harsher on France than Austria?
 
" "Refer to Why Bismarck was harsher on France than Austria for details in the
text.

"
"What was Future tensions leading to WWI?
 
" "Refer to Future tensions leading to WWI for details in the text.

"
"Who became regent of Prussia in 1858?
 
" "Wilhelm I became regent when Friedrich Wilhelm IV fell ill.

"
"When did Wilhelm I ascend the Prussian throne?
 
" "In 1861.

"
"What was Wilhelm I’s primary concern?
 
" "Strengthening the army.

"
"What event triggered Wilhelm I’s concerns about Prussian security?
 
" "The 1859 Franco-Austrian War.

"
"What was the Franco-Austrian War?
 
" "A conflict where France supported Piedmont in expelling Austria from
northern Italy.

"
"How did Prussia respond to the Franco-Austrian War?
 
" "Prussia partially mobilized its army to deter possible French actions in the
Rhineland.

"
"What issue did the 1859 partial mobilization expose?
 
" "Serious organizational weaknesses in the Prussian army.

"
"How many soldiers were in the Prussian professional army at the time?
 
" "Approximately 150,000.

"
"What was the structure of military service in Prussia before reforms?
 
" "Two years of training, two years in reserve, then transfer to the Landwehr.

"
"What was the Landwehr?
 
" "A semi-civilian militia force with limited training and non-professional
officers.

"
"Why did Wilhelm I want to reform the army?
 
" "To increase its effectiveness and ensure its loyalty to the state.

"
"What were Wilhelm I’s proposed army reforms?
 
" "Increase annual call-ups to 63,000, extend service to three years, and merge
the Landwehr into the army.

"
"How much tax increase was required for Wilhelm I’s military reforms?
 
" "A 25% tax increase.

"
"Why did liberals oppose Wilhelm I’s military reforms?
 
" "They feared a stronger army could be used to suppress them and raise taxes
without their consent.

"
"Why were liberals particularly opposed to the downgrading of the Landwehr?
 
" "The Landwehr was dominated by middle-class men like themselves.

"
"Who dominated the regular Prussian army?
 
" "The aristocratic Junker class.

"
"Which political party opposed the army reforms?
 
" "The German Progressive Party.

"
"What happened in the 1861 elections?
 
" "Liberals increased their representation in the Landtag.

"
"What was the constitutional crisis of September 1862?
 
" "The Progressives clashed with Wilhelm I over the military budget.

"
"Why did Wilhelm I consider abdication in 1862?
 
" "He believed army funds were urgent, but the Landtag refused to approve
taxes.

"
"Who was Otto von Bismarck?
 
" "A Junker landowner’s son and Prussia’s Minister-President from 1862.
 
 
"
"What was Bismarck’s background?
 
" "Educated in law, known for dueling, and briefly worked in civil service
before entering politics.

"
"What was Bismarck’s reputation before his appointment?
 
" "An extreme conservative who defended the monarchy in 1848.

"
"Who recommended Bismarck as Minister-President?
 
" "Albrecht von Roon, the Minister of War.

"
"Why was Bismarck’s appointment controversial?
 
" "He was seen as extreme and reckless.

"
"What did Friedrich Wilhelm IV say about Bismarck?
 
" "‘He smells of blood and can only be employed when the bayonet rules.’

"
"What kind of government did Bismarck prefer?
 
" "A monarchy with few constitutional restrictions.

"
"What was Bismarck’s attitude toward parliament?
 
" "He had little patience for it.

"
"Where did Bismarck serve as a diplomat?
 
" "Prussian representative in the German Confederation Diet (1851), ambassador
to Russia (1859), and later to France.
 
 
"
"How did Bismarck assert dominance at the German Confederation Diet?
 
" "He openly smoked, a privilege previously reserved for the Austrian chairman.

"
"Did Bismarck always intend to unify Germany?
 
" "Historians debate whether he planned it or took advantage of opportunities.

"
"What did Bismarck tell Benjamin Disraeli in 1862?
 
" "He planned to reorganize the army, declare war on Austria, and unite Germany
under Prussia.

"
"Why should Bismarck’s comments to Disraeli be viewed with caution?
 
" "He may have been trying to impress Disraeli rather than revealing his true
intentions.

"
"What was Bismarck’s view on nationalism?
 
" "He saw it as a tool to advance Prussian power rather than an ideology.

"
"What did Bismarck say about German nationalism?
 
" "‘This kind of emotional sentimental policy is totally alien to me.’

"
"What was Bismarck’s famous 1862 speech about?
 
" "‘Iron and blood’—stating that power, not speeches, would decide Germany’s
future.

"
"How did Bismarck resolve the army reform crisis?
 
" "Collected taxes without parliamentary approval.
 
 
"
"What repressive measures did Bismarck use?
 
" "Press censorship and disregard for parliamentary decisions.

"
"Why did some liberals support Bismarck despite his repression?
 
" "They prioritized German unification over liberal principles.

"
"Who were Bismarck’s key military allies?
 
" "Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke and Albrecht von Roon.

"
"What caused the 1864 war with Denmark?
 
" "A dispute over Schleswig-Holstein.

"
"What was the outcome of the 1864 war?
 
" "Denmark lost, and Schleswig-Holstein was jointly controlled by Austria and
Prussia.

"
"What was the Gastein Convention of 1865?
 
" "Prussia controlled Schleswig; Austria controlled Holstein.

"
"What was Bismarck’s goal from 1862-66?
 
" "Make Prussia dominant by excluding Austria from Germany.

"
"How did Bismarck secure international neutrality before war?
 
" "He gained Russian neutrality and made vague territorial promises to France.

"
"What was Bismarck’s deal with Italy?
 
" "A secret treaty where Italy would join Prussia in war against Austria in
exchange for Venetia.

"
"What was the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War?
 
" "The Battle of Königgrätz (Sadová).

"
"How long did the Austro-Prussian War last?
 
" "Seven weeks.

"
"What key weapon gave Prussia an advantage in 1866?
 
" "The Dreyse needle gun.

"
"How did Prussia’s railway network aid the war?
 
" "It allowed rapid troop movement, unlike Austria’s single railway.

"
"What were the terms of the Treaty of Prague (1866)?
 
" "Austria lost influence in Germany but was not severely punished.

"
"What did Bismarck create after Austria’s defeat?
 
" "The North German Confederation.

"
"Which states were excluded from the Confederation?
 
" "Austria and the southern German states.

"
"Who controlled foreign policy in the Confederation?
 
" "The Prussian king.

"
"What was the Zollparlament?
 
" "A short-lived trade assembly linking North and South Germany.

"
"What were Bismarck’s military alliances post-1866?
 
" "Southern German states allied with Prussia against France.

"
"What did the 1866 indemnity bill do?
 
" "Legalized Bismarck’s tax collection without parliamentary approval.

"
"Why did German princes initially grant constitutions in 1848?
 
" "They feared being overthrown by revolutionary movements.

"
"What was the main fear of German rulers in 1848?
 
" "That standing against the revolution would lead to their downfall.

"
"What did rulers retain control over despite granting constitutions?
 
" "Their armed forces.

"
"What was their long-term strategy after granting constitutions?
 
" "To wait for the right moment to reassert their authority.

"
"Which German state was briefly under revolutionary control?
 
" "Baden.
 
 
"
"Who supported the revolutionaries in Baden?
 
" "Mutinous troops.

"
"How was order restored in Baden in 1849?
 
" "The Grand Duke requested Prussian military intervention.

"
"Which other states did Prussia help suppress revolutions in?
 
" "Saxony and Württemberg.

"
"What was the main internal weakness of the 1848 revolutions?
 
" "Divisions within the revolutionary movement.

"
"What was the key difference between liberals and radicals?
 
" "Liberals wanted moderate constitutional reforms; radicals sought deeper
social and political change.

"
"What were the main concerns of working-class revolutionaries?
 
" "Improving their living and working conditions.

"
"Why did the middle class withdraw from the revolution in the Rhineland?
 
" "They feared the armed working-class crowds threatening property rights.

"
"Why were liberals unwilling to continue their support for the protests?
 
" "They feared protests could turn into radical social revolutions.

"
"Which monarchy recovered and helped suppress revolutions?
 
" "The Austrian monarchy.

"
"How did Austria restore monarchical power in German states?
 
" "With Prussian support.

"
"How did Friedrich Wilhelm IV react to the 1848 Berlin riots?
 
" "He wore nationalist colors and declared ‘Prussia will be merged in Germany’.

"
"What are the two possible interpretations of Friedrich Wilhelm IV’s nationalist
speech?
 
" "1) He was emotionally caught in the moment; 2) He sought to control the
revolution rather than be overthrown by it.

"
"What did Friedrich Wilhelm IV initially allow after the revolution?
 
" "The election of an assembly to draft a constitution.

"
"What did Friedrich Wilhelm IV do after initially allowing a constitution?
 
" "He dissolved the assembly and imposed a more restrictive constitution.

"
"When did Friedrich Wilhelm IV’s new constitution come into effect?
 
" "February 1850.

"
"What political system did the new constitution establish?
 
" "A two-chamber parliament, but the king retained power.

"
"What emergency power did the king retain under the new constitution?
 
" "The right to collect taxes without parliamentary approval.

"
"How was voting structured in the new Prussian constitution?
 
" "A ‘three-tier suffrage’ system based on tax contributions.

"
"How did the three-tier suffrage system favor conservatives?
 
" "The wealthiest 1/3 of voters elected 85% of the Landtag.

"
"Who dominated the upper house (Herrenhaus)?
 
" "It was entirely appointed by the king.

"
"What was the most dramatic consequence of the 1848 revolutions?
 
" "The election of the Frankfurt Parliament.

"
"When did the Frankfurt Parliament convene?
 
" "May 1848.

"
"Why was the Frankfurt Parliament not truly representative?
 
" "Most of the poor were excluded from voting, and it was dominated by middle-
class intellectuals.

"
"What was the Frankfurt Parliament mockingly called?
 
" "‘The professors’ parliament’.

"
"Who was the first president of the Frankfurt Parliament?
 
" "Heinrich von Gagern.

"
"What major action did the Frankfurt Parliament take in June 1848?
 
" "Established a ‘Provisional Central Power’ under Archduke Johann.

"
"What fundamental citizens’ rights did the Parliament approve in December 1848?
 
" "Equality before the law, freedom of the press, and protection from arrest
without a warrant.

"
"What were the two competing visions for a united Germany?
 
" "Kleindeutschland (Prussia-led) vs. Grossdeutschland (Austria-led).

"
"When did the Frankfurt Parliament approve a German constitution?
 
" "March 1849.

"
"Who was offered the German imperial crown in 1849?
 
" "Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia.

"
"Why did Friedrich Wilhelm IV reject the crown?
 
" "He refused to ‘pick up a crown from the gutter’ and only accepted crowns
from fellow princes.

"
"Why did the Frankfurt Parliament ultimately fail?
 
" "It lacked political experience, unity, and military power.

"
"Which military crisis demonstrated the Parliament’s weakness?
 
" "The Schleswig-Holstein dispute with Denmark in 1848.
 
 
"
"Why did the Schleswig-Holstein crisis weaken the Parliament?
 
" "Prussia withdrew its troops without consulting Parliament.

"
"When was the Frankfurt Parliament officially dissolved?
 
" "June 1849.

"
"What was Prussia’s response to the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament?
 
" "It attempted to form the Erfurt Union without Austria.

"
"Which three states supported the Erfurt Union?
 
" "Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover.

"
"Why did smaller states abandon the Erfurt Union?
 
" "They feared Austria’s reaction.

"
"Who was Austria’s chief minister in 1850?
 
" "Prince Felix Schwarzenberg.

"
"What was Austria’s response to the Erfurt Union?
 
" "It revived the German Confederation and opposed Prussia’s plans.

"
"What was the ‘Humiliation of Olmütz’?
 
" "Prussia was forced to abandon the Erfurt Union in November 1850.

"
"What agreement was reached in May 1851?
 
" "The old German Confederation was reinstated.

"
"How did Prussia’s economy change after 1849?
 
" "It experienced rapid industrial growth.

"
"What key infrastructure development helped Prussia’s economy?
 
" "Railway expansion.

"
"By how much did Prussia’s coal production increase from 1850 to 1865?
 
" "From 1.96 million to 8.52 million tonnes.

"
"What economic advantage did Prussia have over Austria?
 
" "Access to northern trade routes and efficient industrial growth.

"
"What was the Zollverein?
 
" "A German customs union led by Prussia.

"
"When did Hanover join the Zollverein?
 
" "1851.

"
"Why did Austria fail to join the Zollverein?
 
" "Its inefficient industries required high protective tariffs.

"
"Who was Otto von Manteuffel?
 
" "Prussia’s Minister-President from 1850-1858.

"
"What was Manteuffel’s key economic policy?
 
" "Encouraged private industry by reducing state control.

"
"What did Manteuffel do for peasants?
 
" "Provided low-interest loans for land ownership.

"
"What were Manteuffel’s labor policies?
 
" "Improved working conditions and wages to prevent radicalization.

"
"Why was Prussia better placed than Austria to lead German unification?
 
" "It had a stronger economy, unified German identity, and lacked distractions
outside Germany.

"
"Why was Austria diplomatically weakened by 1856?
 
" "It lost Russian support after the Crimean War.

"
"What was the Nationalverein?
 
" "A middle-class organization founded in 1859 supporting Prussian-led
unification.

"
"How did economic growth influence nationalism?
 
" "Middle-class liberals began seeing Prussia as the unifier of Germany.

"
"When did radical economic change come to Britain?
 
" "After 1750.
 
 
"
"Who benefited from industrial change?
 
" "Some, mainly landowners and factory owners.

"
"Who suffered from industrialisation?
 
" "Rural workers, craftsmen, and displaced laborers.

"
"Why was there little rural unrest before industrialisation?
 
" "Population was stable, most had land, and communities offered support.

"
"What caused rural protest in the late 18th century?
 
" "Population growth, job shortages, food price rises, enclosure, and
mechanisation.

"
"Why did rural population growth cause distress?
 
" "Less land available, fewer jobs, and increased food demand.

"
"What impact did mechanisation have on rural workers?
 
" "Factories reduced demand for home-based spinning and weaving.

"
"How did food prices contribute to unrest?
 
" "Rising bread prices made survival harder for rural workers.

"
"What was the impact of enclosure on rural workers?
 
" "Loss of common land for grazing and farming.

"
"Why did landowners need fewer full-time workers?
 
" "They only needed seasonal labor for harvest.

"
"What laws worsened rural poverty?
 
" "Poaching laws and taxation.

"
"Why were food riots scattered and small?
 
" "Limited literacy and communication.

"
"How did war impact rural employment before 1815?
 
" "Army and navy recruitment reduced job competition.

"
"Why did rural unrest grow after 1815?
 
" "War ended, ex-soldiers needed jobs, farm prices collapsed.

"
"What were the Captain Swing Riots?
 
" "1830-31 protests against low wages, mechanisation, and poor living
conditions.

"
"Who was 'Captain Swing'?
 
" "A mythical figure symbolizing protest.

"
"Why were they called 'riots'?
 
" "Landowners and the government wanted to justify suppression.

"
"What were the grievances of the protesters?
 
" "Low wages, job losses, high taxes, Church of England taxes, and
mechanisation.

"
"Where did the riots occur?
 
" "Southern England and East Anglia.

"
"Why did riots not spread to the north?
 
" "Factories provided alternative employment.

"
"How did the government react?
 
" "Sent troops, suspended courts, executed, transported, and imprisoned
rioters.

"
"What did the protests achieve?
 
" "Delayed threshing machines, slight wage rise, but long-term failure.

"
"Who were the Luddites?
 
" "Skilled textile workers attacking machines that threatened jobs.

"
"When was the Luddite movement active?
 
" "1811-1816, peaking in 1811-1812.

"
"What machines did Luddites destroy?
 
" "Spinning jennies and water frames.

"
"What worsened Luddite protests?
 
" "War disruptions, high unemployment, wage cuts, and bread prices.

"
"How did the government suppress Luddites?
 
" "Sent troops, imprisoned, and executed offenders.

"
"Why did Luddite protests decline after 1814?
 
" "Trade improved and bread prices dropped.

"
"Why were some magistrates sympathetic to Luddites?
 
" "They disliked the rise of factory owners in social status.

"
"How did industrialisation impact politics before 1820?
 
" "Limited impact, as aristocrats and middle class controlled Parliament.

"
"How did the government support industrialisation?
 
" "Passed enclosure acts, patents, infrastructure projects, and trade
protections.

"
"What were Corresponding Societies?
 
" "Radical working-class groups inspired by Thomas Paine’s *Rights of Man*
(1791).

"
"Why did Corresponding Societies fail?
 
" "Seen as radical, homes attacked by 'Church and King' mobs.

"
"What was the Peterloo Massacre?
 
" "1819 protest for parliamentary reform where cavalry killed 11 people.

"
"Why was it called 'Peterloo'?
 
" "Mocked the Battle of Waterloo, where Britain defeated France.

"
"What did Peterloo reveal about middle-class attitudes?
 
" "Factory owners and magistrates opposed radical reform.

"
"Why was the 1830 election important?
 
" "Conservatives lost power, leading to a reformist government.

"
"What changes did the Great Reform Act bring?
 
" "New industrial towns gained MPs, aristocratic control weakened.

"
"Who benefited most?
 
" "The middle class, gaining political influence.

"
"How did the working class react?
 
" "Felt betrayed, as they did not gain voting rights.

"
"What did the Poor Law Amendment Act replace?
 
" "The Speenhamland System.

"
"What was the New Poor Law?
 
" "Forced the poor into workhouses under harsh conditions.

"
"Why were workhouses hated?
 
" "Overcrowding, separation of families, and poor conditions.

"
"What nickname was given to workhouses?
 
" "‘Bastilles’.

"
"What was Chartism?
 
" "A working-class movement (1838-1848) demanding political reform.

"
"What were the six demands of the People’s Charter?
 
" "Universal male suffrage, no MP property requirement, annual parliaments,
equal representation, MP salaries, and secret ballot.

"
"When were the main Chartist protests?
 
" "1838-39, 1842, and 1848.

"
"What was the Newport Rising (1839)?
 
" "A violent protest where 12 Chartists were shot.

"
"Why did Chartism fail?
 
" "Divisions, improved economy, weak unity, and government suppression.

"
"Why were early trade unions formed?
 
" "To protect skilled workers, provide benefits, and negotiate wages.

"
"What were the Combination Laws (1799-1800)?
 
" "Banned trade unions.

"
"Who were the Tolpuddle Martyrs?
 
" "1834 unionists transported to Australia for forming a union.

"
"What was the Cooperative Movement?
 
" "A self-run working-class retail system started in Rochdale in 1844.

"
"Who founded the first cooperative shop?
 
" "28 skilled workers influenced by socialist ideas.

"
"Why were cooperative societies unique?
 
" "Democratic, open to all, and profits reinvested in the community.

"
"How did the government react to Luddism?
 
" "Sent troops, executed, and imprisoned offenders.

"
"How did the government react to Chartism?
 
" "Maintained order but refused reforms.

"
"Why did the government repeal the Combination Laws (1824)?
 
" "To reduce repression after Peterloo.

"
"Why did the government refuse to repeal the Corn Laws until 1846?
 
" "To protect landowners' profits.
 
 
"
"What was the government’s response to the Irish famine?
 
" "Ignored it, leading to over a million deaths.

"
"Why was the British ruling class hostile to change?
 
" "They feared revolution and wanted to protect their wealth.

"
"What did the government prioritize in the 18th and early 19th centuries?
 
" "Property rights, economic growth, and law enforcement.

"
"What event forced the government to pass the Great Reform Act?
 
" "Fear of a middle-class and working-class alliance.

"
"How did the government justify the New Poor Law?
 
" "It was cheaper and discouraged reliance on welfare.

"
"What percentage of the British population lived in towns in 1750?
 
" "Only 15% of the population lived in towns.

"
"How many towns in Britain had a population over 30,000 in 1775?
 
" "Only seven towns had a population over 30,000, five of which were ports.

"
"What were the main factors behind urbanisation in Britain between 1750 and 1850?
 
" "Growth of commerce, finance, manufacturing industry, overall population
increase, agricultural changes reducing need for rural workforce, and availability
of employment in industrial towns.
 
 
"
"What was Britain's population growth from 1801 to 1851?
 
" "The population grew from 15.7 million in 1801 to 27.3 million in 1851.

"
"What was the impact of agriculture on urbanisation?
 
" "Agriculture became more efficient, reducing rural employment, leading people
to seek jobs in industrial towns.

"
"Which towns experienced rapid population growth due to industrialisation?
 
" "Manchester (75,000 in 1801 to 303,000 in 1851), Leeds (53,000 in 1801 to
172,000 in 1851), Glasgow (46% growth between 1810-1820).

"
"What role did ports play in urbanisation?
 
" "Ports like Bristol and Liverpool experienced rapid population growth due to
trade expansion.

"
"Why did towns with textile industries grow rapidly?
 
" "The establishment of textile factories, such as woollen goods in Leeds and
cotton in Manchester, provided employment and drew people from rural areas.

"
"What was the role of transportation in urbanisation?
 
" "Improved transport, including canals and railways, allowed easy movement of
raw materials, finished products, and people.

"
"What was the significance of railways in urbanisation?
 
" "Railways created entirely new towns like Crewe and Swindon and enabled
suburban expansion and commuting.

"
"Why did middle-class professions grow with urbanisation?
 
" "Industrialisation required factory managers, bankers, lawyers, engineers,
merchants, distributors, teachers, and journalists.

"
"How did housing conditions change with rapid urbanisation?
 
" "Unplanned housing, overcrowding, lack of sanitation, poor ventilation, and
high child mortality rates.

"
"What was the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act?
 
" "Established elected local governments with the power to improve towns and
raise local taxes.

"
"What was the main limitation of the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act?
 
" "It was permissive, meaning local governments were not required to improve
conditions, leading to continued urban squalor.

"
"What was Edwin Chadwick's 1842 report?
 
" "A Royal Commission report that provided statistical evidence linking poor
housing conditions to high mortality rates.

"
"What was the significance of the 1848 Public Health Act?
 
" "Created a central Board of Health and encouraged local health boards, but
local improvements were not compulsory.

"
"What were the key causes of poor urban health?
 
" "Lack of sanitation, contaminated water, overcrowded slums, damp housing,
lack of ventilation, and waste accumulation.

"
"What was the biggest cause of child mortality in industrial towns?
 
" "Cholera and tuberculosis, both linked to poor sanitation and living
conditions.
 
 
"
"How did the ruling classes react to urban squalor?
 
" "Most ignored the problem; some feared worker unrest but resisted taxation
for improvements.

"
"How did industrialisation affect working hours and wages?
 
" "Factory workers had long hours (12-14 hours per day, six days a week) with
low wages, women and children earned less than men.

"
"What percentage of the textile workforce were women and children?
 
" "Over 65% of textile workers were women and children, mostly in unskilled
roles.

"
"What were the wages of industrial workers?
 
" "Skilled men: £2-£2.25/week; Unskilled men: 70p/week; Women: 35p-60p/week;
Children earned even less.

"
"What was the role of child labour in factories?
 
" "Children worked from as young as six, often in dangerous conditions cleaning
moving machinery.

"
"What was the Factory Act of 1833?
 
" "Applied to textile mills, banned child labour under 9, limited working hours
for under 18s, required 2 hours of education per day, introduced factory
inspectors.

"
"What were the limitations of the 1833 Factory Act?
 
" "Difficult to enforce, factory owners ignored education rules, fines for
violations were small.

"
"What was the Mines Act of 1842?
 
" "Banned underground work for women and children under 10, introduced
inspectors.

"
"What were the Factory Acts of 1844 and 1847?
 
" "Reduced child working hours, increased education to 3 hours/day, banned
women from night shifts, introduced 10-hour maximum workday for women.

"
"Who was Richard Oastler?
 
" "A Tory MP who campaigned against 'Yorkshire Slavery' and child
labour in factories.

"
"What was the significance of the 1830 letter on 'Yorkshire Slavery'?
 
" "Published in a Leeds newspaper, it brought national attention to child
exploitation in factories.

"
"Who was Michael Sadler?
 
" "An MP who pushed for a 10-hour workday bill and set up a committee to
investigate factory conditions.

"
"What was Lord Ashley’s role in factory reform?
 
" "Led the campaign for better working conditions after Sadler, influencing the
1833 Factory Act and later reforms.

"
"What were the conditions for coal miners?
 
" "Terrible working conditions, serious injuries and deaths, wages often paid
in employers' private currency, child labour was common.

"
"How did the middle class benefit from industrialisation?
 
" "Increased wealth, access to better jobs, property ownership, professional
growth, and upward social mobility.

"
"How did the aristocracy adapt to industrialisation?
 
" "Invested in industries, retained political power, allowed social mobility
through wealth and marriage alliances.

"
"How did trade unions emerge during industrialisation?
 
" "Initially illegal, grew among skilled workers, faced repression, became
legal in 1824 but had limited impact in this period.

"
"What was the significance of the Chartist movement?
 
" "Aimed for universal suffrage, parliamentary reform, and workers’ rights;
failed but influenced later democratic reforms.

"
"What was the New Poor Law of 1834?
 
" "Aimed to reduce welfare costs, forced poor people into workhouses with harsh
conditions, widely hated by the working class.

"
"How did the government balance laissez-faire policies with reforms?
 
" "Reluctantly passed social reforms under pressure, but avoided economic
interference and maintained aristocratic control.

"
"How did government inaction contribute to economic growth?
 
" "Economic growth during this time was because the government did so little
and let people ‘get on with it’.

"
"What was the overall rate of urban growth between 1800 and 1850?
 
" "Urban growth was about 25% each decade between 1800 and 1850, but some towns
experienced more spectacular growth.
 
 
"
"What were the causes of rapid town growth during industrialisation?
 
" "Causes included population growth, agriculture changes, better food supply,
job opportunities, and industrialisation.

"
"How did agricultural efficiency impact urbanisation?
 
" "Agriculture became more efficient, reducing rural job opportunities, pushing
people towards towns for work.

"
"What effect did better food production have on population growth?
 
" "Better food production supported the growing population, which in turn
fueled urbanisation.

"
"Why was there no restriction on movement between towns?
 
" "People were no longer tied to land, and those seeking work could easily move
to towns needing workers.

"
"What employment opportunities did industrial towns provide?
 
" "Industrial towns provided jobs in factories, banking, law, distribution,
engineering, education, and domestic service.

"
"Why was improved transport important for town growth?
 
" "Transport improvements enabled coal, raw materials, food, and building
supplies to reach towns, supporting industrialisation.

"
"How did the lack of civic planning affect urban housing?
 
" "Rapid urbanisation led to poorly planned, overcrowded housing with little
attention to sanitation, ventilation, or water supply.

"
"Why was local government ineffective in addressing poor living conditions?
 
" "Local government was designed for small towns, not growing cities, and had
no legal obligation to improve conditions.

"
"What was the drawback of the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act?
 
" "The act was permissive, meaning local governments did not have to improve
living conditions unless they wanted to.

"
"What were Edwin Chadwick’s main findings in his 1842 report?
 
" "He found that poor sanitation and overcrowding caused widespread disease and
high child mortality rates.

"
"What were the main working conditions for factory workers?
 
" "Workers endured long hours (12-14 daily), low pay, noisy environments, poor
sanitation, and dangerous machinery.

"
"What percentage of the textile workforce were women and children?
 
" "Over 65% of textile workers were women and children, mostly in unskilled
roles.

"
"Who was Robert Owen, and how did he treat his workers?
 
" "Robert Owen was a socialist factory owner who provided good housing,
education, and safe working conditions.

"
"How were working-class children exploited in factories?
 
" "Children worked long hours, cleaned moving machinery, faced injuries, and
were often malnourished.

"
"How did industrialisation affect the aristocracy?
 
" "The aristocracy remained dominant, invested in industry, and adapted to
economic change while retaining political power.

"
"What social changes did the middle class experience due to industrialisation?
 
" "The middle class expanded, increased wealth, demanded luxury goods, and
moved to suburban areas.

"
"How did industrialisation impact the working class?
 
" "The working class saw rising wages but faced job insecurity, poor
conditions, and little social mobility.

"
"How did early government responses attempt to regulate industrialisation?
 
" "Some laws were passed before 1830, but enforcement was weak, and employers
often ignored regulations.

"
"What role did the Sadler Report play in industrial reform?
 
" "It exposed factory abuses, leading to the 1833 Factory Act, which introduced
child labor regulations.

"
"What did the Mines Act of 1842 achieve?
 
" "It banned children under ten and women from working underground in coal
mines.

"
"How did the 1844 and 1847 Factory Acts improve working conditions?
 
" "They reduced working hours for children, increased education, and set a 10-
hour workday for women.

"
"What caused rapid industrialisation after 1780?
 
" "High demand for goods, profit potential, innovation, capital, transport,
laissez-faire government, and cheap energy.
 
 
"
"Why was demand for British manufactured goods high?
 
" "Both domestic and international markets wanted British goods due to high
quality and competitive prices.

"
"What role did innovation play in industrialisation?
 
" "Innovators created new techniques to increase production and improve
quality, boosting industrial growth.

"
"Why was capital important for industrialisation?
 
" "Investment funded factories, research, and infrastructure, allowing
expansion of industries and technological advancements.

"
"How did social attitudes support industrialisation?
 
" "Capitalism and industrialisation were widely accepted, encouraging
entrepreneurship and investment.

"
"What was the impact of free trade on industry?
 
" "Laissez-faire policies meant fewer restrictions, boosting trade, profits,
and industrial expansion.

"
"Why was there little international competition?
 
" "Britain industrialised first, giving it an advantage with no serious
competitors for manufactured goods.

"
"How did energy availability impact industrialisation?
 
" "Cheap coal and steam power enabled mass production and efficient
transportation.

"
"Why did a growing population help industrialisation?
 
" "More workers were available, food supply was stable, and urbanisation
created demand for goods.

"
"What was Henry Cort’s contribution to the iron industry?
 
" "He patented ‘puddling’ and rolling techniques (1783-84), improving quality
and reducing costs.

"
"How did Welsh ironmasters contribute to iron production?
 
" "They commercialised Cort’s innovations, increasing production from 500 to
10,000 tons by 1812.

"
"Why was iron production important for industrialisation?
 
" "Iron was needed for machinery, railways, and buildings, driving industrial
expansion.

"
"How did James Watt improve the steam engine?
 
" "He modified Newcomen’s engine for multiple uses, enabling mechanisation of
various industries.

"
"Who funded James Watt’s early experiments?
 
" "John Roebuck initially funded Watt before Matthew Boulton helped mass-
produce steam engines.

"
"How did steam engines impact industrialisation?
 
" "They powered mills, factories, mines, and transport, reducing costs and
increasing efficiency.

"
"What was Richard Trevithick’s contribution?
 
" "In 1804, he built the first railway steam locomotive, improving bulk
transportation.

"
"What was the impact of steam-powered transport?
 
" "It reduced costs, increased trade efficiency, and improved accessibility of
resources and goods.

"
"How did the textile industry benefit from mechanisation?
 
" "Machines like the spinning jenny and water frame increased output and
improved quality.

"
"How did Richard Arkwright revolutionise textiles?
 
" "His water frame (1771) automated spinning, increasing productivity and
making cotton affordable.

"
"What was Samuel Crompton’s contribution?
 
" "His spinning mule combined earlier machines to produce stronger, cheaper,
and finer thread.

"
"How did factories contribute to industrialisation?
 
" "They centralised production, increased efficiency, and provided jobs for
skilled and unskilled workers.

"
"What was the role of canals in industrialisation?
 
" "Canals transported raw materials and finished goods efficiently, reducing
costs and boosting trade.

"
"How did Josiah Wedgwood use canals?
 
" "He built his pottery factory near a canal, ensuring easy transport of clay
and finished goods.

"
"What impact did railways have on industrialisation?
 
" "They lowered transport costs, improved reliability, and boosted employment
and urbanisation.

"
"Why was the Liverpool-Manchester railway important?
 
" "Opened in 1830, it showed that railways could carry both goods and
passengers profitably.

"
"How did the government support railways?
 
" "Parliament helped railway companies buy land, and MPs invested in railway
shares.

"
"How did steamships revolutionise transport?
 
" "They provided faster, more reliable travel, boosting trade and global
connectivity.

"
"What was the first transatlantic steamship?
 
" "The Savannah (1819) was the first, but the Great Western (1838) was purpose-
built for crossings.

"
"How did Britain’s coal supply aid industrialisation?
 
" "Coal was abundant and used for power, heating, and metal production, fueling
industrial growth.

"
"Why was iron ore important to Britain’s industry?
 
" "Iron was used in machinery, railways, and steam engines, supporting
industrial expansion.

"
"How did Britain secure raw cotton supplies?
 
" "It imported cotton from American plantations, ensuring a steady supply for
textile factories.

"
"What was the significance of the Royal Navy?
 
" "It protected trade routes, ensuring safe import of cotton and export of
manufactured goods.

"
"Why was the wool industry significant?
 
" "Wool production mechanised, improving quality and increasing supply to meet
growing demand.

"
"How did free trade benefit Britain’s economy?
 
" "It removed tariffs, increased global trade, and boosted industrial profits.

"
"What role did William Pitt play in trade?
 
" "He secured trade deals and protected British commercial interests,
supporting industrial expansion.

"
"How did overseas markets drive industrialisation?
 
" "Britain exported textiles and goods globally, earning profits and fueling
further growth.

"
"Why was financial infrastructure important?
 
" "Banks, insurance, and legal systems enabled safe trade and investment,
stabilising the economy.

"
"How did the East India Company support trade?
 
" "It controlled trade with India and the Far East, ensuring access to key
markets.
 
 
"
"Why was government intervention limited?
 
" "Laissez-faire policies allowed industry to grow without heavy regulation or
interference.

"
"What was the impact of industrialisation on urbanisation?
 
" "Cities grew as workers moved to factory jobs, increasing demand for housing
and services.

"
"How did industrialisation create new jobs?
 
" "It provided employment in factories, railways, coal mines, and engineering.

"
"What role did engineers play in industrialisation?
 
" "They built railways, machines, and infrastructure, enabling economic
expansion.

"
"How did Britain’s industrial revolution impact the world?
 
" "It set the model for other nations, driving global economic and
technological progress.

"
"How did government inaction impact economic growth?
 
" "The government did little, letting people ‘get on with it,’ leading to rapid
economic growth.

"
"What was the urban growth rate between 1800 and 1850?
 
" "Urban growth was about 25% per decade, with some towns growing even faster.

"
"What were the causes of rapid town growth?
 
" "Causes included population growth, agriculture changes, food production,
jobs, and industrialisation.

"
"How did agricultural changes push urbanisation?
 
" "Efficient farming reduced rural jobs, forcing people to move to cities for
work.

"
"How did better food production affect urbanisation?
 
" "More and better-quality food supported a growing population, driving urban
growth.

"
"Why was there no restriction on population movement?
 
" "People were not tied to land and could easily move to cities for work.

"
"What types of employment did industrial towns provide?
 
" "Factories, banking, law, engineering, distribution, and even domestic
service jobs grew.

"
"How did transport improvements affect urban growth?
 
" "Easier transport of materials and goods allowed factories to thrive and
cities to expand.

"
"What were urban living conditions like?
 
" "Overcrowded, poorly built houses lacked sanitation, clean water, and
ventilation.

"
"Why was local government ineffective in growing cities?
 
" "Governments were structured for small towns and lacked power to regulate
large urban areas.

"
"What was the major flaw of the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act?
 
" "It was permissive, meaning local authorities weren’t required to improve
conditions.

"
"What did Edwin Chadwick’s 1842 report reveal?
 
" "It showed that poor sanitation and overcrowding led to disease and high
child mortality.

"
"What were typical working conditions in factories?
 
" "Long hours (12-14 per day), low pay, noisy and dirty environments, and no
safety regulations.

"
"Who was Robert Owen, and how did he treat workers?
 
" "Owen was a socialist factory owner who provided good housing, education, and
fair working conditions.

"
"Why did the aristocracy remain dominant despite industrialisation?
 
" "They adapted, invested in industry, retained political power, and benefited
from economic growth.

"
"How did the middle class change during industrialisation?
 
" "It grew in wealth and influence, demanding luxury goods and moving to
suburban areas.

"
"What was the impact of industrialisation on the working class?
 
" "Wages rose, but conditions were poor, job security was low, and social
mobility was limited.

"
"How did early government responses attempt to regulate industry?
 
" "Pre-1830 laws were weakly enforced, and many factory owners ignored them.

"
"What was the impact of the Sadler Report?
 
" "It exposed child labour abuses and led to the 1833 Factory Act, which
regulated child labour.

"
"What was Britain's population in 1750, 1800, and 1850?
 
" "1750: 6.5 million, 1800: 9 million, 1850: 21 million.

"
"What proportion of Britain's population lived in towns over 5000 people in
1750 and 1850?
 
" "1750: 20%, 1850: Over 50%.

"
"What proportion of Britain's population lived and worked in the countryside
in 1750 and 1850?
 
" "1750: 80%, 1850: Less than 50%.

"
"Where did Britain have colonies in the mid-18th century?
 
" "North America, the Caribbean, India, parts of Africa, and trading posts in
China.

"
"What were the main causes of the Industrial Revolution?
 
" "Agricultural revolution, economic growth, technological innovation,
transport improvements, and stable governance.

"
"What was the impact of the Agricultural Revolution on industrialisation?
 
" "Increased food production supported population growth and provided surplus
labour for factories.

"
"How did Britain’s industries change from 1750 to 1850?
 
" "Handmade goods in homes replaced by steam-powered factories producing goods
at scale.

"
"How did industrialisation change social structure?
 
" "A new middle class emerged, while urban working-class populations grew
rapidly.

"
"Why was Britain well-suited for industrialisation?
 
" "It had stable governance, capital, a growing market, vast coal reserves, and
colonial resources.

"
"What was the significance of Britain’s banking system?
 
" "A stable banking system provided capital for investment in industry and
transport.

"
"How did transport help industrialisation?
 
" "Improved roads, canals, and later railways reduced costs and increased
efficiency of trade.

"
"What was the enclosure movement?
 
" "It consolidated small farms into larger, private farms, boosting
agricultural efficiency.

"
"How did enclosure impact farmers?
 
" "Small farmers lost land and moved to cities, while large landowners
profited.

"
"Why was soil fertility improved in the 18th century?
 
" "Farmers used fertilisers, better drainage, and nitrogen-fixing crops like
clover.

"
"What was the four-field crop rotation system?
 
" "A method replacing fallow land with wheat, barley, clover, and turnips to
maintain soil fertility.

"
"How did selective livestock breeding improve agriculture?
 
" "Farmers bred animals for size, meat, and milk production, increasing food
supply and profits.

"
"How did Britain’s aristocracy contribute to agriculture?
 
" "They invested in farms, experimented with new methods, and improved estate
productivity.

"
"How was agriculture linked to industrialisation?
 
" "More food supported urban workers, while profits from farming fueled
industrial investment.

"
"What was the impact of capitalism on industrialisation?
 
" "Investment in trade, banking, and infrastructure accelerated economic growth
and innovation.

"
"How did Britain’s banking system support industrial growth?
 
" "Banks provided loans to businesses, facilitating expansion and technological
advancements.

"
"How did overseas trade fuel the Industrial Revolution?
 
" "Britain exported textiles, iron, and manufactured goods while importing raw
materials.
 
 
"
"Why was the Royal Navy important for trade?
 
" "It protected trade routes and ensured safe transportation of goods and
resources.

"
"What role did the East India Company play in industrialisation?
 
" "It controlled trade with India, securing raw materials like cotton for
British factories.

"
"What industries thrived before the Industrial Revolution?
 
" "Wool, metalwork, shoemaking, cutlery, and pottery were major pre-industrial
trades.

"
"What was the cottage industry?
 
" "A system where goods were made in homes, with raw materials supplied by
merchants.

"
"What invention improved weaving speeds in 1733?
 
" "John Kay’s flying shuttle, which increased output and quality of woven
cloth.

"
"How did James Hargreaves’ spinning jenny change textile production?
 
" "It allowed one worker to spin multiple threads at once, increasing
efficiency.

"
"Why was iron important to industrialisation?
 
" "Iron was used to build machines, railways, and buildings, supporting
industrial expansion.

"
"What problem did early iron production face?
 
" "Wood-based charcoal was scarce and expensive, limiting high-quality iron
production.

"
"How did Abraham Darby revolutionise iron production?
 
" "In 1709, he used coke instead of charcoal, producing cheaper, higher-quality
iron.

"
"What was the impact of Thomas Newcomen’s steam engine?
 
" "It drained water from mines, increasing coal production and fueling
industrial growth.

"
"How did canals improve industrial transport?
 
" "They reduced costs, moved bulk cargo efficiently, and connected factories to
ports.

"
"What was the significance of the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal?
 
" "It transported coal cheaply to Manchester, lowering prices and increasing
demand.

"
"How did turnpike roads improve transport?
 
" "Private companies built and maintained roads, charging tolls to travelers.

"
"Why was population growth crucial to industrialisation?
 
" "It provided a workforce for factories and increased domestic demand for
goods.

"
"How did urbanisation impact industrialisation?
 
" "More people moved to cities for factory jobs, fueling industrial and
economic growth.

"
"How did Britain’s geographical advantages help industrialisation?
 
" "Navigable rivers, good ports, and mild climate supported trade and
manufacturing.

"
"What were the benefits of mechanisation?
 
" "Increased production, reduced costs, improved quality, and expanded global
markets.

"
"How did the Industrial Revolution impact global trade?
 
" "British goods dominated international markets, and demand for raw materials
increased.

"
"How did slavery contribute to Britain’s economy?
 
" "Profits from slave trade funded industrial investments, especially in
Liverpool and Bristol.

"
"How did Britain secure resources for industrialisation?
 
" "It relied on colonies for raw materials like cotton, sugar, and metals.

"
"How did industrialisation change Britain’s economy?
 
" "It shifted from agriculture to manufacturing, creating urban jobs and
increasing exports.

"
"What did the Proclamation of 21 Brumaire declare?
 
" "The Constitution of Year III was failing, and the Republic needed saving.

"
"Why was the Constitution of Year III failing?
 
" "It lost respect, couldn't guarantee rights, and was weakened by
factions.

"
"What did the Proclamation promise?
 
" "A stronger Republic, restored to its rightful place in Europe.

"
"Who signed the Proclamation?
 
" "Bonaparte, Roger Ducos, and Sieyès as Consuls of the Republic.

"
"What did Napoleon say about the political situation upon his return to Paris?
 
" "There was division among authorities, and the Constitution was failing.

"
"What did different factions do when Napoleon returned?
 
" "They approached him for support, but he refused to back any single faction.

"
"How did Napoleon justify his takeover?
 
" "He claimed it was his duty to restore order and protect liberty, equality,
and property.

"
"What happened when Napoleon entered the Council of Five Hundred?
 
" "He claimed he was attacked by 20 assassins but was rescued by grenadiers.

"
"What was the immediate outcome of the coup?
 
" "The Council was evacuated, factions fled, and new laws were passed.

"
"What were Napoleon’s three broad domestic aims?
 
" "1. Become and remain ruler. 2. End revolutionary chaos. 3. Establish
effective government.

"
"What did Napoleon see as the key to France’s future?
 
" "A strong government avoiding both Jacobin radicalism and the Ancien Régime.

"
"How did Napoleon change elections?
 
" "He reduced their frequency and importance to maintain stability.

"
"Why did Napoleon’s authoritarian tendencies surprise Sieyès?
 
" "Sieyès failed to recognize Napoleon’s dictatorial style in his previous
conquests.

"
"What Enlightenment idea influenced Napoleon the most?
 
" "A strong, centralized state with firm control.

"
"Why did the middle class support Napoleon?
 
" "They wanted stability, property protection, and an end to radicalism.

"
"What aspects of the Ancien Régime did Napoleon reject?
 
" "Feudalism, inequality, and religious intolerance.

"
"What was the principal reason for Napoleon’s success in 1799?
 
" "A mix of political instability and his personal leadership skills.

"
"How did Napoleon portray himself?
 
" "As a soldier of liberty and a protector of revolutionary gains.

"
"Who were Napoleon’s fellow consuls?
 
" "Cambacérès (a Jacobin) and Lebrun (a royalist).

"
"What power did the First Consul (Napoleon) have?
 
" "Appointed ministers, initiated laws, and had no accountability.

"
"Why were plebiscites important in Napoleon’s rule?
 
" "They gave legitimacy but didn't offer real democratic choice.

"
"Where did Napoleon move as First Consul?
 
" "The Tuileries Palace, a symbol of royal power.

"
"What was Napoleon’s first major act as Consul?
 
" "Releasing jailed émigrés, radicals, and priests to promote reconciliation.

"
"What did Napoleon’s government promise?
 
" "Law and order with personal freedom as long as laws were obeyed.

"
"What military victories strengthened Napoleon in 1800?
 
" "Marengo and Hohenlinden against Austria and Britain.

"
"What did Napoleon claim was his main goal?
 
" "The happiness and glory of the French people.

"
"How did Napoleon justify becoming Emperor?
 
" "He said France needed hereditary rule for stability.

"
"What role did the Church play in Napoleon’s coronation?
 
" "The Pope officiated, symbolizing divine support for Napoleon.

"
"Why was the Concordat of 1801 significant?
 
" "It reconciled the Catholic Church with the French state.

"
"What did the Concordat allow?
 
" "Catholic worship but under state control; clergy took loyalty oaths.

"
"How did the Concordat help Napoleon politically?
 
" "It reduced royalist influence and gained rural support.

"
"What was the Napoleonic Code?
 
" "A legal system ensuring equality before the law and property rights.

"
"What were the key elements of the Napoleonic Code?
 
" "Equality before the law, end of feudalism, freedom of conscience, and rule
of law.

"
"What were the limitations of the Code?
 
" "Favored property owners, reinforced male authority, and banned workers’
unions.

"
"What economic reform did Napoleon introduce in 1800?
 
" "The Bank of France, stabilizing currency and banking.

"
"How did Napoleon manage state finances?
 
" "Balanced the budget, ended forced loans, and controlled inflation.

"
"What was Napoleon’s biggest education reform?
 
" "A state-controlled secondary school system (lycées).

"
"Who benefited from the educational reforms?
 
" "Middle-class boys; the poor and girls were mostly excluded.

"
"What subjects were emphasized in Napoleonic schools?
 
" "French, mathematics, and administrative skills.

"
"What was the Legion d’Honneur (1802)?
 
" "A merit-based reward system replacing noble privileges.

"
"Why did Napoleon keep bread prices low?
 
" "To prevent riots like those of the Revolution.

"
"How did Napoleon control information?
 
" "He censored newspapers, shut down 60 of 73 in 1800, and monitored mail.

"
"What role did spies play under Napoleon?
 
" "A vast spy network controlled dissent and censored letters.

"
"How did Napoleon justify press censorship?
 
" "He claimed it was needed for stability and security.

"
"How did Napoleon govern the provinces?
 
" "Prefects replaced intendants, reporting directly to Paris.

"
"Who appointed judges under Napoleon?
 
" "The central government, ensuring loyalty.

"
"How did Napoleon maintain military loyalty?
 
" "By ensuring pay, food, and removing disloyal generals.

"
"What was Napoleon’s main foreign policy goal?
 
" "To secure peace and stabilize France before further expansion.

"
"Why was Napoleon not overthrown by the French people?
 
" "He maintained order, secured property, and satisfied the middle class.

"
"What led to Napoleon’s downfall?
 
" "A coalition of Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria.

"

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History (As Level)

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What were the main reasons for instability during 1790-1795?

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