1.How do we acquire memories?

tasks at the same time

- memory: the nervous system’s capacity to - Selective listening studies: what we do with
acquire and retain info and skills auditory info that is not attended to(Cherry)
- allows to take info from experiences and store it => 두 개의 다른 문장이 헤드셋의 귀마개에서 나옴. 피
for retrieval later 실험자는 한 가지 문장을 따라함.
- processes of memory that last long /short time -결과: the participants often had no knowledge
are different about the content of the unattended message/
- memory: often incomplete, biased, distorted/ not they remembered the important info like their
truth, but perception of what occurred.-> three name in the unattended info
step process
(3) selective attention allows us to filter unwanted
(1) We acquire memories by processing info info
a. encoding: changing info into a neural code the -위의 실험: attention selectively allows us to focus
brain can use on what is important in a situation/ allow us to
b. storage: maintaining info for some time. can be ignore what is irrelevant
fraction, or lasts for a life - some stimuli demand all of our attention and
c. retrieval: re-accessing the info for use nearly prevent the ability to attend to anything
*memory failure: due to how we pay attention to else
the info A. filter theory
- Donald Broadbent
(2) attention allow us to encode a memory - explain how we selectively attend to the most
- attention: a mental process. limited(costs are important info
associated with attending to some info but not - attention = filter: important info is allowed
to others) through the filter, but irrelevant info is
- limited attention: helps us to function in the prevented from getting through the filter
world - 중요한 정보: stimuli that evoke emotions ->
- your attention can be distracted by external provide info about potential threats in our
cues or by internal thoughts and memories environment (ex. face – potential mate/potential
enemy)
A. visual attention - decisions about what to attend to are made
- automatically pay attention to and recognize early in the perceptual process
basic visual features in an environment. -> -> however unattended info can leak through
enable us to selectively attend to a visual object the filter (ex. 듣기 실험에서 피실험자가 집중하지 않은
with one important feature by blocking further 정보에서 나온 자신의 이름을 기억하는 것)
processing of other, dissimilar features
- Visual attention to the feature of color study B. change blindness
a. easy to find a woman who is wearing red coat - an individual’s failure to notice large visual
in the crowd of people who wore black coat changes in the environment
b. uneasy to find a woman who is wearing red - because we cannot attend to everything in the
coat in the crowd of people which has some men vast array of visual info available, we are blind
wearing red coat to even large changes in our environment
=> searching for an object with two features - Research(Simons,Levin)
reveals how attention is a limited process -> people did not noticed that the person who
they informing for directions have been changed.
B. auditory attention - unattended info does not encoded into memory,
- also limited so this things happen
- it is hard to perform two attention demanding - our perceptions of the world are often
 inaccurate, but we cannot aware this continuous stream of information
cf. stroboscopic motion
C. laptops in the classroom - if we focus our attention on some info of
- students who study with laptop, or students who sensory storage, it goes to short-term storage
is near at someone using laptop did not gain
good grades in test (2) working memory allows us to actively maintain
- it takes attention to know what you are missing information in short-term storage
a. 특징
2. how do we maintain memories over time? - function of storage: maintains information for
- Richard Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin immediate use
-> memory store type: sensory storage, - encoding for storage: primarily auditory + also
short-term storage, long-term storage visual and semantic
238p 도표 참고 - duration of storage: about 20 seconds +
(1) Sensory storage allows us to maintain indefinite with working memory manipulation of
information very briefly items
- capacity of storage: about 7 items, plus or
A. five types of sensory stores minus 2 + using working memory aids capacity
a. 특징 b. 특기사항
- function of storage: creates perceptual - short term memory: a memory storage system
continuity for the world around us that briefly holds a limited amount of
- encoding for storage: in the sense it is information in awareness
experiened – visual, auditory, taste, smell, and - working memory: an active processing system
touch that allows manipulation(ex. repeating) of
- duration of storage: up to a few seconds, different types of information to keep it
depending on the sense available for current use/ included in
- capacity of storage: vast due to huge amount of short-term memory process/ we can work on
sensory input short term memory thanks to this process
b. 특기사항 - duration of short term storage
- sensory storage: a memory storage system that -> short-term storage without working memory:
very briefly holds a vast amount of information 20sec
from the five senses in close to their original -> short-term storage may be a location for
sensory formats maintaining memories, working memory allows
- unattended information is lost in the sensory manipulation of sounds, images, and ideas for
storage longer maintenance in short-term storage
- George Sperling’s study about duration/capacity - memory span: generally seven items, increases
of sensory storage as children develop, and decreases with
-> whole report: very brief memory for all 12 advanced aging
words. people only remembered 3~4 letters - chunking: using working memory to organize
-> partial report: people can remember letters information into meaningful units to make it
when the sounds occurred immediately after the easier to remember
letters disappeared / participants maintained many -> why it is easier to recall?
of the 12 items in sensory storage for about one, by using working memory, we can
one-third of a second, and the memory faded manipulate the items to smaller units
progressively away. (239p 그래프와 설명 참고) two, meaningful units are easier to remember
- by maintaining a large amount of information - repetition can extend the duration of short-term
for a fraction of a second, sensory storage storage
enables us to experience the world as a
(3) long-term storage allows us to maintain (4) our long-term storage is organized based on
memories relatively permanently meaning
a. 특징 - long-term storage is based on the meaning of
- function of storage: stores information for the semantic mental representation(complex and
re-access and use at a later time abstract idea, simple images like dog)
- encoding for storage: primarily semantic + also A. schemas: the ways of structuring memories in
visual and auditory + dual coding provides long-term storage that help us perceive, organize,
richest encoding process, and use information / how to chunk info
- duration of storage: probably unlimited depends on schemas
- capacity of storage: probably unlimited -> when sorting out incoming info, schema guide
b. 특기사항 to the relevant feature
- filtered information(which goes to long-term -> schema can lead to biased encoding (ex.
memory) Canadian folktale experiment)
-> info that helps us adapt to our environment -> affect your ability to retrieve info from
– attentional storage: encoding to long-term long-term storage
memory B. association networks
- levels of processing model - networks of associations: a way of the meaning
->encoding: maintenance rehearsal, elaborative of info is organized in long-term storage
rehearsal - Allan Collins, Elizabeth Loftus
- maintenance rehearsal: using working memory - an item’s distinctive features are linked in a
processes to repeat info based on how it way that identifies the item
sounds(auditory info); provides only shallow - 컴퓨터 그래프처럼 생김. 노드-연결선. = bits of info
encoding of info, and less successful long-term linked like neurons
storage - activating one node increases the likelihood that
- elaborative rehearsal: using working memory closely associated nodes in the same category
processes to think about how new info relates to will also be activated = central idea to spreading
ourselves or our prior knowledge(semantic info); activation models
provides deeper encoding of info for more - spreading activation models: a new info
successful long-term storage activates specific node in long-term storage,
- dual coding: visual + semantic encoding => very and increases the ease of access of stored info
successful method to linked material = easier retrieval
- long erm storage lasts longer and has a far - associative network in the brain categorized
greater capacity, and it depends on deep things in hierarchy to find info efficiently
encoding of info
- short-term storage ad long-term storage are 3. what are our different long-term storage
separate systems systems?
- primacy effect: the better memory people have a. Henry Molaison(H.M)
for items presented at the beginning of the list - removed medial temporal lobes + hippocampus
- recency effect: the better memory people have - get anterograde amnesia -> lose ability to store
for the most recent items new information(explicit memory)
- primacy/recency effect explanation b. amnesia types
-> distinction between short-term / long-term - retrograde amnesia: lose memories for past
storage events, facts, people, personal information
-> primacy effects are due to retrieving info - anterograde amnesia: lose ability to form new
from long-term storage / recency effects are due memories
to retrieving info from short-term storage c. memory
- view: memory is one thing -> memory is a
 process that involves several interacting systems - able to work in a factory
- memory system functions: to retain and use
info A. Implicit memory and amnesia
- long-term storage is made up of several - Implicit memory: memories that we are not
memory systems: explicit/ implicit memory conscious of = non-declarative memory
- medial temporal lobe does not influence implicit
(1) our explicit memories involve conscious effort memory
a. after surgery, H.M. was... - types: classical conditioning, procedurl memories
- can think and have normal conversation
- able to remember things for short periods => B. Classical conditioning and procedural memory
short-term storage was intact a. classical conditioning
- could remember what was already in the ->ex. I fear at the sight of a person in a white
long-term storage before the surgery lab coat = associations between a person in a
- remember nothing from minute to minute after white lab coat and pain
the surgery b. procedural memory: involves motor skills and
behavioral habits
A. amnesia and explicit memory - generally so unconscious
- different memory systems are associated with - tend to last a long time
long-term storage
- explicit memory: a type of memory we can (3) Prospective memory lets us remember to do
intentionally retrieve and describe something
-> also called declarative memory because you - prospective memory: remembering to do
can declare these in words something at some future time
-> word - prospective memory reduces
- H.M. could not store new explicit memory -> the number of items we can deal with in
because of the anterogate amnesia. short-term storage
- medial temporal lobe are critical for long-term -> the number of things we can attend to and
storage of new explicit memories process in working memory
- explicit memories types: semantic, episodic - cues: help prospective memory. we can
remember the memory when we have cues
B. Episodic and semantic memory -> when there is no cue: use sticky note/ use
- Endel Tulving found it electronic calendar
- Episodic memory: personal experiences,
information about the time and place each (4) Memory is processed by several regions of our
experiences occurred brains
- Sementic memory: knowledge of facts - distinct brain regions are involved in processing
- episodic and semantic systems of explicit information pertaining to different long-term
memory are separate stores
-> three English children whose episodic A. Memory’s physical locations
memory is impaired but were able to encode and - different brain regions are responsible for
retrieve semantic memories storing different aspects of information =
memory is distributed among different brain
(2) our implicit memories function without regions
conscious effort - temporal lobes (hippocampus): store new explicit
a. H.M. and implicit memory memories / does not involve in implicit memory
- H.M. was able to learn implicit memory - cerebellum: implicit memory system – especially
- ex. drawing a star looking at a mirror procedural memory for learning motor actions
- amygdala: implicit memory – classical long-term storage
conditioning - retrieval cues
- forgetting
B. Consolidation of memories - persistence
- learning = making some of neural connections - distortion
stronger + building new neural connection(in
hippocampus) = consolidation process (1) Retrieval cues help us access our memories
- consolidation: a process by which immediate - retrieval cues: anything that helps a person
memories become lasting through long-term access info in long-term storage
storage A. context and state aid retrieval
a. medial temporal lobes/ hippocampus: - context: event includes details, encoded along
- coordinate and strengthen the connections with the memory -> produces a sense of
among neurons when we learn sth familiarity that helps us retrieve the memory =
- form new memory context-dependent memory effect
- coordinate the storage of information between - when the person is in the same context where
the different cortical sites and strengthens the information was learned, the environment where
connection between these sites. learning took place provides a cure that aids
---------------------------------------------- access to the information
- memories are stored in the brain part which - state-dependent memory: internal cues such as
percepts outside stimuli. ex. visual info -> mood enhances access to a memory
cortical areas involved in visual perception
- remembering: reexperiencing what we B. Mnemonics aid retrieval
experienced => reactivates the same cortical a. mnemonics: learning aids or strategies that use
circuits that were involved when we first get the retrieval cues to improve access to memory
info. b. loci: kinds of mnemonic/ associate items you
want to remember with physical location
C. Reconsolidation of memories
a. reconsolidation (2) We forget some of our memories
- Karim Nader, Joseph LeDoux - forgetting: the inability to access memory from
- once memories are activated, they need to be long-term storage
consolidated again for long-term storage a. Forgetting Curve(Hermann Ebbinghaus)
- when memory of past is retrieved, this memory - the more time he spent learning, the less he
can be affected by new circumstances = forgot
reconsolidated memories may differ from their b. forgetting
original versions - if we cannot forget, we’ll have difficulty
- reconsolidation changes our memories every functioning in normal society
time we access them - forgetting may be necessary for survival
- occurs each time a memory is activated and - normal forgetting helps us remember and use
placed back in storage important information
- explains why our memories for events can - three ways to forgot: interference, blocking,
change over time absentmindedness
- how to alter bad memories? A. interference
-> use the classical conditioning technique of - most forgetting occurs because of interference
extinction during the period when memories are from other information
susceptible to reconsolidation method of altering - two types of interference
4. How do we access our memories? a. retroactive interference
a. processes that affect access of memories in - access to older memories is impaired by newer
 memories A. Memory bias
b. proactive interference - the changing of memories over time so that
- access to newer memories is impaired by older they become consistent with our current beliefs or
memories attitudes
- 지 좋을 대로 기억 바꾸는거
B. Blocking
- occurs when we are temporarily unable to B. Flashbulb memories
remember something - vivid memories seem like a flash photo,
a. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon capturing the circumstances in which we first
- people experience great frustration as they try learned of a surprising and consequential or
to recall specific words already they know. emotionally arousing event
- even if there is que, sometimes people cannot - example of episodic memory
remember the word - not like the problem of persistence, they are
- increases with age not recurring unwanted memories
---------------------------------------------- - inaccurate flashbulb memories even the event
- blocking often occurs because of interference was traumatic
from words that are similar in some way, and - better memory(people are more confident) for
that are repeatedly experienced flashbulb experience than ordinary memory
-> memory(9/11) declined somewhat during the
C. Absentmindedness first year, and remained stable after
- inattentive or shallow encoding of events a. why flashbulb memories little bit more accurate
- cause: failing to pay attention/ caught up in - any event that produces a strong emotional
another activity response is likely to produce a vivid, although
- ex. you absentmindedly forgot where you left may not be accurate memory
the key because you were answering your - distinctive event might simply be recalled more
phone when you put it down easily than a trivial event
- greater media attention -> more exposure to
(3) Our unwanted memories may persist that event
- persistence: occurs when unwanted memories
recur despite our desire not to have them C. Misattribution
a. PTSD (Posttraumatic stress disorder) - occurs when we misremember the time, place,
- when person have experienced horrible(?) person, or circumstances involved with a
situation memory
- 치료약 propranolol: blocks norepinephrine a. source amnesia: when we have a memory for
receptors -> the memories and fear response an event but cannot remember where we
for that event are reduced, and the effect lasts encountered the information
for months - absence of childhood memory -> not fully
- 치료방법..아마.: extinction can be used during developed frontal lobes
reconsolidation - cryptomnesia: we think we have come up with a
----끝 new idea, but really we have retrieved an old
- erasing memory: ethical questions idea from memory and failed to attribute the
idea to its proper source -> can be serious
(4) Our memories can be distorted problem(plagiarism)
- human memory is really quite flawed
- distortion: memory bias, flashbulb memories, D. Suggestibility
misattribution, suggestibility, false memories - when people are given misleading information,
this info affects their memory for an event
- in some experiments..
-> the way that the question was asked
apparently influenced the participant’s memory for
the information => suggestibility of memories in
long-term storage
- suggestibility of memories in long-term storage:
creates problems for one of the most powerful
forms of evidence in our justice system:
eyewitness account
- why is eyewitness testimony so prone to error?
-> change blindness: if we are not attending to
the information(or the crime scene), it won’t be
encoded in brain

E. False memories
- peoples sometimes develop false memories, and
they are very confident about their memory
- when a person imagines an event happening, he
or she forms a mental image of the event. the
person might later confuse that mental image
with a real memory
- the person has a problem figuring out the
source of the image
- children are especially likely to develop false
memories

<결론>
!! although most times our memory system works
well, there are occasions when our memories can
be distorted or flat-out wrong !!