Igneous rocks form through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

These rocks are distinctly different from sedimentary and metamorphic

rocks, which originate from the deposition of material at the Earth’s surface
and the transformation of existing rocks
under pressure and temperature changes. Let’s explores the nature of
igneous rocks, their types, formation processes, properties, classification,
and textures.

What Are Igneous Rocks?

Igneous rocks form from the solidification of molten rock material. They are
categorized based on their origin, texture, and mineral composition. Unlike
sedimentary rocks, which form by the compaction and cementation of
various particles, or metamorphic rocks, which are formed from the
alteration of existing rock types in the Earth’s crust due to heat and pressure,
igneous rocks originate directly from molten material.

Properties of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are characterized by several distinct properties:

1. Crystalline Texture: They often have a crystalline texture due to the

interlocking of crystals that form as the molten rock cools.

2. Hardness and Density: Most igneous rocks are hard and dense.

3. Mineral Content: They contain a variety of minerals, including quartz,

feldspar, mica, and olivine.

4. Color Variations: Their color ranges from light (in rocks with high
silica content) to dark (in rocks with low silica content).

Main Types of Igneous Rocks

The main classification of igneous rocks is by their formation:

Volcanic or Extrusive Igneous Rocks

These rocks form when magma erupts onto the Earth’s surface, where it is
called lava, and cools rapidly. This rapid cooling often results in fine-grained
textures. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks include:

 Basalt: A dark, fine-grained rock, commonly found in oceanic crust.

 Andesite: Typically found in volcanic arcs associated with subduction

zones.

Plutonic or Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools slowly beneath
the Earth’s surface, leading to the formation of large crystals. Examples of
intrusive igneous rocks include:

 Granite: Known for its coarse-grained texture and used commonly in

countertops.

 Gabbro: A dense, dark-colored rock, often found in the Earth’s oceanic

crust.
Word Origins

Knowing the word origins of the terms helps in remembering what they
mean:

 Igneous: Comes from the Latin word “ignis” meaning “fire,”

highlighting the rock’s fiery origin.

 Volcanic: Named after Vulcan, the Roman god of fire, referring to rocks
formed from lava that erupts from volcanoes.

 Plutonic: Named after Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld,

representing their formation deep within the Earth.

Remember that “intrusive” rocks form inside the ground from magma, while
“extrusive” rocks form externally, from lava.

Formation and Global Distribution

Igneous rocks form at various locations on Earth, including:

 Mid-Ocean Ridges: Basaltic rocks form as magma rises and cools at

these spreading centers.

 Volcanic Arcs: Arcs are associated with subduction zones, where

andesites and rhyolites are common.

 Hot Spots: The Hawaiian Islands, where basaltic lava flows are typical,
are an example of a hot spot.

 Continental Crust: This is where granite and other plutonic rocks

form.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are classified based on their texture, mineral composition, and
the environment of formation. The key factors include:

 Texture: Grain size, shape, and arrangement of crystals.

 Composition: Based on the silica content, they are categorized as

felsic, intermediate, mafic, or ultramafic.

 Formation Environment: This is whether they are volcanic or

plutonic.

Silica Composition

The classification of igneous rocks based on composition revolves around the

silica (SiO2) content and the proportion of various minerals present in the
rock. This classification categorizes igneous rocks into four primary groups:
felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic. Each group has distinct
characteristics and typical rock types associated with it.

1. Felsic Igneous Rocks

 Definition: Felsic rocks are rich in silica (over 65%) and contain a high
proportion of lighter minerals like quartz and feldspar. The term “felsic”
derives from “feldspar” and “silica”.
  Characteristics: These rocks are generally light in color, ranging from
white to pink or light grey. They have a high content of aluminum,
potassium, and sodium.

 Examples:

o Granite: A coarse-grained rock, typically light in color, used

widely in construction.

o Rhyolite: The volcanic equivalent of granite, usually fine-grained

and often exhibiting flow bands.

2. Intermediate Igneous Rocks

 Definition: Intermediate rocks consist of roughly equal amounts of

felsic and mafic minerals, with silica content typically between 52%
and 65%.

 Characteristics: They display a mix of light and dark minerals,

resulting in a more diverse color range from grey to greenish.

 Examples:

o Diorite: A coarse-grained plutonic rock with a salt-and-pepper

appearance, commonly used in decorative architecture.

o Andesite: The extrusive counterpart of diorite, commonly found

in volcanic arcs associated with subduction zones.

3. Mafic Igneous Rocks

 Definition: Mafic rocks have a lower silica content (45-52%) and are
rich in iron and magnesium. The term “mafic” combines “magnesium”
and “ferric” (iron).

 Characteristics: These rocks are darker in color, typically grey, green,

or black. They are denser than felsic rocks.

 Examples:

o Basalt: A fine-grained volcanic rock, often forming the ocean

floor and volcanic islands.

o Gabbro: The intrusive equivalent of basalt, featuring a coarse-

grained texture.

4. Ultramafic Igneous Rocks

 Definition: Ultramafic rocks have the lowest silica content (less than
45%) and are very rich in iron and magnesium minerals.

 Characteristics: They are the darkest and most dense among the
igneous rocks, typically green to dark grey or black.

 Examples:

o Peridotite: Dominantly composed of the mineral olivine and

often found in the Earth’s mantle.
 o Dunite: Almost entirely made up of olivine, it is sometimes
mined for its olivine content.

The Relationship Between Color and Composition

The color of igneous rocks generally darkens as the silica content decreases.
Felsic rocks, with their high silica content, tend to be light-colored.
Meanwhile, ultramafic rocks, with the lowest silica content, are the darkest.
This color variation often provides a quick visual clue to the rock’s
composition and, by extension, its origin and formation process.

Textures of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks exhibit various textures:

 Phaneritic: Coarse-grained texture due to slow cooling (typical of

plutonic rocks). Granite is a common example of a phaneritic igneous
rock. This rock has large, visible crystals of minerals such as quartz,
feldspar, and mica.

 Aphanitic: Fine-grained texture due to rapid cooling (typical of

volcanic rocks). Basalt is a classic example of an aphanitic igneous
rock. The crystals are so small that they are often not visible to the
naked eye.

 Porphyritic: Contains both large and small crystals, indicating a

complex cooling history. Porphyritic andesite is a rock that displays a
porphyritic texture that has large crystals (phenocrysts) embedded in a
finer-grained matrix.

 Glassy: Formed from very rapid cooling, resulting in a non-crystalline

structure. Obsidian is a volcanic glass that exhibits a glassy texture.
This texture forms when lava cools so rapidly that atoms do not have
time to arrange into a crystal structure.

Tips for Identifying Igneous Rocks

Identifying igneous rocks involves two key steps: first, distinguishing them
from sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, and then determining their
specific type. Here is a list of practical tips for identifying a rock:

Distinguishing Igneous Rocks from Sedimentary and Metamorphic

Rocks

Usually, you can tell a rock is igneous just by looking at it. Using a
magnifying glass helps in examining structure, too.

1. Texture:

o Igneous rocks often have a crystalline texture with interlocking

grains.

o Sedimentary rocks typically show layers or are composed of

fragments cemented together.

o Metamorphic rocks usually have a foliated or banded appearance

due to pressure.
 2. Grain Size:

o Fine-grained or glassy textures are common in volcanic igneous

rocks.

o Coarse-grained textures, where individual minerals are visible,

are typical of plutonic igneous rocks.

o Sedimentary grains are often rounded, while metamorphic rocks

have elongated minerals.

3. Presence of Fossils:

o Fossils are present in many sedimentary rocks but absent in

igneous rocks.

4. Voids or Vesicles:

o Igneous rocks, particularly volcanic ones, may have voids

(vesicles) left by escaping gases.

5. Lack of Layering:

o Unlike sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks generally do not have

layers.

Determining the Specific Type of Igneous Rock

Once you know the rock is igneous, the next step is identifying the specific
type of rock. Some of the key characteristics are visible, but others rely on
physical and chemical tests and knowing the rock’s origin.

1. Color and Composition:

o Light-colored rocks (high in silica) suggest a felsic composition

(e.g., granite, rhyolite).

o Dark-colored rocks indicate a mafic or ultramafic composition

(e.g., basalt, gabbro).

2. Texture:

o Coarse-grained textures where minerals are easily visible are

characteristic of plutonic rocks, such as granite.

o Fine-grained or glassy textures suggest volcanic rocks, such as

basalt or obsidian.

3. Mineral Composition:

o Identify key minerals: quartz, feldspar, olivine, pyroxene,

amphibole.

o Rocks with quartz and potassium feldspar are typically felsic.

o Rocks with olivine and pyroxene are typically mafic or ultramafic.

4. Hardness and Density:

 o Igneous rocks are generally hard and dense, especially mafic and
ultramafic rocks.

5. Presence of Phenocrysts:

o Large, well-formed crystals (phenocrysts) in a finer matrix

suggest a porphyritic texture, indicative of complex cooling
histories.

6. Magnetic Properties:

o Some mafic rocks, like basalt, have magnetic properties.

7. Reaction to Acid:

o Some igneous rocks, like those containing calcite, fizz upon

contact with dilute hydrochloric acid.

8. Location and Geological Context:

o The location where the rock was found provides clues. For
example, granite is often found in continental crust, while basalt
is common in oceanic crust and volcanic islands.

9. Use of a Hand Lens or Microscope:

o A closer inspection of grains and crystals can provide more

information about the rock’s composition and history.

Identifying igneous rocks requires careful observation of physical

characteristics and an understanding of their formation processes. It’s a skill
that improves with practice and experience.

References

 Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). Petrology (2nd ed.). W.H.

Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-2438-4.

 Fisher, Richard V.; Schmincke, H.-U. (1984). Pyroclastic Rocks. Berlin:

Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-12756-9.

 Irvine, T. N.; Baragar, W. R. A. (2011). “A Guide to the Chemical

Classification of the Common Volcanic Rocks”. Canadian Journal of
Earth Sciences. 8 (5): 523–548. doi:10.1139/e71-055

 Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). Principles of Igneous and

Metamorphic Petrology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 9780521880060.

 Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003). Volcanism. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-

3-540-43650-8. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-18952-4