UNIT – III-NEW MEDIA

Chapter-1- Convergence and the New Possibilities of

Communication

ICE Age: The New Era of Information, Communication, and Entertainment

The concept of the ICE Age refers to the current era, characterized by the integration of
Information, Communication, and Entertainment (ICE) into nearly every aspect of
modern life. This term represents how these three pillars have become central to the
way we live, work, and interact with the world. As technology evolves, ICE is reshaping
industries, societies, and individual lifestyles.

Information: The Digital Age of Knowledge

In the modern ICE Age, information is more accessible than ever. The internet has
become a vast repository of knowledge, where individuals can search for, share, and
consume information in real time. Digital technologies, like search engines, databases,
and cloud computing, allow for the storage, retrieval, and dissemination of information
on a global scale. Key aspects of the information revolution include:

• Big Data: The collection and analysis of large datasets that drive decision-
making in businesses, governments, and research.

• Artificial Intelligence: AI and machine learning are enhancing how information

is processed and interpreted, making it easier to predict trends and automate
tasks.

• Social Media: Social platforms are both a source and a medium for spreading
information across networks, influencing opinions, and shaping public
discourse.

Communication: Instant Connectivity

Communication has undergone a transformation due to the rise of digital technology. In

the ICE Age, communication is fast, instantaneous, and multi-modal, allowing people
to connect across the world with ease. This has led to a shift in how people interact with
one another—both personally and professionally. Some key components of
communication in the ICE Age include:

• Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram facilitate real-
time communication between users, brands, and governments.
 • Messaging Apps: Tools like WhatsApp, Telegram, and Slack make
communication more efficient by providing instant messaging, file sharing, and
even video calls.

• Video Conferencing: Tools like Zoom and Microsoft Teams have revolutionized
business and education, making remote communication more accessible and
effective.

Entertainment: A Digital Playground

Entertainment in the ICE Age is no longer limited to traditional media such as television
or cinema. It has evolved into a digital and interactive experience, where
entertainment is customized, on-demand, and immersive. Key trends in entertainment
today include:

• Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and YouTube have disrupted
traditional media consumption by offering vast libraries of movies, TV shows,
and videos for streaming.

• Video Games: The gaming industry has expanded beyond consoles into mobile
devices, virtual reality (VR), and online multiplayer experiences.

• Interactive Content: Social media platforms and gaming companies are

increasingly blending entertainment with interactivity, such as live-streaming,
gaming tournaments, and interactive storytelling.

The Interconnected ICE Ecosystem

Information, communication, and entertainment are now interconnected in ways that

were not possible before. For example, social media platforms offer not only a place to
communicate but also to consume entertainment and share information. Video
streaming platforms also serve as communication tools through live chats and
comment sections. The integration of these elements creates an ecosystem where
consumers are also creators, making it possible to easily share information, express
opinions, and entertain audiences.

Challenges and Considerations

While the ICE Age has brought many advantages, it also presents challenges that need
to be addressed:

• Information Overload: With the massive amount of data available, filtering

valuable, accurate information from noise becomes a growing concern.

• Privacy and Security: As communication and entertainment platforms collect

more data, privacy issues and data security are becoming more critical.
 • Digital Divide: Access to the digital world is not universal. Economic and
geographical barriers may leave some people disconnected from the ICE Age.

Conclusion

The ICE Age represents a shift in how humans interact with the world through the lenses
of information, communication, and entertainment. It is a dynamic era marked by rapid
technological advancements and new opportunities for connection and creativity.
However, with these changes come challenges that require responsible management to
ensure a balanced and equitable digital future.

Walter Lippmann: Media and Public Opinion

Walter Lippmann (1889-1974) was an influential American intellectual, journalist, and

media philosopher. His work, particularly the 1922 book "Public Opinion," remains a
critical analysis of the role media plays in shaping democracy and public
understanding.

Key Ideas from Public Opinion (1922)

• Role of the Media in Democracy: Lippmann's central argument in Public

Opinion was that for a democracy to function successfully, the average citizen
(voter) must be well-informed. In a well-functioning democracy, voters need
access to accurate and relevant information to make informed decisions,
particularly when voting on public matters.

• Concerns Over the Lack of Information Systems: In 1922, the information

infrastructure was inadequate. Mass media, as we understand it today, did not
exist at that time:

o Radio was still in its early stages.

o Newspapers were limited in reach, primarily serving more affluent and

literate populations. The majority of society did not have access to a wide
range of information.

Lippmann expressed concern about the lack of an adequate system to provide

citizens with the information necessary to participate fully and effectively in democratic
decision-making.

Transformation in Information Availability

• Rise of Mass Media: Over the decades since Lippmann's work, the spread of
mass media—including radio, television, and the internet—has significantly
changed the landscape of information access. Today, channels for the
dissemination of information are widespread, and virtually anyone with access
to a media platform can obtain information on a variety of topics.
However, while the availability of information has expanded, new challenges have
emerged:

o Quality of Information: The ease with which information can be

produced and disseminated raises questions about its accuracy, quality,
and reliability.

o Efficacy of Information: It's not just about the quantity of information

available, but how well it informs and educates the public in meaningful
ways.

Media's Political and Humanistic Dimensions

• Political Impact: The media plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion,
influencing how citizens perceive political events, figures, and policies. The
media's capacity to create narratives, set agendas, and shape political
discourse has profound consequences for democratic processes. This has the
potential to enhance or undermine public engagement and political
participation.

• Humanistic Dimensions: Beyond politics, media also has significant

implications for the cultural and humanistic aspects of society. It affects how
people understand social issues, engage with different communities, and
develop empathy for others. Media plays a crucial role in educating people
about broader human experiences and fostering social cohesion.

Conclusion: Media and Democracy

While the problem of information scarcity that Lippmann identified has been largely
addressed with the expansion of mass media, the quality and impact of the information
shared remain key concerns. The media's role in democratic societies is not only to
provide information but to ensure that information is accessible, accurate, and
enabling for all citizens to make informed choices. In this way, media continues to
shape the political and humanistic dimensions of modern life, influencing everything
from elections to social values.

Majid Tehranian: Megatrends of the 21st Century

Majid Tehranian, an Iranian thinker and social scientist, has significantly contributed to
discussions about global trends and their impacts on society. He identifies three
megatrends that define our era, particularly in the context of the 21st century:

The Three Megatrends:

1. Globalization

2. Regionalization
 3. Democratization

1. Globalization

• Description: Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the

world through the movement of people, goods, services, and information. This
phenomenon is driven by technological advances—particularly in
communication and transportation—that allow for faster and more efficient
global interactions.

• Impact: Globalization has led to more integrated economies, cultures, and

political systems. International institutions (e.g., the UN, World Bank) and
organizations have become central in shaping the global landscape.

2. Regionalization

• Description: Regionalization is the process where countries within specific

regions come together to form economic, political, and cultural associations.
This trend can be seen in regional cooperation efforts like the European Union,
ASEAN, and African Union.

• Impact: Regionalization enables countries to tackle issues that are specific to

their geographic areas (e.g., trade agreements, environmental concerns). It can
serve as a counterbalance to the overwhelming power of globalization, focusing
on local and regional needs.

3. Democratization

• Description: Democratization refers to the spread of democratic systems and

the principles of democracy—free elections, human rights, rule of law, and
political freedoms—across the globe.

• Current Status: Tehranian argues that democratization is lagging behind

globalization and regionalization. While the collapse of the Soviet Union in
1991 marked the end of a major autocratic power and the expansion of
democratic ideals, democratization has not progressed uniformly across the
world.

o In some regions, democratization has accelerated, with many countries

transitioning to more democratic systems.

o However, there are still significant challenges, such as authoritarian

regimes, political instability, and civil rights violations in many parts of
the world.

Post-1991: The World After the Collapse of the Soviet Union

 • Impact on Global Politics: Tehranian views the post-1991 world as one where
democratization has become an undeniable force, but the actual
implementation of democratic systems has varied. While Eastern Europe and
some Asian countries have seen transitions to democracy, many regions, such
as parts of Africa and the Middle East, continue to struggle with authoritarianism
and political unrest.

Tehranian’s View on the Three Megatrends

• Interconnection: Globalization and regionalization are moving forward rapidly,

thanks to advancements in technology and the formation of international and
national institutions. These processes are fundamentally reshaping the global
landscape.

• Challenges for Democracy: While globalization and regionalization have

advanced, democratization has faced slower progress. Tehranian sees
democratization as a work-in-progress, hindered by various political, cultural,
and economic factors. However, he remains optimistic, acknowledging the
global trend towards democratic ideals, even though the process is uneven and
incomplete.

Conclusion

Tehranian's analysis highlights the complex relationship between these three

megatrends—globalization, regionalization, and democratization. Understanding how
they interact helps us contextualize the challenges and opportunities of the 21st
century. While globalization and regionalization proceed rapidly, democratization
remains a critical and ongoing struggle for many nations, with the success of this
process directly impacting global political dynamics.

Amartya Sen: The Development and Challenge of Democracy

Amartya Sen, an Indian economist and philosopher, regards democracy as one of the
most significant contributions of the 20th century. However, he believes that the real
challenge of the 21st century is the completion of democracy, implying that
democracy is still a work-in-progress and requires ongoing efforts to be fully realized
and effective.

Key Views on Democracy by Amartya Sen:

1. Democracy and Human Freedom

o Democracy as Integral to Human Freedom: Sen emphasizes that

democracy and associated political freedom are essential components
of human freedom. In his view, political freedom, which is a cornerstone
of democracy, allows individuals to participate in decisions that affect
 their lives, giving them control and agency in society. This, in turn,
contributes to the overall well-being of people and the flourishing of
society.

2. Democracy Enhances Political Attention to Weaker People

o Empowerment of the Vulnerable: Sen argues that democracy helps

weaker or marginalized groups receive more political attention. In
democratic systems, the government is accountable to its people, and
this accountability means that the voices of disadvantaged or less
powerful groups can be heard and addressed. Democracy serves as a
platform for social inclusion, ensuring that disenfranchised sections of
society have the opportunity to shape policies that affect them.

3. Open Public Discussion and Representative Participation

o Formation of Values and Priorities: According to Sen, democracy fosters

the formation of values and priorities through open public discussions
and representative participation. In a democratic system, citizens have
the right to express their opinions, engage in debates, and influence
policies. This open exchange of ideas and collective decision-making
process helps form a more just and fair society by reflecting the will and
interests of the people.

Democracy as a Process of Creating Just Institutions

• Just Institutions and Social Justice: In Sen's view, democracy is not just about
elections and voting but about establishing just institutions that provide
checks and balances, protect human rights, and ensure the well-being of all
members of society. A well-functioning democracy aims to establish social
justice by ensuring that all individuals, especially vulnerable populations, have
equal opportunities and access to resources.

The Role of Mass Media in Democracy

• Mass Media as Public Space: Mass media have become critical in democratic
societies, as they provide the public space necessary for ongoing debates,
discussions, and the dissemination of information. Despite concerns about
media bias or superficial coverage, Sen acknowledges that a free media plays
an essential role in facilitating democratic processes.

o Free media allows for the public accountability of government officials,

the dissemination of diverse opinions, and the scrutiny of societal
issues, thus contributing to a well-informed and active citizenry.
 • Challenges in Media: Sen also recognizes that media can sometimes be
shallow or overly commercialized, which may reduce their effectiveness in
facilitating meaningful discussions. However, he highlights that despite such
flaws, free media can still serve as a critical pillar for democracy, providing a
platform for public discourse, social movements, and political engagement.

Conclusion

Amartya Sen's perspective on democracy underscores its ongoing evolution and the
need for complete democratization. Democracy is essential not only for ensuring
political freedom but also for fostering social justice, empowering vulnerable groups,
and creating institutions that serve the common good. In this context, the mass media
play a vital role in providing the space for public debate and holding the government
accountable, even as challenges related to media quality persist.

Model of Mass Communication Before the Internet

Before the rise of the Internet, mass communication followed a traditional model that
had several distinct features. This model revolved around the broadcasting of
messages from a small number of producers or organizations to a vast audience. The
key characteristics of this model included:

1. Broadcasting of Messages

• One-to-Many Communication: The process of mass communication involved

sending messages from a few central sources (such as media organizations,
broadcasters, or publishers) to a large number of receivers (the public). This
broadcasting model was hierarchical, with control concentrated in the hands of
a small number of media producers.

• Limited Interaction: The interaction was mainly one-way, with minimal

feedback from the audience to the producers. The public received the message
without the ability to easily engage or influence the content.

2. Gigantic Organizations/Corporations

• Monopolies in Content Production: Mass communication before the internet

was dominated by large media corporations (such as television networks, radio
stations, and newspapers). These organizations had control over the production
and distribution of content.

• Content Gatekeepers: A few media giants dictated the types of messages and
information that reached the public, serving as the gatekeepers of information.
Their power determined what the general public was exposed to in terms of
news, entertainment, and educational content.
3. Huge Technical Infrastructure

• Complex Distribution Networks: To reach mass audiences, media

organizations required significant technical infrastructure, such as radio
towers, satellite systems, broadcasting stations, and printing presses. These
systems allowed for the wide dissemination of content to large geographical
areas.

• Technological Barriers: The infrastructure required substantial investment and

maintenance. The costs and complexities of setting up and running these
systems often acted as a barrier to entry, limiting the number of organizations
able to engage in mass communication.

4. Large-Scale Investment and Revenue Model

• High Initial Investment: The cost of establishing and maintaining the required
infrastructure was extremely high. This involved capital-intensive investment in
technology, equipment, and human resources. Only large organizations or
corporations with significant financial resources could afford such setups.

• Advertising-Based Revenue: The primary revenue model for mass

communication organizations was advertising. With vast audiences, media
companies attracted advertisers who paid to have their messages broadcast to
large numbers of people. This advertiser-driven model was the cornerstone of
profitability for most mass media outlets.

Summary

Before the advent of the Internet, mass communication was controlled by a few large
organizations with extensive resources. The system was characterized by centralized,
one-way communication, vast infrastructure, and a revenue model reliant on
advertising. This model shaped how information was disseminated to the public,
limiting audience participation and interaction.

The Changed Paradigm Due to the Internet

The rise of the Internet has dramatically transformed the traditional model of mass
communication. Several key changes have occurred, fundamentally altering the way
information is produced, shared, and consumed. These changes have socio-political
implications and have empowered individuals in ways that were not possible before.

1. Empowering the Individual to Post Data

• Decentralized Content Creation: Unlike the traditional model, where a few

large organizations controlled information dissemination, the Internet has
empowered individuals to create and share their own content. Anyone with
 internet access can now post articles, videos, opinions, or news on platforms
like blogs, social media, and websites.

• Democratization of Information: This shift has democratized the production of

information, allowing for diverse perspectives and voices that were previously
marginalized or ignored in traditional media.

2. Information Triggering Activity Across Multiple Mediums

• Cross-Media Interaction: Information on the Internet is no longer confined to

one platform or medium. A single piece of content (such as a viral video or a
tweet) can trigger activity across multiple media platforms, such as social
media, news outlets, forums, and even traditional media like television and
radio.

• Integration of Different Forms of Communication: The fluidity of information

across various mediums enables a more interactive and multifaceted
experience for users. For instance, an event or issue discussed in a social media
post can lead to discussions in podcasts, YouTube videos, and news articles,
creating a multilayered conversation.

3. Many Sources of the Same Information

• Multiplicity of Perspectives: The internet provides access to numerous sources

offering the same piece of information from different viewpoints. This diversity
of sources allows individuals to choose what aligns with their views or interests,
often leading to more personalized information consumption.

• Crowdsourced Information: With platforms like Wikipedia, forums, and social

media, information is now often crowdsourced, where individuals contribute
their knowledge and experiences. This can both enrich the information and also
create challenges related to accuracy and verification.

4. Global Distribution of Information

• Unprecedented Reach: The internet allows for the global distribution of

information, breaking down the traditional barriers of geography, time zones, and
language. Information can now spread instantaneously to millions or even
billions of people, connecting individuals across countries and continents.

• Viral Content: Information, news, or events can go viral and be disseminated at

an incredibly rapid pace, bypassing traditional media channels. This has
transformed how events unfold and how information spreads.

5. Rapidity of Opinion Generation

 • Real-Time Reactions: The internet enables the rapid formation of public
opinion on a local, national, and global scale. Through platforms like Twitter,
Facebook, Reddit, and forums, users can express their views on ongoing events
almost immediately after they occur.

• Instant Feedback Loops: This immediacy leads to dynamic and constantly

evolving conversations, where opinions can change rapidly based on new
information or shifting trends.

6. The Socio-Political Implications of the New Information Order

• Political Mobilization: The Internet has become a powerful tool for political
activism and social movements. It has allowed for rapid mobilization of people
for causes, protests, and political change, as seen in movements like the Arab
Spring, Black Lives Matter, and others.

• Political Polarization: While the internet has enhanced political participation, it

has also been criticized for amplifying polarization. Online echo chambers and
filter bubbles can create information silos where individuals are exposed only to
viewpoints that reinforce their own beliefs.

• Access and Digital Divide: Not all individuals have equal access to the internet,
leading to issues of digital inequality. The digital divide creates a gap between
those who have access to the Internet and the resources to utilize it effectively,
and those who do not.

7. The Strengthening of Democracy

• Increased Political Participation: The internet has given more people access to
political discussions, debates, and participation. Social media platforms allow
citizens to voice their opinions, interact with elected officials, and participate in
civic activities.

• Transparency and Accountability: The Internet enables greater transparency in

governance and accountability for political leaders. Citizens can access
information about government actions, hold leaders accountable, and even
organize efforts to challenge injustice or corruption.

• Enhancing Free Speech: As the internet has become a platform for free
expression, it has reinforced democratic principles by offering individuals the
chance to participate in public discourse, engage in debates, and form collective
action.

Summary

The internet has brought about a significant shift in the paradigm of mass
communication. It has empowered individuals, facilitated cross-media interactions,
allowed for the global distribution of information, and accelerated the generation of
opinions. The socio-political implications of this new information order include both
positive aspects, like enhanced democracy and greater access to information, as
well as challenges like polarization and digital divides. The rapid spread of information
and the ability for individuals to participate in a global conversation have profound
implications for society, politics, and democracy.

EXERCISE ANSWERS

1. Role of Various Technologies in the Development of the Age of Information

The age of information has been shaped by several key technological advancements
that have transformed the way we produce, store, and disseminate information.

• Printing Press (15th Century): The invention of the printing press by Johannes
Gutenberg made it possible to mass-produce books, pamphlets, and other
written materials. This technology played a critical role in the spread of
knowledge, enabling the dissemination of information to a wider audience.

• Telegraph and Telephone (19th Century): The advent of the telegraph and
telephone revolutionized communication, allowing messages to be sent over
long distances in real time. This marked the beginning of instant communication
across vast areas.

• Radio and Television (20th Century): The development of radio and television
broadcasting made it possible to disseminate information to large, diverse
audiences. This democratized information access, although it was still
controlled by a few corporations and governments.

• The Internet (Late 20th Century): The Internet further accelerated the age of
information by providing a platform for individuals to share data and access
information at the click of a button. It connected the world globally, facilitated
the growth of social media, and created a space for the rise of "user-generated
content."

• Mobile Technology (21st Century): With the introduction of smartphones and

mobile devices, information became portable and easily accessible anywhere.
These devices have transformed how we access the internet, with social media
platforms, apps, and mobile websites becoming integral to daily life.

These technologies have collectively contributed to the acceleration of information

exchange, enabling individuals to become both consumers and producers of content,
creating a more connected and informed society.

2. Majid Tehranian's Three Megatrends Characterizing Our Era

Majid Tehranian identifies three major megatrends that define our era:

• Globalization: The rapid integration of the world through technological

advancements, communication systems, and trade. Globalization has led to an
increasingly interconnected world where events in one part of the world can
affect others.

• Regionalization: While globalization connects the world, regionalization refers

to the growing importance of regional alliances, groupings, and organizations.
Countries are forming regional blocks to address economic, political, and
cultural needs more effectively.

• Democratization: The process of expanding democratic values and institutions

worldwide. Although democratization has progressed, Tehranian observes that it
often lags behind globalization and regionalization, with many nations still
grappling with democratic transitions.

3. Relationship Between Information and Democracy According to Walter Lipmann

Walter Lipmann, in his influential book Public Opinion (1922), explored the relationship
between information and democracy. Lipmann argued that for democracy to function
effectively, voters must be well-informed. He expressed concerns about the absence of
an effective system for disseminating information at the time. Without access to
accurate and widespread information, the average citizen cannot make informed
choices, which is crucial for the functioning of a democracy.

With the rise of mass media, such as radio and newspapers, Lipmann believed that the
spread of information would become more widespread and accessible, making it easier
for people to participate in democratic processes. However, he warned that the quality
of the information still remained a critical issue. Misinformation and biased narratives
could distort public opinion and undermine democracy, making it essential to ensure
the quality and transparency of the information presented.

4. Amartya Sen's Views on the Challenge Democracy Faces in the 21st Century

Amartya Sen, a renowned economist and philosopher, views the development of

democracy as one of the greatest achievements of the 20th century. However, he also
identifies several challenges that democracy faces in the 21st century:

• Completing Democracy: Sen emphasizes that while democracy has expanded

globally, its full realization is still a work in progress. In many parts of the world,
democratic institutions are either weak or under threat.
 • Political Freedom: According to Sen, democracy is not just about voting but also
about ensuring that individuals have the political freedom to make choices and
participate actively in public life. Without such freedom, democracy cannot
thrive.

• Public Reasoning and Participation: Sen argues that democracy must be seen
as a process of public reasoning where individuals engage in open debate to
shape societal values and priorities. This requires active participation in civic life,
which may be hindered by economic inequality or lack of education.

• Inclusive Growth: For Sen, the challenge of completing democracy in the 21st
century lies in addressing the economic and social inequalities that limit
participation. Effective democratic functioning requires both political freedom
and the opportunity for individuals to have their basic needs met.

5. Functioning of a Virtual Classroom and the Role of Internet in Disseminating

Education

• Virtual Classroom: A virtual classroom is an online environment where students

and instructors interact via the internet. It can include live lectures, recorded
videos, discussion forums, and digital assessments. Virtual classrooms allow
students to attend courses remotely, enabling access to education without the
need to be physically present in a traditional classroom.

Components:

o Video Conferencing: Platforms like Zoom, Google Meet, or Microsoft

Teams enable real-time interaction between instructors and students.

o Learning Management Systems (LMS): Systems like Moodle or

Blackboard allow for course management, submission of assignments,
and communication between students and faculty.

o Asynchronous Learning: Pre-recorded lectures and materials allow

students to learn at their own pace.

• Role of Internet in Disseminating Education: The internet plays a pivotal role in

the expansion of education through open and distance learning (ODL) modes. It
provides access to a wide range of educational resources such as online
courses, e-books, and interactive lessons. It has particularly made a difference
for those in remote or underserved areas, offering a more affordable and
accessible option for education.

Benefits:
 o Global Access: Education can reach learners across borders, eliminating
the need for geographical proximity.

o Flexibility: Learners can access materials at their convenience, making it

easier to balance studies with other commitments.

o Cost-Effectiveness: Online courses are often more affordable compared

to traditional classroom-based education.

6. Impact of Information Technology on the Lives of Poor People in India

Information Technology (IT) has had significant positive effects on the lives of poor
people in India in terms of economic, social, and personal development:

• Economic Development:

o Job Assistance: IT enables poor individuals to access job portals, apply

for jobs, and gain skills through online training. Platforms like Naukri.com
and LinkedIn help connect job seekers with employers.

o Marketing Produce: Farmers and small business owners can sell their
products via online platforms like eBay or Amazon, and use auctions or
direct marketing to global buyers.

• Social Development:

o Democratization of Knowledge: The internet has made a wealth of

information available for free, including educational content, government
schemes, and social services. This has empowered marginalized
communities by providing them access to essential resources.

o Transparency in Government: IT has increased transparency in

government functioning, reducing corruption and enabling citizens to
track government projects and policies.

o Disaster Management: IT aids in real-time disaster management by

providing information, facilitating rescue operations, and delivering
humanitarian aid during natural calamities.

• Personal Development:

o Education Access: IT has made lifelong learning and universal education

more accessible. Online learning platforms like Coursera and EdX enable
people to enhance their skills and knowledge.

o Healthcare Access: Telemedicine services have improved healthcare

accessibility in remote areas. Online consultations with doctors, health
 education, and access to information on hygiene and disease prevention
are vital for improving public health.

o Gender Equality: IT reduces gender bias by offering equal opportunities

for education and employment through digital platforms, empowering
women in rural and urban areas.

In conclusion, Information Technology has had transformative effects on India's poor,

helping to bridge the gaps in economic, social, and personal development, fostering
an inclusive society.