9/2/24, 9:56 AM Assignment 2024-09-02

Question 1 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 12

Paper 1B: Data-based questions

Answer all questions.

Gold used in jewellery is typically combined with other metals to enhance certain physical properties, such as colour,
hardness and strength. A jeweller wishes to find out the effect on the colour of a gold alloy when different ratios of
metals are combined. Below is some data for several gold alloys.

Alloy 1 Alloy 2 Alloy 3 Alloy 4

Gold 91.67 % 91.67 % 91.67 % 91.67 %

Silver 0% 1.00 % 3.00 % 5.00 %

Cobalt 0.73 % 0.73 % 0.73 % 0.73 %

Boron 0.02 % 0.02 % 0.02 % 0.02 %

Copper 7.58 % 6.58 % 4.58 % __________

Colour pink/yellow pale pink/yellow yellow green/yellow

(i) Identify the dependent and independent variables for this experiment.

[1]

(ii) State two controlled variables in this experiment.

[1]

(iii) Calculate the mass of copper required to make a 10.0 g sample of Alloy 3, expressing your answer with three
significant digits.

[2]

(iv) Estimate a possible value to complete the missing one in the table above.

[1]

(v) Identify one weakness with the collection of data in this experiment.

[1]

(vi) State the type of bonding present in alloys.

[1]

(b) A similar experiment was done with gold alloys, but testing for different physical properties.

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Hardness Tensile strength

Sample % gold % silver % copper
(HV) (N/mm2)
100 % gold 100 – – 55 200

Alloy A 91.7 5.5 2.8 138 390

Alloy B 91.7 3.2 5.1 142 463

(i) State two conclusions that can be drawn using the data above regarding the composition of the alloy and the
resulting physical properties.

[1]

(ii) Predict values for the hardness and tensile strength for an alloy composed of 91.7 % gold, 4.0 % silver and 4.3 %
copper.

[2]

(iii) Outline one strength and one limitation for this experimental data that affects the ability to confidently draw a
valid conclusion.

[2]

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Question 2 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 16

Paper 1B: Data-based questions

Answer all questions.

A student is synthesising acetylsalicylic acid, a drug commonly known as aspirin, with the following chemical
reaction.

The salicylic acid and acetic anhydride were mixed together with a few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid and
heated in a water bath for 20 minutes. The mixture was then cooled in an ice bath where white crystals formed. The
white crystals were then filtered by vacuum filtration and allowed to dry overnight in a dessicator.

The following data was collected:

(a)

Measurement Qualitative observations

salicylic acid 8.00 g white powdered solid

acetic anhydride 4.00 cm3 colourless liquid

sulfuric acid (18 mol dm–3) 5 drops colourless liquid

product collected 8.34 g fine white crystalline solid

(i) Explain why the reaction mixture was heated.

[1]

(ii) Determine which reactant is the excess reagent for this reaction. The density of acetic anhydride is 1.08 g cm–3.

[3]

(iii) Calculate the theoretical yield for this reaction.

[1]

(iv) Suggest the most likely reason why the actual yield differs from the experimental yield. If you did not obtain a
result in (iii), use 7.00 g as the theoretical yield, even though this is not the correct answer.

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[1]

(v) State an ordinary laboratory technique for purifying a sample of aspirin.

[1]

(b) The student then analyses the sample using paper chromatography. Samples of salicylic acid, commercial aspirin
and the aspirin collected in the experiment were applied 1 cm from the bottom of a strip of chromatography paper
and placed in a polar solvent. When dried, the paper was examined under UV light and the spots were traced. The
chromatogram is shown below.

(i) Calculate the retardation factor, Rf, for salicylic acid and commercial aspirin.

[2]

(ii) State, with justification, which substance in (b) (i) is more polar.

[2]

(iii) Predict the effect, if any, on the value of Rf for the salicylic acid if the chromatography experiment was repeated
with a nonpolar solvent.

[2]

(iv) Comment on the number of spots per lane.

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[2]

(v) Suggest another technique, other than chromatography, that can be used to confirm the purity of the aspirin.

[1]

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Question 3 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 11

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

Phosphorus(III) bromide is a colourless liquid. Phosphorus(V) bromide is a yellow solid which sublimes when
heated. The solid is ionic and consists of [PBr4]+ and Br− ions, but in the gas phase PBr5 molecules are present.
Phosphorus(V) bromide is hydrolysed by water producing hydrogen bromide:

PBr5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + 5HBr(aq)

(a) Draw Lewis (electron dot) structures for PBr3 and PBr5 and sketch their molecular shapes.

[4]

(b) State the bond angles present in PBr5 and account for the bond angle in PBr3 being approximately 107°.

[4]

(c) Deduce the shape of the [PBr4]+ ion.

[1]

(d) Determine the hybridisation of the phosphorus in phosphorus(III) bromide and the oxygen in water.

[2]

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Question 4 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 21

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

(a) For each of the molecules C2H2, C2Cl4 and SF4, draw their Lewis (electron dot) structures, and use the valence
shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory to predict their molecular geometry and bond angles.

[9]

(b) Explain what is meant by a σ bond and a π bond. Describe a double covalent bond and a triple covalent bond in
terms of σ and π bonds.

[4]

(c) State the type of hybridisation in the carbon atoms in C2H2 and C2Cl4.

[2]

(d) Draw two resonance structures for the ethanoate ion (CH3COO−) and the benzene molecule.

[4]

(e) Outline what is meant by the term delocalisation of electrons.

[2]

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Question 5 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 4

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

Two resonance structures (A and B) of the sulfate ion, SO42−, are shown below.

Structure A

Structure B

(a) State which of these structures obeys the octet rule.

[1]

(b) Deduce the formal charge of sulfur in the two structures.

[2]

(c) State which structure is the preferred Lewis structure based on formal charges.

[1]

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Question 6 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 6

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

Ozone, O3, is found in high concentrations in the stratosphere.

(a) Deduce the Lewis structures of ozone, O3 and oxygen, O2.

[2]

(b) Outline why ozone exists as two resonance structures.

[1]

(c) Explain the difference in energy required to break the bonds in ozone and oxygen.

[2]

(d) Outline the role of ozone in the stratosphere.

[1]

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Question 7 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 9

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

Alloys have enhanced properties when compared with pure metals. Bronze is an alloy that is composed of copper
and tin and is commonly used to make statues.

(a) State and explain the type of bonding that occurs in pure copper metal.

[2]

(b) Outline why pure copper is a good electrical conductor.

[1]

(c) Explain why pure copper is malleable.

[2]

(d) Explain why bronze is harder than pure copper.

[2]

(e) Outline the two factors that affect the melting point of a pure metal.

[2]

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Question 8 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 10

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

The two compounds boron trifluoride, BF3, and aluminium fluoride, AlF3, differ substantially in their physical
properties: their melting points, for instance.

Compound Melting point / oC

Boron trifluoride –144

Aluminium fluoride 1291

(a) Deduce the type of bonding present in each of these compounds and sketch their Lewis formulas.

[4]

(b) Suggest why boron trifluoride and aluminium fluoride have different melting points.

[2]

(c) Boron trifluoride forms a compound with ammonia. The reaction occurs in the gas phase.

(i) Describe the type of covalent bond that is formed during this reaction.

[2]

(ii) Draw the Lewis diagram and structural formula for the compound (adduct) formed in this reaction.

[2]

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Question 9 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 9

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

(a) The trend in the boiling points of the hydrides of group 15 is shown in the graph below. Discuss the reasons for
the variation in the boiling points of this series of compounds.

[4]

(b) Explain, using diagrams, why NO2 is a polar molecule but CO2 is a non-polar molecule.

[3]

(c) Describe the structure and bonding in silicon dioxide.

[2]

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Question 10 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 10

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

The type of bonding present in an element or compound can be used to explain its physical properties. Use your
understanding of the key features of different types bonding and structure to explain the following:

(a) Explain why one form of carbon (diamond) is a very hard substance that does not conduct electricity whereas
another form of carbon (graphite) is very soft and a good electrical conductor.

[6]

(b) Describe the bonding within and between the molecules of liquid bromine.

[2]

(c) Explain why an ionic solid such as lithium fluoride does not conduct electricity until it is heated above its melting
point.

[2]

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Question 11 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 4

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

(a) Using the framework of the x, y and z coordinates, draw the shape of the pz atomic orbital.

[1]

(b) State the electron configuration of Fe3+ ion and determine the number of unpaired electrons in the ion.

[2]

(c) The element selenium (Z = 34) has electrons in the 4s, 3d and 4p orbitals. Draw an electron in box diagram to
represent these electrons.

[1]

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Question 12 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 10

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

A student uses paper chromatography to separate a mixture of the three amino acids, alanine, glycine and valine, as
can be seen in the diagram below.

(a) (i) State the name of the line represented by the letter X.

[1]

(ii) Using the values in the diagram, calculate the RF value of spot B.

[2]

(b) The literature RF values for the amino acids are shown in the table below.

Amino acid RF value

Alanine 0.38

Glycine 0.26

Valine 0.61
(i) Identify which amino acid each spot (A, B, C) is.

[1]

(ii) Using the literature value, calculate the percentage error of the value calculated in part aii)

[2]
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(c) The structural formulas of the three amino acids are shown below. The solvent used in the experiment was a
mixture of butanol and ethanoic acid.

(i) Explain, by comparing the structures, why there is an increase in RF values from glycine to alanine to valine.

[3]

(ii) Explain why a pencil is used to draw the base line instead of a pen.

[1]

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Question 13 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 12

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

Electrical wires often consist of copper with a plastic coating.

(a) Draw a labeled diagram showing the lattice structure of copper metal.

[2]

(b) State the particles in your diagram from part (a) that are responsible for the conductivity of metals.

[1]

(c) Predict and explain whether potassium or copper would have a higher melting point.

[3]

(d) Explain why copper is malleable and why this is an important property for a material that is to be used in wires.

[3]

(e) State why in a wire the metal is coated with plastic.

[1]

(f) A student measures the electrical conductivity of different metals and collects the data in the table shown below.
State two mistakes that the student has made when displaying this information.

[2]

Metal Electrical conductivity

lithium 1.10 × 107

sodium 2.1 × 107

potassium 1.4 × 10 7

rubidium 0.830 × 107

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Question 14 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 19

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model is used to determine the electron domain geometry, the
molecular geometry and the bond angles in molecules.

(a) (i) Draw the Lewis structure of boron trichloride, BCl3.

[1]

(ii) State the molecular geometry of boron trichloride justifying your answer.

[2]

(iii) Explain what the term electron deficient means referring to boron trichloride.

[1]

(iv) Explain why aluminium would form a similar compound as boron trichloride when bonding to chlorine.

[1]

(b) (i) Draw the Lewis structure of sulfur dioxide

[1]

(ii) State the molecular geometry of sulfur dioxide.

[1]

(c) (i) State the electron domain geometry of boron trichloride and sulfur dioxide.

[1]

(ii) State the bond angles in boron trichloride and sulfur dioxide.

[2]

(iii) Explain, referring to the VSEPR theory, why the bond angles differ between boron trichloride and sulfur dioxide.

[3]

(d) (i) State and explain whether boron trichloride and sulfur dioxide can conduct electricity.

[2]

(ii) State whether or not sulfur dioxide is soluble in water, and explain your choice by making reference both to the
shape of the molecule and to the bond polarity.

[4]

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Question 15 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 12

Paper 2: Data-based questions

Answer all questions.

The polymer polychloroethene (commonly referred to as polyvinyl chloride or PVC) is used to make many common
household plastic items, such as water pipes.

(a) Define the term polymer.

[2]

(b) Draw the structural formula of the monomer that is used to make polychloroethene.

[1]

(c) Draw a repeating unit of the polymer polychloroethene.

[3]

(d) Name and describe the type of polymerisation reaction that occurs to form polychloroethene.

[2]

(e) Explain what type of intermolecular forces there are between the polymer chains of polychloroethene.

[2]

(f) State two properties of polychloroethene that make it a suitable material for water pipes.

[2]

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Question 16 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 20

Paper 2: Data-based questions

Answer all questions.

Many common household items are made out of plastic.

(a) Polypropene (commonly referred to as polypropylene) is a polymer that is used to make many everyday objects.

(i) Draw the structural formula of the monomer propene.

[1]

(ii) Draw two repeating units of the polymer polypropene.

[2]

(iii) Name the type of polymerization reaction that occurs to form polypropene.

[1]

(iv) Some food containers are made from polypropene. State two properties of polypropene that make it a suitable
material for a food container.

[2]

(b) Nylon 6,6 is a polymer, made from the two monomers shown below, that can be used in fibers for clothing.

(i) Name the functional groups present in each monomer.

[2]

(ii) Draw the polymer formed when these two monomers bond.

[3]

(iii) Name the type of polymerisation reaction that occurs to form nylon 6,6.

[1]

(iv) Name the byproduct formed when these two monomers bond.

[1]

(v) Name the type of reaction when nylon 6,6 is broken down in strong acid solutions.

[1]

(vi) Identify the intermolecular forces present in polypropene and in nylon 6,6 and explain which polymer you would
expect to have a higher melting point.
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[3]

(c) The polymer polyethylene terephthalate, shown below, can also be used in fibers for clothing.

(i) Draw the structural formula of the two monomers that form this polymer.

[2]

(ii) Identify the functional group that links the two monomers together.

[1]

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Question 17 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 20

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

Compounds have varying degrees of ionic and covalent character, as shown in the van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle in
section 17 of the Data Booklet.

(a) The following oxides are formed from group 2 metals:

BaO, CaO, BeO

(i) Order the compounds in order of increasing ionic character.

[1]

(ii) Justify your answer in part (a) (i).

[2]

(b) Aluminum can form the compounds aluminum iodide, AlI3, and aluminum fluoride, AlF3.

(i) Define the term electronegativity.

[1]

(ii) Calculate the electronegativity difference, ∆χ, and average electronegativity, Σχ, of each compound.

[2]

(iii) Using the values calculated in part (b) (ii) and section 17 of the data booklet, state the type of bonding in each
compound.

[2]

(iv) State and explain which compound will have a higher melting point.

[3]

(c) Four compounds (A–D) are placed in the van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle shown below.

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(i) State and explain whether A or B would have a higher boiling point.

[3]

(ii) State which compound conducts when solid and which compound only conducts when molten or dissolved.

[2]

(iii) Explain how the compounds in part (c) (ii) conduct electricity.

[2]

(iv) State and explain which compound would make a good material for a cooking pot.

[2]

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Question 18 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 20

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

A student has drawn the following diagram below to represent the structure of a metal.

(a) State what A and B represent in the metallic structure.

[2]

(b) Metals are considered to have high melting points, but the melting points of metals vary. The melting points of
the Group 1 metals are displayed in the table below.

Metal Melting point/°C

lithium 181

sodium 98

potassium

rubidium 39

caesium 28
(i) Predict the melting point of potassium.

[1]

(ii) State and explain the trend in melting points down group 1.

[3]

(iii) State and explain the difference in melting points between sodium and magnesium.

[3]
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(c) Metals can be mixed with other metals or non-metals to form alloys. For example, stainless steel consists of iron,
chromium and carbon.

(i) Sketch the lattice of an alloy.

[2]

(ii) Explain the difference between the malleability of stainless steel and of pure iron.

[3]

(iii) State a use of stainless steel that relies on the different malleability it has when compared with that of pure iron.

[1]

(d) The table below shows the electrical conductivity of different metals.

Metal Electrical conductivity / S m–1

lithium 1.1 × 107

silver 6.2 × 107

copper 5.9 × 107

sodium 2.1 × 107

rubidium 8.3 × 106

gold 4.5 × 107

(i) Using the data in the table, identify the type of metals that have a higher electrical conductivity.

[1]

(ii) Explain why these metals have a higher electrical conductivity.

[2]

(iii) Define the term ductile.

[1]

(iv) Explain why copper is more commonly used in wires instead of silver.

[1]

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Question 19 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 22

Paper 2: Data-based questions

Answer all questions.

Some compounds display resonance, where more than one possible Lewis structure can be drawn.

(a) A student draws the following two Lewis structures for the phosphate ion, PO43–.

(i) Calculate the formal charge of the phosphorus and the oxygen atoms in both structures.

[2]

(ii) Using these values calculated in part (a)(i), explain which is the correct structure.

[2]

(iii) Draw a possible resonance structure of structure B.

[1]

(iv) Explain, using structure B as an example, what is meant by an expanded octet.

[3]

(b) Benzene, C6H6, also displays resonance.

(i) Draw the two possible resonance structures of benzene.

[2]

(ii) Define what is understood as a sigma bond.

[1]

(iii) State the number of sigma and pi bonds in benzene.

[2]

(iv) State the hybridization of the carbon atoms in benzene.

[1]

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(v) Describe how these hybrid orbitals of the carbon atoms in benzene molecules are formed.

[2]

Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. Graphene is a single layer of graphite, as shown in the diagram below. The carbon
atoms in graphene display the same hybridisation as in benzene.

(c) State and explain whether graphene has a high or low electrical conductivity.

[2]

(d) Diamond is another allotrope of carbon. Its structure is shown below.

(i) State the hybridisation of the carbon atoms and the geometry around each carbon atom in diamond.

[2]

(ii) State and explain whether diamond has a high or a low melting point

[2]

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Question 20 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 20

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

Ammonia, NH3, is formed in the Haber process and is an economically important molecule as it can be used to make
fertilisers.

(a) (i) Draw the Lewis structure of ammonia.

[2]

(ii) State the molecular geometry of ammonia and state the H–N–H bond angle.

[2]

(iii) Explain why ammonia has a higher boiling point than methane, CH4, although they have similar molecular
masses.

[2]

(b) Ammonia can act as a Brønsted–Lowry base accepting a proton, H+, to form the ammonium ion, NH4+.

(i) Draw the Lewis structure of the ammonium ion.

[2]

(ii) Name the molecular geometry of ammonium ions and state the H–N–H bond angle.

[2]

(iii) Explain the difference in the H–N–H bond angles when comparing the ammonia molecule with the ammonium
ion.

[2]

(iv) Using the ammonium ion as an example, explain what a coordinate bond is.

[1]

(v) Explain whether or not the bonds in the ammonium ion are polar and whether or not the ammonium ion is polar.

[3]

(c) Nitrogen can also form the following molecules: nitrogen (N2), hydrazine (N2H4), and azomethane
(CH3NNCH3).

(i) Determine the order of the molecules in terms of increasing N-N bond length.

[1]

(ii) Determine the order of the molecules in terms of increasing N-N bond strength.

[1]

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(iii) Explain the relationship between bond length and bond strength.

[2]

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Question 21 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 8

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

(a) (i) Thin layer chromatography, utilising hexane as the non-polar solvent, is used to separate spices in a mixture.
The resulting chromatogram is shown below:

Calculate the Rf value for each component of the spice mixture.

[3]

(ii) Identify the mobile and stationary phase in this thin layer chromatography separation.

[2]

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(iii) Order the spices in the mixture from most polar to least polar.

[1]

(b) The experiment was repeated with a sample of curcumin to compare with the spice mixture. The results are
shown below:

Conclude as to whether curcumin is present in the spice mixture using a calculation to back up your answer.

[2]

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Question 22 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 20

Paper 2: Short-answer and extended-response questions

Answer all questions.

(a) (i) Diazonium salts are important reagents in organic chemistry for performing reactions on a phenyl group. An
example of a diazonium salt is shown below:

Based on the structure, deduce the type of bond that exists between the chloride ion and the nitrogen in the
diazonium salt, providing a reason for this deduction.

[2]

(ii) The synthesis of the diazonium salt is shown below:

Nitrous acid (HNO2) is an important part of this reaction as it provides the nitrogen that is added to the molecule.
Deduce the Lewis structure for HNO2.

[2]

(iii) Predict the electron domain geometry and molecular geometry around the nitrogen atom in nitrous acid.

[2]

(iv) Hydrochloric acid is the other essential component of this reaction as it ensures that the nitrous acid is not
converted into its salt, nitrite. Using Sections 9 and 17 of the data booklet, determine the percent covalent character
and bonding type between the H and Cl in hydrochloric acid.

[2]

(b) (i) Once the diazonium salt is formed, it is very useful in further reactions to create substituted benzenes
following the Sandmeyer reaction:

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Draw two resonance structures for the product, cyanobenzene, showing the bonding that exists between the carbon
and nitrogen atoms.

[1]

(ii) Cyanobenzene is an example of an aromatic hydrocarbon. State the two conditions of cyclic molecules for them
to be considered aromatic.

[2]

(iii) Benzene is known to exist as a hexagonal structure with delocalized electrons in the p orbitals. Describe two
different pieces of physical evidence for the structure of benzene.

[2]

(iv) Chemical evidence for the structure of benzene involves a study of the isomers of substituted benzenes. Draw
the two isomers of 1,2-difluorobenzene.

[2]

(v) Draw the actual (average) structure for 1,2-difluorobenzene, accounting for resonance.

[1]

(c) (i) The formation of the diazonium salt and the Sandmeyer Reaction include carbon-nitrogen single bonds
(between the amino and the benzene ring) and a carbon-nitrogen triple bond in the nitrile group. Nitrogen is also
capable of forming double bonds with carbon in what are known as imines. In the imine shown below, determine
how many non-bonding and bonding electrons are present around the nitrogen.

[2]

(ii) Rank the following bonds in order from longest to shortest in terms of bond length:

N–N N≡N N=N

[1]

(iii) Rank the following bonds in order from strongest to weakest in terms of bond strength:

N–N N≡N N=N

[1]

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Question 23 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Marks: 10

Paper 2: Data-based question

Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

Ozone, O3, plays an important role in the stratosphere. The bond enthalpies of oxygen and ozone are shown in Table
1.

Table 1
Species Bond enthalpy / kJ mol−1
O2 498

O3 364

(a) Determine the wavelength of light, in metres, required to break the bonds in ozone and oxygen.

[2]

(b) Explain your answers to part (a) in terms of the wavelength of light required to break the bonds in oxygen and
ozone.

[2]

(c) The formation and destruction of ozone is a natural process which is disrupted by nitrogen monoxide in a process
known as ozone depletion.

(i) State one source of nitrogen monoxide in the atmosphere.

[1]

(ii) Deduce two equations that show how NO causes ozone depletion in the
stratosphere.

[2]

(d) Ozone depletion can also be caused by chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs.

(i) State one source of CFCs in the atmosphere.

[1]

(ii) Deduce two equations that show how CFCs cause ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

[2]

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Question 24 of 24
Structure 2: Models of bonding and structure

Levels: ,

Marks: 6

Paper 2: Data-based question

Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, also known as limestone, is found in sedimentary rocks.

(a) State the two types of bonding that occur in solid calcium carbonate.

[1]

(b) Explain why the carbonate ion, CO32−, exists as resonance structures.

[1]

(c) Predict the geometry and the bond angle around the carbon atom in the carbonate ion.

[2]

(d) Comment on the length and strength of the C–O bonds in the carbonate ion.

[2]

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Answers

Question 1 of 24

Question Answers Total

dependent – colour (of alloy) AND

(a) (i) independent – percentage of silver OR copper ✓ 1

1 mark for both correct variables.

percentage of gold, percentage of boron, percentage of cobalt (in the

(a) (ii) alloy) ✓ 1
1 mark for any two correct responses.

Alloy 3 has 4.58% Cu × 10.0 g sample = 0.458 g Cu required. ✓✓

(a) (iii) 2
1 mark for correct calculation; 1 mark for correct significant digits.

100 – 91.67 – 5 – 0.73 – 0.02 = 2.58 % ✓

(a) (iv) 1
1 mark for correct calculation.

Colour perception is subjective/qualitative, so difficult to measure or

(a) (v) 1
determine. ✓

(a) (vi) metallic bonding ✓ 1

As percentage of silver decreases (or percentage of copper increases), the

(b) (i) 1
hardness increases and the tensile strength increases. ✓

Hardness: 140 (HV) accept any value 139–141 ✓

(b) (ii) Tensile strength: 425 (N/mm2), accept any value 410–440 ✓ 2

1 mark for each value.

Strength: control of 100% gold was used for comparison (negative

control) to compare with the pure base metal. ✓

Limitation: very little data was collected – not enough variations of

(b) (iii) 2
independent variable (changes to composition of alloy) and no repeats.
The trend cannot be extended further for other ratios of Ag/Cu. ✓

OWTTE. 1 mark for each correct response.

Question 2 of 24

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The heat increases the rate of reaction to decrease the time required for the
(a) (i) 1
reaction to take place. ✓

8.00 g
salicylic acid: = 0.0579 mol
138.12 g mol−1
4.32 g
acetic anhydride: 4.00 cm3 × 1.08 g cm–3 =
102.09 g mol−1
(a) (ii) 2
= 0.0423 mol ✓

since the reagents react in a 1:1 ratio, the excess reagent is therefore
salicylic acid ✓

1 mark for correct mol of each reagent.

1 mark for identifying excess reagent with reference to mole ratio.

using the limiting reagent from (ii) / allow for ECF from above

0.0423 mol salicylic acid = 0.0423 mol aspirin

(a) (iii) 1
0.0423 mol × 180.16 g mol–1 = 7.62 g ✓

1 mark for correct mass.

actual yield
% yield = ( ) × 100%
theoretical yield
8.34 g
% yield = ( ) × 100%
7.62 g

% yield = 109% ✓
(a) (iv) 2
Allow ECF, using 7.00 g as the theoretical yield or the value obtained in
(iii).

impurity of unreacted salicylic acid is present in the product as both are

white solids. ✓

1 mark for correct answer.

1 mark for reason.

recrystallisation (in warm solvent and then cooled and refiltered). ✓

(a) (v) 1
1 mark for name or correct description of technique.

(b) (i) distance travelled by spot 2

Rf = .
distance of solvent front
4 cm
Lane 1 (salicylic acid) Rf = = 0.5 ✓
8 cm

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6 cm
Lane 2 (aspirin) Rf = = 0.75 ✓
8 cm
2 marks for correct calculation. Penalise 1 mark only for incorrect
distance of solvent front.

aspirin is more polar ✓ AND because it travelled farther with the mobile
(b) (ii) 2
phase (polar solvent) than salicylic acid ✓

Rf would increase; ✓

The more nonpolar substance would travel farther with the mobile phase
(b) (iii) (nonpolar solvent). ✓ 2

1 mark for correct identification and justification.

1 mark for correct prediction and justification.

Lane 1 and 2 both contain pure substances – 1 spot per substance; ✓

(b) (iv) Lane 3 contains a mixture of two different substances – 1 spot per 2
substance. ✓

(b) (v) melting point – an impurity would lower the melting point. ✓ 1

Question 3 of 24

Question Answers Total

(a) Lewis electron dot structures for PBr3 and PBr5: ✓✓ 4

Molecular shapes for PBr3 and PBr5: ✓✓

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The bond angles in PBr5 are 90° and 120°, respectively. ✓

The bond angle in PBr3 is approximately 107° ✓

(b) since a lone pair of electrons (due to its more diffuse nature) produces 4
more repulsion than a bonding pair, ✓

hence the bond angle is reduced below the tetrahedral bond angle of 109°
28'. ✓

Number of electrons in valence shell of central phosphorus atom = (5 + 4

− 1) = 8;
(c) Number of electron pairs contributing to basic molecular shape = 4; 1
Molecular geometry is tetrahedral ✓

The hybridisation of the phosphorus in phosphorus(III) bromide and the

(d) 2
oxygen in water are both sp3. ✓✓

Question 4 of 24

Question Answers Total

(a) Each correct structure (with non-bonding electron pairs where relevant) 9

C2H2 linear/straight ✓
Bond angle 180° ✓

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✓

C2Cl4 (trigonal) planar at each carbon ✓

Bond angle 120° ✓

SF4 distorted tetrahedron/see-saw ✓

Bond angle <90° and <120° ✓

Sigma bonds involve a head-on overlap of atomic orbitals (s and s, s and

p, p and p). Pi bonds result from the sideways overlap of p orbitals. ✓✓
(b) 4
Double bond: a sigma bond and a pi bond. Triple bond: a sigma bond plus
two pi bonds. ✓✓

sp (C2H2); ✓
(c) 2
sp2 (C2Cl4) ✓

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(d) 4

✓✓✓✓

Correct chemical structures for one mark per set and both resonance
structures for second mark

Delocalisation ✓
(e) when pi electron pairs are not confined to two adjacent bonding atoms but 2
extend over three or more atoms. ✓

Question 5 of 24

Question Answers Total

Structure B – in this Lewis structure, the sulfur atom is surrounded by
(a) 1
8 electrons; in structure A, the sulfur is surrounded by 12 electrons. ✓

0 and +2

(b) Structure A: FC = V − ½B − L = 6 − 6 − 0 = 0 ✓ 2

Structure B: FC = V − ½B − L = 6 − 4 − 0 = +2 ✓

Structure A. This is because in structure A the sulfur and the two

double bonded oxygens have a formal charge of zero and then the 2
single bonded oxygens each have a formal charge of -1, which gives an
(c) overall formal charge of -2. Structure B has the same overall formal 1
charge however the differing structure gives a formal charge of +2 of
sulfur and -1 on each of the 4 oxygens, which is obviously a much less
stable structure as fewer of the atoms possess a zero formal charge. ✓

Question 6 of 24

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(a) Correct Lewis structure of ozone ✓ 2

Correct Lewis structure of oxygen ✓

Do not accept resonance hybrid structures

More than one position for the oxygen to oxygen double bond / ozone has
(b) 1
delocalised electrons ✓

Oxygen has a double bond, ozone has an intermediate bond between a

(c) single and a double bond (bond order 1.5); ✓ 2
Double bond in oxygen is stronger than intermediate bond in ozone ✓

Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation. ✓

(d) 1
Accept UV radiation

Question 7 of 24

Question Answers Total

Metallic bonding; ✓

Attraction between lattice of metal cations/positive metal ions

(a) 2
and delocalised electrons. ✓

underlined term must be included in answer for mark

(b) Pure copper has delocalised electrons ✓ 1

Layers of atoms can slide over each other; ✓

(c) Metallic bond is not broken ✓ 2

OWTTE

Different sized tin atoms distort the lattice structure; ✓

(d) 2
Prevents the layers from sliding over each other. ✓

(e) Ionic radius and charge on the metal ion; ✓ 2

Both required for 1 mark

Higher charge and smaller radius results in a stronger metallic

bond and a higher melting point. ✓

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OWTTE

Question 8 of 24

Question Answers Total

BF3 has covalent bonds between the atoms ✓

✓
(a) 4
AlF3 has ionic bonding ; ✓

BF3 has weak intermolecular forces between the molecules ✓

(b)
AlF3 has strong ionic bonds between the ions ✓ 2

a (covalent) coordination bond is formed; ✓

(c) (i) 2
the lone pair on the N of the ammonia molecule forming the bond to
the (electron deficient) B atom ✓

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(b) (ii) 2

✓✓

one mark for Lewis diagram and one for structure including
coordination bond

Question 9 of 24

Question Answers Total

The boiling points increase going down the group (from PH3 to AsH3 to
SbH3). ✓

Mr / number of electrons/molecular size increases down the group; ✓

(a) 4
this gives rise to greater dispersion forces. ✓

Ammonia has a higher boiling point than expected due to hydrogen

bonding between the molecules. ✓

Diagram showing shape of NO2

and the net dipole (can be explained in words such as ‘unsymmetrical
distribution of charge’) ✓

Diagram showing the shape of the CO2 molecule and the two equal but
opposite dipoles

(b) 3

✓ ✓

(c) Structure: network / giant covalent / macromolecular / repeating 2

tetrahedral units ✓

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Bonding: (single) covalent (bonds) ✓

Question 10 of 24

Question Answers Total

diamond: the carbon atoms are arranged in a three-dimensional lattice
structure, all the atoms are linked by single covalent bonds; ✓

atoms arranged tetrahedrally with no weak points, diamond is very 3

hard; ✓

all the outer (valence) electrons of the carbon atoms are involved in
bonding, no electrons free to conduct ✓
(a)
graphite: layers of covalently bonded carbon atoms arranged in interlinked
hexagonal rings; ✓

forces between the layers are weak dispersion forces, layers can slide over
each other making graphite soft; ✓ 3

delocalised p cloud extending between the layers, electrons are free to

move; responsible for the electrical conductivity of graphite ✓

individual Br2 molecules, atoms are held together by a single covalent

bond (shared pair of outer electrons); ✓
(b) 2
relatively weak interactions between temporary dipoles in the molecules
known as London (dispersion) forces ✓

in the solid state the ions are held in a strong lattice and are not free to
move; cannot conduct; ✓
(c) 2
when molten the ions become free to move and the compound can
conduct electricity ✓

Question 11 of 24

Question Answers Total

(a) draw a dumbbell-shaped orbital along the z-axis ✓ 1

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1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5; ✓

(b) 2
five ✓

(c) 1

Question 12 of 24

Question Answers Total

solvent front ✓
(a) (i) 1
The solvent front is the highest point the solvent, the mobile phase,
reaches on the chromatogram.

(a) (ii) distance moved by spot 2

RF = ✓
distance moved by solvent
or
2.4
RF = ✓
7.0
RF = 0.34 ✓
The retardation factor value, RF, is calculated using the equation
below:

RF = distance moved by spot/ distance moved by solvent

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The higher the RF value the higher the spot moves on the
chromatography paper.

A: glycine ✓

B: alanine ✓
(b) (i) 1
C: valine ✓

Valine has the highest RF value and glycine has the lowest RF value
so they must be C and A respectively.

Percentage error = [(experimental value-accepted value)/accepted

value] × 100 ✓

or

percentage error = [(0.34–0.38)/0.38] × 100% ✓

percentage error = 11% ✓

(b) (ii) 2
The percentage error is calculated by comparing the experimentally
determined value with the accepted value, as seen in the equation
below.

Percentage error = [(experimental value-accepted value)/accepted

value] × 100%

The higher the percentage error, the further the experimental value is
from the accepted value.

all three amino acids contain a NH2 and a COOH group ✓

non-polar hydrocarbon chain increases (on central carbon) ✓

greater solubility in solvent so RF value increases ✓

All three amino acids have similar structures. They all contain the
(c) (i) amine, NH2, and carboxylic acid, COOH, groups. These groups 3
contain very polar bonds so you would expect the amino acids to be
attracted to the polar stationary phase. However, alanine and valine
also contain a hydrocarbon side chain. This non-polar group increases
the solubility of alanine and valine in the solvent. Valine has the
longest hydrocarbon side chain and therefore has the highest RF
value. Note that although butanol contains an OH group it is a non-
polar solvent due to its long hydrocarbon chain.

ink would dissolve in solvent ✓

(c) (ii) The ink would dissolve in the solvent and move up the 1
chromatography paper. This would make it hard to identify the spots
for the amino acids.

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Question 13 of 24

Question Answers Total

(a) 2

cations arranged in layers in an ordered fashion ✓

delocalised electrons throughout the structure ✓

A metal consists of a lattice of cations surrounded by delocalised

electrons.

delocalised electrons ✓

(b) For a material to conduct it must contain charged particles that 1

are free to move. Metals contain electrons that can move
throughout the structure.

(c) copper has a higher melting point than potassium ✓ 3

any two of these three:

copper ion has a higher charge/ potassium ion has a lower

charge ✓

or

a copper ion has a charge of 2+ and a potassium ion has a

charge of 1+ ✓

copper has a smaller ionic radius/ potassium has a larger ionic

radius ✓

copper has more delocalised electrons/ potassium has less

delocalised electrons ✓

Copper forms Cu2+ ions and potassium forms K1+ ions.

Therefore there are more delocalised electrons in the copper
lattice than in the potassium lattice per cation. The copper ions
have a higher charge than the potassium ions. The copper ions
also have a smaller ionic radius than the potassium ions, as the
cation radii decrease across a period. All of these factors lead to

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a stronger electrostatic attraction between the copper cations and
the delocalised electrons.

the layers of ions/atoms/particles can slide over each other ✓

structure held together by electrostatic forces of attraction

(between cations and delocalised electrons) ✓

(d) wires must be able to bend/twist without breaking ✓ 3

In pure metals, the layers of cations can slide over each other
while the structure is maintained by the electrostatic attraction
between the cations and the delocalised electrons. This is an
important property, as wires should be able to bend or twist
without breaking.

any one of the following:

insulation ✓

prevents a short circuit ✓

(e) weather proofing ✓ 1

Wires are often coated with plastic, which is an insulating

material. This protects the users from electric shock when
touching a wire. This also prevents electricity flowing between
two sections of the wire that come into contact with each other
(short circuit). The plastic coating also prevents the wire from
getting damaged or wet (weather proofing).

no units for electrical conductivity ✓

different numbers of significant figures used ✓

(f) 2
The units of electrical conductivity, S/m, should be displaced in
the heading of the table. The values measured should all be
recorded with the same number of significant figures.

Question 14 of 24

Question Answers Total

(a) (i) 1

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three bonding pairs and lone pairs on chlorine atoms

Boron has three valence electrons so it forms three single bonds

to three chlorine atoms.

trigonal planar ✓

three bonding pairs arrange themselves so as to minimize

repulsion ✓

(a) (ii) or 2

three bonding pairs arrange themselves as far apart as possible ✓

There are three bonding pairs around the central boron atom so
the molecular geometry is trigonal planar.

atom has less than 8 valence shell electrons after bonding and
boron has 6 (valence shell electrons after bonding) ✓

(a) (iii) Electron deficient refers to an atom that has less than a complete 1
octet, 8 valence electrons, after bonding. In boron trichloride,
boron only has 6 valence electrons after bonding, so it is
electron deficient.

aluminium is in the same group/ has the same number of valence

electrons and forms the same number of covalent bonds ✓

(a) (iv) Elements in the same group have the same number of valence 1
electrons and therefore tend to form the same number of bonds.
Aluminium can form aluminium chloride, AlCl3, which has the
same molecular geometry as boron trichloride.

(b) (i) one S=O, one S–O, and a lone pair on sulfur ✓ 1
accept single bond as non-coordinate

Sulfur forms two double bonds with two oxygen atoms and is
left with a lone pair of electrons. In this structure all the atoms
have a formal charge of zero.

bent/angular ✓
(b) (ii) 1
There are two bonding pairs and one lone pair around the central
sulfur atom so the molecular geometry is bent.

(c) (i) trigonal planar ✓ 1

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Both boron trichloride and sulfur dioxide have three electron
domains around the central atoms so they both have trigonal
planar electron domain geometries.

boron trichloride: 120° ✓

sulfur dioxide: 117° ✓

(c) (ii) accept value less than 120° but greater than 115° 2
The bond angle in a trigonal planar molecular geometry is 120°.
The bond angle in a bent/angular molecular geometry with three
electron domains is approximately 117°. Note that the actual
bond angle in sulfur dioxide is 119°.

electron pairs around a central atom arrange themselves so as to

minimise repulsion ✓

lone pair/unbound e– pair–bonding pair repulsion > bonding

pair–bonding pair repulsion ✓

bonding pairs move closer together for sulfur dioxide ✓

or
(c) (iii) 3
bond angle decreases for sulfur dioxide ✓

According to the VSEPR model, the bonding pairs around a

central atom arrange themselves as far apart as possible so as to
minimize repulsion. In a trigonal planar molecular geometry the
angle is 120°. However, in a bent/angular molecular geometry a
bonding pair is replaced by a lone pair. As the lone pair-bonding
pair repulsion is greater than the bonding pair-bonding pair
repulsion, the bonding pairs are pushed closer together.
Therefore the bond angle decreases from 120° to 117°.

do not conduct ✓

electrons are not free to move/no charged particles to carry

charge ✓
(d) (i) 2
Simple covalent molecules, such as boron trichloride and sulfur
dioxide, do not conduct electricity. For a substance to conduct
electricity it must contain charged particles that can move and
carry charge. Both compounds are neutral and their electrons are
involved in covalent bonding and therefore are not free to move.

(d) (ii) soluble in water ✓ 4

(sulfur dioxide) contains polar bonds ✓

(sulfur dioxide) is a polar molecule as it is unsymmetrical ✓

polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents/ water is also polar ✓

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Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents. Sulfur dioxide is polar
molecule as it contains polar sulfur oxygen bonds and is
unsymmetrical. Water is also a polar molecule. Sulfur dioxide
dissolves in water and reacts with it to form sulphuric acid.

Question 15 of 24

Question Answers Total

a large molecule/macromolecule ✓

(a) made from repeating units/monomers ✓ 2

Polymers are natural or synthetic macromolecules that consist of
repeating units called monomers.

(b) ✓ 1

Chloroethene is an alkene with the molecular formula C2H3Cl.

Alkenes contain a carbon carbon double bond.

no double bonds ✓
(c) 3
brackets around continuation bonds ✓

n outside of bracket ✓

When monomers bond, the carbon–carbon double bonds break

and a single bond is formed between two carbons from the
different monomers. The continuation bonds at the ends show
that the monomer is bonded to other monomers. The “n” outside
of the brackets represents the number of monomers that the
polymer consists of.

(d) addition (polymerisation) ✓ 2

double bond (of alkene) breaks and single bond is formed

between monomers ✓

or

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addition of monomers with no byproducts ✓

In an addition reaction the double bonds break and each carbon

atom previously involved in the double bond forms a new bond.
In addition polymerisations there are no byproducts.

dipole–dipole forces ✓

polar C–Cl bond ✓

(e) 2
Polychloroethene contains polar C–Cl bonds. As a result, the
polymer chains experience dipole–dipole forces. Note that the
polymer chains are not covalent bonded together.

any two from:

hard ✓

resistant to corrosion ✓

(f) inert/unreactive ✓ 2
melting above boiling point of water ✓

PVC is a hard and durable material. Therefore, the pipes will not
break easily, so there will be no leaks. PVC does not react with
water so the water is not contaminated. Hot water can also be
transported, as PVC has a melting point between 100–260 ℃.

Question 16 of 24

Question Answers Total

(a) (i) ✓ 1

Propene is an alkene with the molecular formula C3H6. Alkenes

contain a carbon carbon double bond.

(a) (ii) 2

no double bonds ✓

brackets around continuation bonds ✓

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When monomers bond the carbon carbon double bonds break and a
single bond is formed between two carbons from the different
monomers. The continuation bonds at the ends show that each
monomer is bonded to another monomer.

addition (polymerisation)s ✓

(a) (iii) The reaction is an addition reaction as the double bond breaks and 1
each carbon, previously involved in the double bond, forms a new
bond. In addition polymerisation there are no byproducts.

any two from:

hards ✓

resistant to heats ✓
(a) (iv) 2
resistant to physical damages ✓

resistant to corrosions ✓

inert/unreactives ✓

hexamethylenediamine: amines ✓

adipic acid: carboxyl acids ✓

(b) (i) 2
The amine group is –NH2.

The carboxylic acid group is –COOH.

amide link correct ✓

(b) (ii) 3
rest of structure correct ✓

bracket around continuation bonds and n outside the bracket ✓

accept (CH2)4 and (CH2)6 used instead of drawing full skeletal

structure

When the two monomers bond an amide link (CONH) is formed.

(b) (iii) condensation (polymerisation) ✓ 1

Unlike in addition polymerisation, where only one functional group

(alkene) is involved in the bond making, in condensation
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polymerisation, two different functional groups are involved. In the
case of nylon 6,6, an amine and a carboxylic acid group are
involved.

Condensation polymerisation can occur with two different

monomers containing different functional groups. In this case,
hexamethylenediamine has two amine groups and adipic acid has
two carboxylic acid groups. However, condensation polymerisation
can also occur with a single monomer that contains two different
functional groups in the same molecule. Nylon 6 is an example of
this, produced by the monomer caprolactam.

water/H2O ✓
(b) (iv) 1
When the two monomers bond an –H from the amine group and an
–OH from the carboxylic group break off forming water.

hydrolysis ✓

Polyamides are hydrolysed in acidic conditions. The acid acts as a

(b) (v) 1
catalyst, while the water molecule acts as a nucleophile attacking an
electron deficient carbon of a carbonyl group (C=O). The
polyamide, nylon 66, breaks down into its constituent monomers.

polypropene: London forces ✓

nylon 6,6: dipole–dipole forces and hydrogen bonding ✓

nylon 6,6 has a higher melting point as the intermolecular forces are
stronger/ hydrogen bonding is stronger than London forces ✓

Remember that although the polymer molecules contain covalent

bonds there are only intermolecular forces between the polymer
molecules.
(b) (vi) 3
Polypropene is a non-polar molecule so it experiences only London
forces.

Nylon 6,6 contains polar C=O groups and so the molecules will
experience dipole–dipole forces. It also contains N–H groups so it
can form hydrogen bonds.

As hydrogen bonds are stronger than London forces, more energy is

required to overcome these forces and nylon 6,6 has a higher
melting point than polypropene.

(c) (i) 2

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accept full structural formula for benzene ring, aromatic or Kekule’s

structure

Polyethylene terephthalate is made out of two monomers. Ethane-

1,2-diol contains two hydroxyl groups. Terephthalic acid contains
two carboxylic acids groups.

ester✓
(c) (ii) 1
Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to form esters. The polymer,
polyethylene terephthalate, is a polyester.

Question 17 of 24

Question Answers Total

(a) (i) BeO < CaO < BaO ✓ 1

electronegativity decreases down the group ✓

or

cation radii increase down the group ✓

(a) (ii) 2
electronegativity difference (between the metal and oxygen)
increases ✓

or

polarising ability of cations decreases down the group ✓

(b) (i) ability to attract shared pair(s) of electrons ✓ 1

(b) (ii) AlF3:

∆𝜒 = 4.0 − 1.6 = 2.4 2

and

(4.0 + 1.6)
𝛴𝜒 = = 2.8 ✓
2
AlI3:

∆𝜒 = 2.7 − 1.6 = 1.1

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and

(2.7 + 1.6)
𝛴𝜒 = = 2.15 ✓
2
AlF3: ionic ✓
(b) (iii) 2
AlI3: polar covalent ✓

AlF3 has a higher melting point than AlI3 ✓

(b) (iv) (strong) electrostatic forces of attraction in AlF3 ✓ 3

weaker London forces in AlI3 ✓

B would have a higher boiling point ✓

molecules of B experience dipole–dipole forces and

molecules of A experience only London forces ✓
(c) (i) 3
more energy is required to overcome dipole–dipole forces ✓

or

dipole–dipole forces are stronger than London forces ✓

D: conducts when solid ✓

(c) (ii) 2
C: conducts when molten or dissolved ✓

D: delocalised electrons ✓
(c) (iii) C: ions are free to move when ionic compound is molten or 2
dissolved ✓

D✓

metals are good thermal conductors ✓

(c) (iv) 2
or

metals have high melting points ✓

Question 18 of 24

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(a) A: cation ✓ 2

B: electron ✓

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A metal consists of a lattice of cations surrounded by delocalised
electrons.

value between 40–97 (°C) ✓

(b) (i) There is a decrease in the melting point going down the group so 1
potassium must have a melting point lower than sodium, but
higher than potassium.

melting points decrease ✓

electrostatic force of attraction (between cation and delocalised

electrons) decreases ✓

(b) (ii) as ionic radius increases ✓ 3

Going down the group the ionic radii increase. As a result, the
delocalised electrons are further from the nucleus. This
decreases the electrostatic attraction. Less energy is required to
overcome the electrostatic forces of attraction, so the melting
points decrease.

magnesium has a higher melting point than sodium/ sodium has

a lower melting point than magnesium ✓

any two of these three:

magnesium has more delocalised electrons/ sodium has less

delocalised electrons ✓

magnesium ion has a higher charge/ sodium ion has a lower

charge ✓
3
(b) (iii) magnesium has a smaller ionic radius/ sodium has a larger ionic
radius ✓

Magnesium forms Mg2+ ions. Therefore there are more

delocalised electrons in the magnesium lattice than in the
sodium lattice per cation. The magnesium ion also has a higher
charge, 2+, than the sodium ion, 1+. Magnesium ions also have
a smaller atomic radius than sodium ions, as ionic radii decrease
across groups 1 to 3. All of these factors lead to a stronger
electrostatic attraction between the magnesium cations and the
delocalised electrons.

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(c) (i) 2

two or more different sized ions/atoms ✓

lattice structure disrupted (interstitial alloy) / some metals ions

replaced with other atoms or ions (substitutional alloy) ✓

There are two main types of alloys. In interstitial alloys, the

element added is in a vacant spot in the lattice. In substitutional
alloys, the element added replaces the metal cation in some parts
of the lattice.

stainless steel is less malleable than pure iron/ vice versa ✓

in pure iron, the layers of ions/atoms/particles can slide over

each other ✓

in stainless steel the lattice structure is disrupted (and layers

(c) (ii) cannot slide over each other) ✓ 3

In pure metals, the layers of cations can slide over each other
while the structure is maintained by the electrostatic attraction
between the cations and the delocalised electrons. In alloys, the
atoms/ions of the different elements disrupt the lattice structure,
so the layers can no longer slide over each other.

any one of the following:

construction ✓

cars ✓
(c) (iii) 1
cutlery ✓

Alloys of steel are harder than pure iron. Therefore, stainless

steel is used in applications where it is not desirable for the
material to break or bend easily. Stainless steel also has the
advantage of rusting less readily.

d block metals ✓
(d) (i) 1
The d-block metals have a higher electrical conductivity than the
Group 1 metals in the table.

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more valence electrons ✓

or

more delocalised electrons ✓

(d) (ii) 2
higher electron density ✓

Transition metals have more valence electrons than Group 1

elements that can be delocalised throughout the lattice. There is
a higher electron density in the structure which increases the
electrical conductivity.

can be drawn into a wire ✓

(d) (iii) Ductility is the ability to be drawn into a wire. This property 1
along with their electrical conductivity makes metals perfect
materials for electrical wiring.

less expensive ✓
(d) (iv) 1
Although silver is a slightly better conductor than copper, it is
more expensive so it is less commonly used as a wire.

Question 19 of 24

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structure A:

P: FC = 1

4Os: FC = –1 ✓

structure B:

P: FC = 0

O: FC = 0
(a) (i) 2
3Os: FC –1 ✓

The formal charge is calculated using the equation:

Formal charge = V – N – B/2

V: number of valence electrons

N: number of lone pair electrons

B: number of bonding electrons

(a) (ii) structure B is correct ✓ 2

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formal charge is 0 for phosphorus ✓

In both cases the sum of the formal charges is equal to –3, which is the
charge of the phosphate ion. However, as the formal charge of the
phosphorus atom is 0 in structure B, this is the correct structure.

double bond to another oxygen ✓

(a) (iii) 1

The phosphate ion displays resonance. The double bond can form between
phosphorus and any of the four oxygen atoms. The electrons in this bond
can be thought of as delocalised as they can move across the four P–O
bonds.

phosphorus has more than 8 (10) valence electrons ✓

nitrogen bonded with single bonds to four hydrogen atoms ✓

no lone pairs and coordinate bond not necessary

(a) (iv) 1+ charge ✓ 3

shown either on nitrogen or on top right

An expanded octet is when an atom has more than 8 valence electrons

after bonding. In this case, the phosphorus atom has 10 valence electrons
after bonding. Elements in period 3 and above can accommodate these
extra electrons in their empty d orbitals.

(b) (i) six membered ring with alternating single and double bonds ✓ 2

double bonds in different positions in the second structure ✓

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The Kekule structure consists of a six membered ring with alternating
single and double bonds. Two possible structures can be drawn where the
single and double bonds swap location.

overlap of atomic orbitals along the internuclear axis ✓

(b) (ii) A sigma bond is formed via the overlap of atomic orbitals along the 1
internuclear axis. Sigma bonds can form from the overlap of two s
orbitals, an s and a p orbital or two p orbitals.

12 sigma/σ ✓

3 pi/π ✓
(b) (iii) 2
Single bonds are sigma bonds and double bonds are pi bonds. As there are
12 single bonds (6 × C–C and 6 C–H) and 3 double bonds (3 × C=C) there
are 12 sigma and 3 pi bonds in benzene.

sp2 ✓

(b) (iv) The geometry around each carbon atom is trigonal planar so the 1
hybridisation must be sp2. The three sp2 hybrid orbitals are used to form
three single bonds. The remaining p orbital is used to form a double bond.

electron promoted/transitions from an s to a p orbital ✓

one s and two p orbitals combine to form three new hybrid orbitals (of
equal energy) ✓
(b) (v) 2
In the formation of sp2 hybrid orbitals in benzene an electron from a 2s
orbital in carbon is promoted to a 2p orbital. The 2s orbital and the two 2p
orbitals combine to form three hybrid sp2 orbitals. These have a higher
energy than the 2s orbital but a lower energy than the 2p orbitals. One 2p
orbital is left unhybridised, which can be used form pi bonds.

high electrical conductivity ✓

presence/existence of delocalised electrons ✓

Only award second mark if the underlined term is used.

(c) 2
Carbon is sp2 hybridised in graphene, just like in benzene. There is one
electron remaining in the 2p orbital of each carbon atom. The 2p orbitals
of each carbon combine to form a continuous pi orbital across the whole
graphene layer. The electrons are therefore not located in each 2p orbital
but delocalised across the whole pi orbital. The free movement of
electrons allows for the conductivity of electricity.

(d) (i) sp3 ✓ 2

tetrahedral ✓

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In diamond, each carbon forms single bonds to four other carbon atoms.
In order for carbon to form four equivalent bonds it must be sp3
hybridised. In sp3 hybridisation, the 2s and three 2p orbitals combine to
form four equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals. As there are four bonding pairs
around each carbon atom the geometry is tetrahedral. This results in
diamond having a three dimensional structure. Note that in graphene, the
geometry around each carbon atom is trigonal planar, therefore graphene
has a two dimensional structure.

high melting point ✓

a lot of energy is required to break the 3-dimensional structure made of

covalent bonds ✓
d) (ii) 2
For diamond to melt, every covalent bond in the three dimensional
structure must be broken. This requires a lot of energy. Note that for
graphite to melt, the intermolecular forces between the graphene layers
and the covalent bonds within the graphene layers must be broken.

Question 20 of 24

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nitrogen bonded with single bonds to three hydrogen atoms ✓

(a) (i) 2
1 lone pair on nitrogen ✓

Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons so it forms three single bonds to three

hydrogen atoms which leaves a lone pair of electrons on nitrogen, as can
be seen in the Lewis structure below.

Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons so it forms three single bonds to three

hydrogen atoms which leaves a lone pair of electrons on nitrogen, as can
be seen in the Lewis structure below.

trigonal pyramidal ✓

107° ✓

(a) (ii) Accept values >105° and <109° 2

As there are three bonding pairs and one lone pair around the central
nitrogen atom the molecular geometry is trigonal pyramidal. The bond
angle (107°) is less than that in a tetrahedral geometry (109.5°), due to
the repulsion caused by the lone pair of electrons.

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ammonia molecules experience hydrogen bonding and methane
molecules experience London forces/temporary dipole–dipole forces ✓

More energy is required to overcome hydrogen bonding ✓

Or

Hydrogen bonding is stronger than London forces/temporary dipole–

dipole forces ✓
1
Due to the large electronegativity difference between hydrogen and
(a) (iii) fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen, F–H, O–H, and N–H bonds are very
polar. Molecules containing these bonds can form hydrogen bonds. As an
ammonia molecule contains N–H bonds it can form hydrogen bonds 1
with other ammonia molecules.

Methane contains slightly polar C–H bonds. However, as the molecule is

symmetrical and has a tetrahedral geometry, the dipoles cancel out
leading to an overall molecular dipole moment of zero. Therefore,
methane is a non-polar molecule and only experiences London forces.

Due to the greater polarity, hydrogen bonding is a stronger interaction

than London forces. More energy is required to overcome hydrogen
bonds and so ammonia has a higher boiling point than methane.

1
(coordinate
bond not
(b) (i)
nitrogen bonded with single bonds to four hydrogen atoms (no lone necessary)
pairs) ✓
1
1+ charge (either on nitrogen or on top right) ✓

The nitrogen atom forms three single bonds with three hydrogen atoms
and one coordinate bond with the proton ion, H+, as can be seen below.
As all of the valence electrons of nitrogen are used in bonding there are
no lone pairs.

tetrahedral ✓
1
(b) (ii) 109.5 ° ✓
1
As there are four bonding pairs around the central nitrogen atom the
molecular geometry is tetrahedral. The bond angle is 109.5°.

(b) (iii) lone pair-bonding pair repulsion > bonding pair-bonding pair 1
repulsion ✓
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ammonia molecules have a smaller bond angle (when compared with 1
ammonium ions) ✓

The repulsion between a lone pair and a bonding pair is greater than the
repulsion between two bonding pairs. In the ammonia molecule, the
repulsion between the lone pair and the bonding pairs, pushes the
bonding pairs closer to each other. The angle decreases from 109.5° to
107°.

both electrons in the shared pair originate from nitrogen ✓

(b) (iv) In a coordinate bond, both electrons in the shared pair come from the 1
same atom. In the case of the ammonium ion, two electrons from
nitrogen are used to form a coordinate bond with a proton.

N–H bonds are polar and nitrogen is more electronegative than

hydrogen/ there is a difference in electronegativity between nitrogen and
hydrogen ✓

NH4+ is non-polar ✓

symmetrical molecule ✓ 1

or
(b) (v)
dipoles cancel out ✓ 1

The N–H bonds are polar as nitrogen (electronegativity of 3.0) is more 1

electronegative than hydrogen (electronegativity of 2.2). A dipole exists
in each bond, with the nitrogen slightly negatively charged and the
hydrogen slightly positively charged.

The ammonium ion, NH4+, is symmetrical however so the dipoles cancel

out. Therefore the ammonium ion is non-polar.

N2 < CH3NNCH3 < N2H4 ✓

or

nitrogen < azomethane < hydrazine

(c) (i) 1
Nitrogen contains a triple bond, azomethane contains a double bond and
hydrazine contains a single bond.

The more electrons shared between the nuclei the shorter the covalent
bond.

(c) (ii) N2H4 < CH3NNCH3 < N2 ✓ 1

or

hydrazine < azomethane < nitrogen

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The more electrons that are shared between the nuclei the stronger the
covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between the nuclei and the
shared pairs of electrons increases. A triple bond is stronger than a
double bond which is stronger than a single bond.

the shorter the bond the stronger the bond ✓

greater electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and the shared pair(s)
of electrons ✓

or
1
(c) (iii)
smaller distance between nuclei and shared pair(s) of electrons ✓ 1
The general trend observed is that the shorter the bond the stronger it is.
This is because the distance between the nuclei and the shared pair(s) of
electrons decreases. This increases the electrostatic attraction between
the nuclei and the shared pair(s) of electrons. More energy is required to
break the bond.

Question 21 of 24

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7.4
Rf for A = = 0.90 ✓
8.2
3.1
Rf for B = = 0.38 ✓
8.2
(a) (i) 3
1.8
Rf for C = = 0.22 ✓
8.2
Rf is calculated as the distance traveled by the component of the mixture
divided by the distance that the solvent traveled.

The mobile phase is the solvent (hexane). ✓

(a) (ii) 2
The stationary phase is silica on the thin layer chromatography plate. ✓

C, B, A ✓

The spices that traveled further on the plate (larger 𝑅𝑓 ) have a greater
affinity for the mobile phase. Since the mobile phase is non-polar, the
(a) (iii) components of the mixture that traveled the furthest will be the most 1
soluble in that solvent. Since “like dissolves like”, it can be concluded that
C is the least polar, followed by B and then A. Spice A has a greater
affinity for the stationary phase (silica) and since silica is polar, spice A is
also more polar.

(b) No - curcumin is not present in the spice mixture. ✓ 2

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5.2
The Rf for curcumin is = 0.68 which does not match the Rf values
7.6
for any components of the mixture. ✓

Question 22 of 24

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The bond between the Cl ion and the N in the diazonium salt is ionic. ✓
(a) (i) 2
Ionic bonds exist as the electrostatic attraction between an anion and a cation. ✓

(a) (ii) 2

Electron domain geometry = trigonal planar ✓

Molecular geometry = bent ✓

The nitrogen atom has one set of non-bonding electrons, plus two bonds. Therefore, there are
(a) (iii) three “locations” where electrons are found around the nitrogen. According to VSEPR, this 2
corresponds to trigonal planar.

For the molecular geometry, the non-bonding electrons repel the two bonds on the nitrogen.
This results in bent molecular geometry.

𝛸H = 2.2 ✓

𝛸Cl = 3.2 ✓

(a) (iv)
𝛥𝛸 = | 2.2 – 3.2 | = 1.0 2
(3.2 + 2.2)
Average 𝛸 = = 2.7
2
Therefore, polar covalent and 75% covalent character

(b) (i) 1
✓

A resonance structure is a different version of a Lewis structure for a molecule showing

alternate locations where the electrons can be located. In this, the resonance structure of
cyanobenzene involves rotating the double bonds around the benzene ring. There are also
possible resonance structures where the charges are moved out of the ring (such as the
structure suggested, above).

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To be aromatic, a cyclic hydrocarbon must be:

(b) (ii) 1. planar ✓ 2

2. stabilised with delocalised electrons in the ring ✓

X-ray diffraction patterns revealed a hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms with

equivalent bond lengths, which had a C-C bond length that was midway between a
single and a double carbon bond. ✓
(b) (iii) The bond enthalpy data also revealed values that they were midway between a single 2
and double bond in terms of bond strength. ✓

(b) (iv) 2

✓ ✓

(b) (v) 1

# Non-bonding electrons = 2 ✓
# Bonding electrons = 6 ✓

The nitrogen in the imine contains the following electrons:

(c) (i) 2
N=C → 4 bonding electrons

N–H → 2 bonding electrons

plus 2 non-bonding electrons

(c) (ii) N–N, N=N, N≡N ✓ 1

(c) (iii) N≡N, N=N, N–N ✓ 1

Question 23 of 24

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−7
Oxygen: 𝜆 = 2.40×10 m✓

498000 J mol−1
23
= 8.27×10−19 J atom−1
6.02×10
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣
8.27×10−19 = 6.63×10−34 J s−1𝑣
8.27×10−19
𝑣 =
6.63×10−34
𝑣 = 1.25×1015 s−1
𝑐 = 𝜆𝜈
3.00×108
𝜆 =
1.25×1015
𝜆 = 2.40×10−7 m
(a) −7 2
Ozone: 𝜆 = 3.29×10 m✓

364000 J mol−1
23
= 6.05×10−19 J atom−1
6.02×10
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣
6.05×10−19 = 6.63×10−34 J s−1𝑣
6.05×10−19
𝑣 =
6.63×10−34
𝑣 = 9.13×1014 s−1
𝑐 = 𝜆𝜈
3.00×108
𝜆 =
9.13×1014
𝜆 = 3.29×10−7 m
Final answer should be given to 3 significant figures

Oxygen has stronger bonds therefore a shorter wavelength of light

required to break bonds ✓
(b) 2
Ozone has weaker bonds therefore a longer wavelength of light required
to break bonds ✓

(c) (i) Motor vehicles or aircraft engines. ✓ 1

NO ⋅ (g) + O3(g) → NO2 ⋅ (g) + O2(g) ✓

(c) (ii) NO2 ⋅ (g) + O ⋅ (g) → NO ⋅ (g) + O2(g) ✓ 2

1 mark for each equation with radicals correct

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Any one of: ✓

(d) (i) refrigerants 1

aerosols
insulation material

Cl ⋅ (g) + O3(g) → ClO ⋅ (g) + O2(g) ✓

(d) (ii) ClO ⋅ (g) + O ⋅ (g) → O2(g) + Cl ⋅ (g) ✓ 2

1 mark for each equation with radicals correct

Question 24 of 24

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Ionic and covalent ✓
(a) 1
Both types of bonding required for 1 mark.

(b) More than one position for the carbon to oxygen bond ✓ 1
∘
Bond angle 120 ✓
(c) 2
Trigonal planar ✓

Carbon to oxygen bonds are identical ✓

(d) 2
Intermediate between a single and a double bond ✓

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