KAP chem

Solutions Notes

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 Lesson 1: Water
Water has very unique physical properties when compared to all other compounds we can imagine.
● High boiling / melting / freezing points ● High surface tension
● Liquid at room temperature ● Solid density (ice) < liquid density
● High heat of vaporization ● Great solvent for ionic substances, polar
molecules and gases
● High specific heat

Lewis Structure of Water

● Tetrahedral
● Central oxygen has 2 lone pairs of electrons
● Bent molecular shape
● Polar: ∆EN = 1.4
Hydrogen Bonding
Oxygen is attracted to hydrogen and vice versa from strong
hydrogen bonds
__________________________ between water molecules. Hydrogen
atoms are small and are able to occupy small spaces, fortifying the
IMF. This helps to explain the majority of water’s unique properties.
Boiling / Freezing / Melting Points
● Boiling – the conversion of liquid phase to gaseous phase, is the
result of pulling molecules apart against intermolecular forces
energy
of attraction; the greater the attraction, the more ________________
is needed.
Specific Heat Capacity
● Water has a high specific heat capacity – the amount of energy needed
to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 oC.
● It requires a lot of energy to increase the temperature of water because
the energy must be used to break hydrogen bonds between the molecules.
Heat of Vaporization
● Water has a high heat of vaporization – the amount of energy needed to change 1 g of a liquid substance to
a gas at constant temperature.
● It takes an unusual amount of energy to vaporize water because of the hydrogen bonds needing to be
broken in order for the molecules to “fly off” as a gas.
Surface Tension
● Water molecules’ affinity for one another through hydrogen
bonding is called cohesion.
● Water cannot bond with air, therefore molecules on the surface
are not hydrogen bonded evenly. Surface molecules will have
 fewer neighboring water molecules to bond with and will form stronger hydrogen bonds with the neighbors
they do have. This results in high surface tension.
● High surface tension allows water to support small object if they are placed on the surface carefully.
Density
The solid state of water is _______ dense than the liquid state of water.
This is due to the hydrogen bonds are oriented when frozen. In ice, the
water molecules are pushed further apart than they are in liquid water.
This means water _________________________ when frozen.
● Water freezes at 0 oC and the bonds stabilize naturally in a 3-D crystal
shape like a honeycomb resulting in a greater volume than the liquid
state.
Solvent
● Water is the Universal Solvent because it easily dissolves
________________ molecules, ionic compounds, and gases more than
any other known liquid. Because of this, pure water is not found in
nature.
 Lesson 2: Solution Features
homogeneous
A solution is a _____________________________ mixture of two or more substances in a single phase.
● If something is soluble it can be dissolved. EX: Sugar in water.
● When something is dissolves, its molecules become uniformly distributed among the water molecules and
the solid is no longer visible.
● Solutions may exist as solids, liquids, or gases.
Solvent – the dissolving medium.
largest
● Substance in ___________________ amount
● Often water
Solute – the substance being dissolved.
smallest
● Substance in ___________________ amount
● Usually solid
Examples of Solute-Solvent Combinations
Phases Solute Solvent Example
Gas/gas Oxygen Nitrogen Air
Gas/liquid Carbon dioxide Water Carbonated drinks (soda)
Gas/solid Hydrogen Palladium Palladium stores hydrogen readily
Liquid/liquid Water Isopropyl Alcohol Rubbing alcohol 70%
Liquid/solid Mercury Gold Mercury/gold amalgam
Solid/liquid NaCl Water Saline solution (salt water)
Solid/solid Zinc Copper Brass (metal alloy)

Three Types of Mixtures

All mixtures have an indefinite composition.
1. (True) Solutions
● Homogeneous mixtures
● Particle size is <1.0 nm (atoms, ions, or molecules)
● Cannot be separated by filtration
● Particles do not “settle out” (not affected by gravity) Tyndall Effect
● Do not exhibit the Tyndall Effect – scatter light
● Examples: ___________________________________________________

2. Colloids
● Heterogeneous mixtures
● Particles are intermediate in size (1-1000 nm)
● Cannot be separated by filtration
● Particles remain suspended throughout the solvent from Brownian
Motion – the constant and chaotic movement of the surrounding
molecules within the solvent.
● Exhibit the Tyndall Effect
● Can be solid, liquid, or gas mixed with any other phase
● Examples: ________________________________________________
3. Suspensions Settling
 ● Heterogeneous mixtures
● Particles larger than solutions or colloids
● Can be separated by filtration
● Particles settle over time (affected by gravity)
● When suspended, exhibit the Tyndall Effect
● Examples: _________________________________________________
Solvation
Solvation – the action of a solute dissolving into a solvent until
the solution is stable.
● When water is the solvent, it is called hydration and the
solution is an aqueous solution.
Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes
Electrolyte – a substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electric
current.
● Any soluble _______________________
ionic compound is an electrolyte
● The positive and negative ions separate from each other in solution (dissociation)
and are free to move
● All soluble salts and ionic bases are strong electrolytes
covalent
Ionization – when __________________________ compounds dissolve in
water to produce ions.

Dissociation -

When a compound that is made of ions dissolves in water, the ions separate
from one another. This separation of ions is called dissociation.

Example: The dissociation of sodium chloride and calcium chloride in Strong Acid Weak Acid
water can be represented by the equations

NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) and CaCl2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)

o Note that each equation is balanced for charge as well as for atoms!

o Assuming 100% dissociation:

1 mole of NaCl dissociates to produce 1 mole of Na+ ions and 1 mole of Cl- ions (2 moles total)

1 mole of CaCl2 dissociates to produce 1 mole of Ca2+ ions and 2 moles of Cl- ions 3 moles total)

Practice: Co2(SO4)3(s) →
 ● Most covalent compounds do not ionize.
● Acids are an exception. All acids produce hydrogen (or hydronium) ions in solution
● Strong acids (ionize completely) are strong electrolytes. Weak acids (ionize partially) are weak
electrolytes
Nonelectrolyte – a substance that dissolves in water to give a solution which
_____________________________________ conduct an electric current.
● Most covalent compounds (except acids)
● The neutral solute molecules do not contain mobile charged particles (ions), so they
cannot conduct electric current.
● Example: sugar
 Lesson 3: Factors affecting solubility
The solubility of a substance is defined as the amount of solute that can dissolve in a particular solvent at a
given temperature and pressure. This is affected by:
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent
● Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes
● Nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes
● “Like dissolves like”
● Most ionic compounds will dissolve in water, but do not dissolve
in nonpolar solvents.
dissolve
Miscible – two liquids that are able to _____________________ into
one another. EX: Isopropyl alcohol and water
are not
Immiscible – two liquids that ________________ able to dissolve into
one another. EX: Oil and water
Practice: Use the information below and what you know about water to
label each substance as polar (P) or nonpolar (NP).
● Benzene (C6H6) does not dissolve in water, but it does dissolve in CCl4
● Glucose (C6H12O6) does not dissolve in benzene, but it does dissolve in milk
● Water does not dissolve in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), but it does dissolve in milk
Water C6H6 CCl4 Milk Glucose

Factors that affect rate of solubility

quickly
The Rate of Solubility of a solute is how ______________ it dissolves in a given solvent. Factors that affect
the rate of solubility:
Increasing
1) Temperature – _____________________ in temperature means more kinetic energy, more collisions, so
the solute dissolves faster.
Solid Solutes
● As temperature of a solution increases, solubility of a solid solute
increases.
● Example:
Gaseous Solutes
● As temperature increases, solubility of a gaseous solute decreases.
● Example:
2) Pressure
gasses
● Increase in pressure results in an increase in solubility of a _______________
in a liquid.
● Pressure DOES NOT affect solubility of solids.

more
3) Agitation (stirring) – __________________ contact with surface of solute, solute
dissolves faster.

smaller
4) Solute Surface Area – for the same amount of solute, ____________________ particles offer greater
surface area of the solute, so it dissolves faster.
Questions
1. What is the difference between a mixture and a compound?

2. How would you separate the components of salt water?

3. Mixture or compound?
a. Salt
b. Water
c. Salt water

4. If you were to make 500 mL of salt water, how much salt would you use?

5. What type(s) of substances have a definite composition?

Write any additional information or questions you may have in the space below.
 Lesson 4 : Types of solutions and Solubility
At a given temperature, there is a limit to the amount of solid that can be dissolved into a liquid solvent. When
maximum solubility is reached, molecules are returning to the solid form at the same rate at which they are
going into solution. This is called solution equilibrium or dynamic equilibrium – the dissolution and
crystallization of a solute occur at the same rates.
Saturated Solution – a solution that contains the _____________________ Saturated
amount of solute for a given amount of solvent at a given temperature.
● If more solute is added it will fall to the bottom of the container and
Sugar
does not dissolve.
water

Excess
Unsaturated Solution – a solution contains __________________ solute
Sugar
than a saturated solution at a given temperature. More solute can still be
dissolved under the same existing conditions.

Supersaturated Solution – a solution that contains __________________ solute than it should be able to hold
at a given temperature. A supersaturated soltion is very
unstable.
● When a saturated solution is cooled, the excess solute
usually comes out of solution (see the saturated image
above). Sometimes, the excess solute does not come
out of solution.
● Supersaturated solutions are unstable, so the excess
solute will crystallize if the solution is “disturbed”
(i.e. agitation, adding a “seed” crystal).
Practice: Use the data table to answer the questions.
1. Why do the last 3 substances in the table decrease
solubility as temperature increases?

2. Describe a solution of 222.0 grams of AgNO3 dissolved

in 100 grams of water at 20 oC.

100 mL H2O = 100 g H2O

= 100 cm3 H2O
3. Describe a solution of 45 grams of KCl dissolved in 100 grams of water at 50 oC.

4. Describe a solution of 214 g of LiBr dissolved in 100 g of water at 100 oC.

Solubility Curves

A saturated solution contains a mass of solute that lies _________ the solubility curve.
An unsaturated solution contains a mass of solute that lies ________________ the solubility curve.
A supersaturated solution contains a mass of solute that lies _________________ the solubility curve.
Practice: Use the Solubility of Gases Graph to answer the questions.
1. For gases, how does the solubility change as temperature
increases?

2. Is this a direct or inverse relationship?

Think about it: How does this graph compare to the Solubility of
Solids graph below?
Practice: Use the Solubility of Solids Graph to answer the questions.
1. Which solute is most soluble when the water is 10 oC?

2. Which solute has the lowest solubility at 60 oC?

3. How much KCl dissolves in 100. mL of water that is 45 oC?

4. How much KNO3 will dissolve in 500. mL of water that is 45

o
C?

5. If you stir 50. grams of KClO3 in 100. g of water that is 70 oC,

will all of it dissolve?

6. How many grams of NaCl will dissolve in 32.0 mL of 90 oC water?

7. If you stir 180 grams of NaNO3 in 200. cm3 of water that is 10 oC, how many grams of it won’t dissolve?

8. You have 80 grams of KNO3 in 100 mL of H2O at 40 oC. Is this unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated?

9. If you have 50 g of water as solvent, how many grams of solid NaCl would you need to saturated 100 oC
water?
10. A saturated solution of KCl at 90 oC is cooled to 10 oC. How many grams of KCl will crystallize out?

Questions

1. Indicate whether each solution is unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated. Explain how you know.

Write any additional information or questions you may have in the space below.
 Lesson 5: Precipitation Reactions & Net Ionic Equations
Double Replacement Reactions
When double replacement reactions take place in an aqueous solution of dissolved ionic compounds, these
reactions can yield insoluble (solid) products called precipitates.
● Example: 2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
● AKA Precipitation Reaction
● In a double replacement reaction, if no precipitate or molecule forms, there is no reaction.
Double replacement reactions also take place when an acid reacts with a base to produce a salt (ionic
compound) and water.
● Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
● AKA Acid/Base or Neutralization Reaction
● Notice that water forms, so there is a reaction!
Dissociation
When a compound that is made of ions dissolves in water, the ions separate from one another. This separation
of ions is called dissociation.
● Example: The dissociation of sodium chloride and calcium chloride in water can be represented by the
equations NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) and CaCl2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
o Note that each equation is balanced for charge as well as for atoms!
o Assuming 100% dissociation:
▪ 1 mole of NaCl dissociates to produce 1 mole of Na+ ions and 1 mole of Cl- ions (2 moles
total)
▪ 1 mole of CaCl2 dissociates to produce 1 mole of Ca2+ ions and 2 moles of Cl- ions 3 moles
total)
Practice: Co2(SO4)3(s) →

Writing Net Ionic Equations

We have been writing molecular equations – as if each substance were a molecule. This is not how substances
behave in solutions necessarily.

Use the equation to follow along: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

1. Write the balanced molecular equation with physical states

2. Write the complete ionic equation
a. Identify which compounds will dissociate in water (soluble/aqueous), rewrite the equation with
each ion written separately
b. Do not write insoluble (s) compounds as ions
3. Write the net ionic equation
a. Remove the ions not involved in forming the precipitate or molecule (appear as ions on both sides)
i. These are called spectator ions – do not take part in the chemical reaction.
b. Rewrite the equation to show only the compound and ions that participate in the reaction
Practice 1: Write a molecular equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation for the reaction of
aqueous sodium hydroxide with aqueous copper (II) chloride.

Practice 2: Write a molecular equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation for the reaction of
aqueous potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.

Practice 3: Write a molecular equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation for the reaction of
aqueous lithium sulfate and aqueous magnesium bromide.

Questions
1. Write the balanced molecular equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation for the reaction
between magnesium nitrate and potassium carbonate. Name the precipitate formed (if any).
 Lesson 6: Molarity and Dilution
Dilute Solution – contains a _________________ concentration of solute.
Concentrated Solution – contains a ___________________ concentration
of solute.

Molarity (M) – number of moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution.

**MUST BE IN LITERS!**
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀= =
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿
Example: 2.5 M HCl means…
Practice
1. Find the molarity of a solution that contains 0.350 moles of ammonium iodide (NH4I) in 1.55 L solution.

2. Find the molarity of a solution that is made by dissolving 53.0 g of potassium chloride (KCl) in 500. mL of
solution.

3. Find the volume in mL of a 3.5 M potassium chloride (KCl) solution that contains 47.0 g of dissolved KCl.

4. Find the number of moles and the number of grams of KCl in 250. mL of a 2.75 M KCl solution.

Dilution
In chemistry, we often need solutions of various molarities depending on the task at hand. We can dilute a
concentrated (stock) solution with a solvent (often water) to obtain the molarity of solution we need. A solution
 is diluted by adding solvent.

We can express this change in molarity with a formula to predict our needs:

M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = Molarity of initial solution M2 = Molarity of new solution
V1 = Volume of initial solution V2 = Volume of new solution
5. If you are preparing 100. mL of 0.40 M magnesium sulfate from a stock solution of 2.0 M magnesium
sulfate, what volume of the stock solution did you use? How much water did you add to your initial solution
to perform this dilution?

6. If you need 90.0 mL of 2.0 M H2SO4 and you have 10.0 mL of a stock solution, what is the molarity of the
initial stock solution? How much water did you use to perform this dilution?

Questions
1. A student uses 50.0 mL of a stock solution of NaOH to make a dilution. He ends up with 0.250 L of a 0.525
M NaOH solution.
a. What was the molarity of the stock solution?

b. What mass of NaOH was in the 50.0 mL of stock solution?

 c. How much water did he add to the stock solution to perform this dilution?

2. A chemist prepares 480. mL of a 2.50 M solution of K2Cr2O7 in water. A week later, the chemist wants to
use the solution, but the stopper has been left off the flask and 39 mL of water has evaporated. What is the
new molarity of the solution?

3. Looking at the solubility curves, generally, which type of substances show

an increase in solubility as temperature increases?

4. Which types generally show a decrease in solubility with increasing

temperature?

5. If you tried to dissolve 90. g of KCl in 100. g of water at 60. oC, would all
the KCl dissolve?

6. What are 3 factors that affect the rate of solubility of a substance?

7. What are 2 factors that affect the solubility of a substance?

Write any additional information or questions you may have in the space below.