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Air Pollution in Delhi: Causes & Solutions

The document discusses the severe impacts of air pollution in India, particularly in Delhi, where it contributes to millions of premature deaths and significantly reduces life expectancy. It outlines major causes of air pollution, including vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and agricultural practices like stubble burning, while also presenting various solutions such as regulatory measures, technological innovations, and public awareness campaigns. The document emphasizes the need for comprehensive strategies to mitigate air pollution and improve public health.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

83 views35 pages

Air Pollution in Delhi: Causes & Solutions

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aviralalex007

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

CA - ENV - 240819

Environment Class 3
Contents

1. Air ................................................................................................................... 1
A. Causes of Air Pollution ............................................................................................. 2
B. Air Pollution in Delhi ................................................................................................ 3
C. Air Pollution in India - Solutions ............................................................................. 4
D. Delhi Air Pollution - Solutions ................................................................................. 8
2. Stubble Burning ............................................................................................ 10
A. Stubble burning - Solutions ................................................................................... 12
3. NCAP ............................................................................................................ 14
A. Challenges ............................................................................................................... 14
4. Water ............................................................................................................ 15
A. Water Stress in India –Causes ................................................................................ 16
B. Impact...................................................................................................................... 18
C. Solution ................................................................................................................... 20
5. Bangalore - Zero Day .................................................................................... 22
A. Solution ................................................................................................................... 24
6. Carbon Tax .................................................................................................... 26
7. Carbon Border Tax Mechanism ..................................................................... 27
8. PAT Scheme ................................................................................................... 32
9. Green Credit Program ................................................................................... 32

1. Air
Impacts of Air Pollution on Health
According to the World Health Organization (WHO):
 Air pollution is responsible for an estimated 7 million premature deaths annually.
 The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) in its 2021 report highlights that in India, air
pollution reduces life expectancy by approximately 5.9 years. The report notes that in cities
like Delhi, life expectancy is reduced by nearly 10 years due to high levels of PM2.5; Source:
CSE, "State of India’s Environment," 2021.
 The WHO reports that over 600,000 children under the age of five die every year from air
pollution-related diseases. Air pollution is linked to low birth weight, asthma, impaired lung
development, and even cognitive impairments in children.
The highest burden of air pollution-related deaths occurs in low- and middle-income
countries, where exposure to both outdoor and household air pollution is often high.
Impact of Air Pollution in India
Major Polluted Cities
 According to WHO; 21 out of the world's 30 most polluted cities are in India.

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[1]
 Delhi consistently ranks as the most polluted capital city globally, with PM2.5 concentrations
often exceeding 10 times the World Health Organization's (WHO) safe limit.
Deaths and Diseases
Air pollution is responsible for an estimated 1.67 million deaths in India annually, accounting
for about 17.8% of total deaths in the country (Lancet Planetary Health, 2023).
Premature Deaths
 Air pollution reduces the average Indian's life expectancy by 5.3 years compared to what it
would be if WHO air quality guidelines were met (Air Quality Life Index, 2023).
 In Delhi, the most polluted city in the world, air pollution reduces life expectancy by a
staggering 11.9 years.
A. Causes of Air Pollution

[2]
B. Air Pollution in Delhi

1. Vehicular Emissions
High Vehicle Density:
 Delhi has one of the highest vehicle densities in the world, contributing significantly to air
pollution. Combustion engines release pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10).
Example: According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), vehicular emissions
contribute to approximately 40% of PM2.5 levels in Delhi.
Aged and Inefficient Vehicles:
 Justification: Older vehicles lack modern emission control technologies, leading to higher
emissions. The gradual phase-out of such vehicles is necessary to curb pollution.
2. Industrial Activities
Unregulated Industrial Emissions:
Industries in and around Delhi, especially small-scale units, often operate without adequate
emission controls, releasing pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2), NOx, and particulate matter.

Example: The Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC) reports that industrial
activities contribute around 30% of air pollution in Delhi.
Brick Kilns and Construction Dust:
Brick kilns around Delhi use outdated technologies and fuels, emitting large amounts of
pollutants. Construction activities generate significant dust, contributing to particulate
pollution
3. Agricultural Practices
Stubble Burning:
Farmers in neighboring states of Punjab and Haryana burn crop residues to clear fields for the
next planting season. This practice releases large amounts of PM2.5, CO2, and other pollutants,
which are carried by winds to Delhi.

Example: A study by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur found that stubble
burning contributes up to 44% of Delhi's air pollution during the post-harvest season.
4. Climatic and Geographical Factors
Adverse Meteorological Conditions:
Delhi experiences adverse meteorological conditions such as low wind speeds and temperature
inversions during winter, which trap pollutants close to the ground, exacerbating air pollution.

[3]
Geographical Location:
The plain's topography and the surrounding high-density population centers result in the
accumulation of pollutants.
5. Domestic Sources
Biomass Burning and Cooking:
In many parts of Delhi, especially in peri-urban areas, biomass burning for cooking and heating
is common, releasing significant amounts of PM2.5 and other pollutants.
 Example: The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that indoor air pollution
from biomass burning contributes to nearly 25% of ambient air pollution in urban areas
of India.
Waste Burning:
Open burning of municipal solid waste, including plastic and other hazardous materials,
releases toxic pollutants, including dioxins and furans, contributing to air pollution.
C. Air Pollution in India - Solutions
1. Regulatory and Policy Measures
 NCAP
o The NCAP addresses air pollution through a multi-pollutant approach, targeting
particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) which are primary indicators of air quality.
o By setting a specific reduction target, the program creates a measurable goal that can
drive concerted action
o Example:
 NCAP aims to reduce PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 20-30% by 2024,
with 2017 as the base year.
 According to a 2019 study published in The Lancet Planetary Health, achieving
the NCAP targets could result in a 25% reduction in PM2.5-associated
premature deaths in India.
 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)
o GRAP employs a scientific approach by correlating specific actions with different Air
Quality Index (AQI) levels
o By focusing on immediate, high-impact actions during critical periods, GRAP helps
mitigate acute health risks associated with severe air pollution episodes.
o Example:
 During severe pollution episodes, measures include banning construction
activities, implementing odd-even vehicle schemes, and shutting down brick
kilns and stone crushers.
 A 2018 study by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) found that during
severe pollution episodes, GRAP measures can reduce PM10 levels by up to
20% and nitrogen oxide levels by up to 30%.
 Emission Standards and Regulations
o Stricter emission standards target pollution at its source, preventing the release of
harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. The BS-VI norms, for example, mandate a
significant reduction in sulfur content in fuels, which directly correlates with lower
particulate matter emissions.
o Example:
 BS-VI norms reduced sulfur content in fuels from 50 ppm in BS-IV to 10 ppm
in BS-VI.
 According to the International Council on Clean Transportation, BS-VI
compliant vehicles emit 82% less particulate matter and 68% less nitrogen
oxides compared to BS-IV vehicles.
 A study by the CSE estimates that full implementation of BS-VI norms could
reduce PM2.5 emissions from vehicles by up to 80% by 2030.

[4]
2. Technological Innovations
 Adoption of Cleaner Technologies
o Transitioning to cleaner technologies addresses pollution across multiple sectors
simultaneously. In the transportation sector, electric vehicles (EVs) produce zero
tailpipe emissions, significantly reducing urban air pollution. In the energy sector,
renewable sources like solar and wind don't produce air pollutants during operation,
unlike fossil fuel-based power plants. Clean cooking solutions, such as LPG or electric
stoves, can reduce indoor air pollution, which is a significant health concern in many
parts of India.
o Example:
 A study by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) suggests
that if India achieves its target of 30% EV penetration by 2030, it could reduce
annual CO2 emissions by 846 million tons.
 The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that
increasing India's renewable energy share to 44% by 2030 could reduce
emissions by 1.8 billion tons annually.
 Pollution Monitoring and Forecasting
o Advanced monitoring and forecasting systems provide crucial data for understanding
pollution patterns and implementing targeted interventions. Real-time monitoring
allows for the detection of sudden spikes in pollution levels, enabling rapid response
measures. Forecasting capabilities help in preemptive action, reducing the severity of
pollution episodes.
o Example:
 The SAFAR system provides 72-hour advance forecasts for air quality.
 A study by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology found that SAFAR's
forecasts have an accuracy of over 80% for PM2.5 and PM10 levels.
3. Agricultural Practices
 Promotion of Sustainable Farming
o The practice of stubble burning releases large amounts of particulate matter, carbon
monoxide, and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Technologies like the Happy
Seeder allow for in-situ management of crop residues, eliminating the need for
burning.
o Example:
 According to a study published in Science, widespread adoption of the Happy
Seeder technology in India could reduce stubble pollution by up to 78%.
 Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization: Provides subsidies for
machinery that helps in crop residue management.
 National Policy for Management of Crop Residue: Promotes
alternative uses of crop residue.
 Happy Seeder: Allows sowing of wheat without burning the previous
crop's residue, reducing air pollution by up to 90% compared to
stubble burning.
 Bio-decomposers: Microbial solutions that can decompose crop
residue within 20-25 days, eliminating the need for burning.
 According to NASA satellite data, there was a 30% reduction in stubble
burning incidents in Punjab and Haryana in 2020 compared to 2016.
 Incentives for Alternative Practices
o Financial incentives play a crucial role in encouraging farmers to adopt sustainable
practices, addressing the economic barriers to change. The PM-KISAN scheme, by
subsidizing crop residue management machinery, makes these technologies more
accessible to farmers.

[5]
Example:
o
 The Commission for Air Quality Management estimates that crop residue
burning contributes to about 15-20% of PM2.5 levels in Delhi-NCR during peak
burning season.
 The PM-KISAN scheme provides financial assistance to farmers for
purchasing crop residue management machinery.
4. Urban Planning and Infrastructure
 Development of Green Spaces
o Urban green spaces act as natural air purifiers, absorbing pollutants and releasing
oxygen. Trees and plants can filter out fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10)
through their leaves and bark. Green spaces also help in reducing the urban heat island
effect, which can exacerbate air pollution by trapping pollutants close to the ground.
o Example:
 A study published in Environmental Pollution found that urban trees can
remove up to 24% of particulate matter from the air.
 Research by the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, shows that a 10%
increase in urban tree cover can lead to a 0.5-0.6°C reduction in daytime
summer temperatures.
 Sustainable Urban Mobility
o Public transportation and non-motorized transport options significantly reduce per
capita emissions. Improved public transportation also reduces traffic congestion,
which is a major contributor to air pollution in urban areas.
o Example:
 According to a study by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), a bus can
replace 40-50 private cars on the road, potentially reducing carbon emissions
by up to 25%.
 The World Health Organization estimates that achieving a 10% modal shift
from private motor vehicle use to cycling and walking could reduce urban
transport emissions by up to 15%.
5. Public Awareness and Participation
 Education and Awareness Campaigns
o Public awareness is crucial for driving behavioral changes that collectively contribute
to reduced air pollution. Informed citizens are more likely to make environmentally
conscious choices in their daily lives, from using public transport to avoiding activities
that contribute to pollution
o The effectiveness of awareness campaigns is evident in initiatives like the "Harit
Diwali, Swasth Diwali" campaign
o Example:
 According to the Central Pollution Control Board, cities that actively
promoted the "Harit Diwali, Swasth Diwali" campaign saw a 20-30%
reduction in air pollution levels during Diwali compared to previous years.
 A survey by YouGov found that 74% of Indians are willing to make lifestyle
changes to reduce air pollution.
 Community Participation
o Community participation leverages collective action to address local environmental
issues, including air pollution
o For instance, proper waste segregation and management can reduce the practice of
waste burning, a significant source of air pollution in many Indian cities.
o Example:

[6]
A study by the Indian Institute of Science found that community-led

afforestation efforts in Bangalore increased the city's green cover by 8% over
a decade.
6. International Cooperation and Research
 Collaborative Research Initiatives
o Joint research initiatives can lead to innovative solutions and technologies that might
not be possible with limited national resources.
o International collaborations often bring additional funding and resources.
o Example:
 The India-US Air Quality Fellowship program
 The World Bank's ongoing $47.2 million project on air quality management in
India is expected to strengthen the country's air quality monitoring network
and improve pollution forecasting capabilities.
 Participation in Global Agreements
o These agreements often provide frameworks for setting ambitious yet achievable
targets. Global agreements also facilitate access to international funding and
technology transfer
o Example:
 India's commitment to the Paris Agreement includes a target to reduce the
emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 levels.
 The Green Climate Fund, established under the UNFCCC, has approved
projects worth over $177 million in India, supporting initiatives that indirectly
contribute to air quality improvement through climate change mitigation.
7. Emission Control in Industrial Sector:
 Steps Needed/Taken:
o Implementation of stricter emission standards
o Promotion of cleaner production technologies
o Continuous emission monitoring systems (CEMS)
 Government Initiatives:
o National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, aims to reduce particulate
matter concentrations by 20-30% by 2024.
o Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Example: Promotes energy efficiency in industries,
indirectly reducing emissions.
o Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP): Can remove up to 99% of particulate matter from
industrial emissions.
o Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD): Reduces sulfur dioxide emissions by up to 95% in
thermal power plants.
 Example: According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the implementation of
emission standards in 2015 has led to a 30% reduction in particulate matter emissions from
thermal power plants by 2020.
8. Vehicular Emission Control:
 Steps Needed/Taken:
o Implementation of stricter vehicular emission norms
o Promotion of electric and hybrid vehicles
o Improvement of public transportation systems
 Government Initiatives:
o Bharat Stage VI Emission Standards: Implemented nationwide from April 2020,
equivalent to Euro 6 standards.
o Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME) India
Example: Promotes the adoption of electric vehicles.

[7]
oOn-Board Diagnostics (OBD): Monitors vehicle emissions in real-time, ensuring
compliance with emission standards.
o Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR): Reduces nitrogen oxide emissions in diesel
vehicles by up to 90%.
 Example: The Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) reports that BS-VI vehicles
emit 80% less particulate matter compared to BS-IV vehicles.
9. Dust Mitigation:
 Steps Needed/Taken:
o Implementation of dust control measures at construction sites
o Regular road sweeping and water sprinkling
o Green barriers along roads and construction sites
 Government Initiatives:
o Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016: Mandates dust
mitigation measures at construction sites.
o Green India Mission: Aims to increase forest/tree cover, which can act as natural dust
barriers.
o Mechanical Road Sweepers: Can remove up to 90% of road dust compared to manual
sweeping.
o Water Mist Cannons: Suppress dust particles in the air, reducing PM10 levels by up to
70% in localized areas.
 Example: A study by IIT Kanpur (2015) found that road dust contributes to about 38% of PM10
levels in Delhi.
10. Air Quality Monitoring and Forecasting:
 Steps Needed/Taken:
o a) Expansion of air quality monitoring network
o b) Development of air quality forecasting systems
o c) Public dissemination of air quality information
 Government Initiatives:
o National Air Quality Index (AQI): Launched in 2014 to provide real-time air quality
information to the public.
o System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR): Provides air
quality forecasts for major cities.
 Example: The number of continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations in India increased
from 115 in 2015 to over 800 in 2023 (CPCB).
11. Renewable Energy Adoption:
 Steps Needed/Taken:
o a) Increase in renewable energy capacity
o b) Phasing out of old, polluting thermal power plants
o c) Promotion of decentralized renewable energy solutions
 Government Initiatives:
o National Solar Mission: Aims to achieve 100 GW of solar capacity by 2022.
o National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy: Promotes efficient utilization of transmission
infrastructure and land.
D. Delhi Air Pollution - Solutions
1. Vehicular Emissions
 Odd-Even Example:
o The odd-even scheme aims to reduce the number of vehicles on the road, thereby
decreasing vehicular emissions. It allows vehicles with odd and even-numbered license
plates to operate on alternate days.
o Example: According to a study by IIT Delhi, the odd-even scheme in 2016 resulted in a
13% reduction in PM2.5 levels.

[8]
 Promotion of Electric Vehicles (EVs):
o EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, significantly lowering air pollutants.
o The Delhi Electric Vehicle Policy 2020 aims to have 25% of all new vehicle
registrations as electric by 2024.
2. Industrial Emissions
 Closure of Polluting Industries:
o Shutting down highly polluting industries reduces emissions of hazardous pollutants
such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
o Example: The Delhi government ordered the closure of 1,600 polluting industrial units
in 2018 to curb industrial emissions.
 Promotion of Cleaner Technologies:
o For example, converting from coal to cleaner fuels like natural gas can significantly cut
down pollutants.
o Example: The "Switch to Clean Fuel" initiative encourages industries to transition to
cleaner fuels and adopt pollution control technologies.
3. Agricultural Practices
 Control of Stubble Burning:
 Example: The Delhi government provides financial support and subsidies for machinery like
the Happy Seeder and Super Straw Management System to promote in-situ crop residue
management.
4. Urban Planning and Infrastructure
 Expansion of Green Spaces:
o The Green Delhi initiative aims to increase Delhi’s green cover through afforestation
and the development of parks and green belts.
o Example: According to the Delhi Forest Department, the city’s green cover increased
from 299 sq. km in 2015 to 324 sq. km in 2019.
 Improvement of Public Transport:
o Example: The expansion of the Delhi Metro network and the introduction of electric
buses aim to provide efficient and environmentally friendly public transportation
options.
5. Domestic Sources
 Promotion of Clean Cooking Solutions:
o Example: Under the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY), the Delhi government
supports the distribution of LPG connections to reduce reliance on biomass for
cooking.
o Example: Over 800,000 households in Delhi have benefited from LPG connections
under PMUY, significantly reducing indoor air pollution.
 Waste Management and Prevention of Open Burning:
o Example: The Swachh Bharat Mission promotes waste segregation at source,
recycling, and composting to minimize waste burning.
6. Technological Innovations
 Real-Time Air Quality Monitoring:
o Example: The installation of continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations
(CAAQMS) across Delhi provides real-time data on various pollutants, helping
authorities take immediate action
 Anti-Smog Guns and Air Purifiers:
o Justification: Anti-smog guns spray water droplets to settle dust and reduce particulate
matter in the air, while air purifiers help clean indoor air.
o Example: The Delhi government has deployed anti-smog guns at construction sites
and major traffic intersections to combat dust pollution.

[9]
7. Public Awareness and Participation
 Public Awareness Campaigns:
o Example: The "Red Light On, Gaadi Off" campaign encourages drivers to turn off their
engines at traffic signals to reduce idling emissions.
 Community Participation:
o Example: The "Green War Room" initiative involves volunteers and community
members in monitoring and reporting pollution sources, promoting collective action
against air pollution.
8. Inter-State Cooperation
 Collaborative Measures with Neighboring States:
o Example: The Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas
coordinates actions between Delhi and neighboring states to implement pollution
control measures, including the management of stubble burning.
9. Regulatory Reforms:
 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP):
o A graded response approach allows for timely interventions based on air quality levels.

 Ban on Firecrackers:
o The Delhi government has implemented a complete ban on the sale and use of
firecrackers to mitigate pollution during Diwali and other festivities.

2. Stubble Burning
1. Short Turnaround Time Between Crops
 The primary driver of stubble burning is the short window between harvesting kharif crops
(mainly rice) and sowing rabi crops (primarily wheat) in the rice-wheat cropping system
prevalent in northern India. This system, a result of the Green Revolution, leaves farmers with
only 15-20 days to clear their fields and prepare for the next crop
 The practice of delayed sowing of rice to conserve groundwater (as mandated by policies like
the Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009) further compresses this timeframe,
making manual or mechanical alternatives to burning less feasible.
 Example:
o A study by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) 2022 found that the
average turnaround time between rice harvesting and wheat sowing in Punjab and
Haryana is 20 days, with some areas having as little as 10 days
o The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) 2023 reported that over 80%
of stubble burning incidents occur within a 30-day window in October-November.
2. Economic Constraints and Cost of Alternatives
 Many farmers, especially smallholders, find stubble burning to be the most cost-effective
method of field clearance. Alternative methods such as in-situ incorporation of crop residues
using machines like Happy Seeders or Super Seeders involve significant costs
 Example:
o A report by the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences 2023 estimated that using
machinery for in-situ stubble management costs approximately 2,500-3,000 INR per
acre, compared to less than 1,000 INR for burning.
o The Ministry of Agriculture’s survey 2022 found that only 30% of farmers in Punjab
and Haryana had access to subsidized stubble management machinery.
3. Mechanization and Harvesting Techniques
 The widespread adoption of combine harvesters has significantly contributed to the stubble
burning issue. These machines leave behind tall stubble (up to 12 inches) and spread loose straw
across the field, making manual collection or incorporation difficult

[10]
 Example:
o The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute 2023 reported that combine
harvesters are used on over 80% of the rice acreage in Punjab and Haryana.
o A study in the Journal of Cleaner Production 2022 found that combine harvesting
increases the likelihood of stubble burning by 40% compared to manual harvesting
methods.
4. Lack of Awareness and Behavioral Inertia
 Despite growing awareness of the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning, many
farmers continue the practice due to a combination of factors including tradition, peer
influence, and a lack of practical knowledge about alternatives.
 This behavioral inertia is compounded by the collective action problem, where individual
farmers may not perceive their actions as significantly impactful in the broader context of
regional air pollution.

 Example:
o A survey by the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) 2023 found
that 65% of farmers in stubble burning-prone areas were aware of the negative impacts
but continued the practice due to perceived lack of viable alternatives.
o The Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare 2022 reported that
only 40% of farmers in major stubble burning states had received formal training on
alternative stubble management techniques.
5. Policy and Institutional Challenges
 The fragmented and sometimes contradictory nature of agricultural and environmental
policies has hindered effective stubble management. For instance, policies promoting
groundwater conservation by delaying rice planting have inadvertently shortened the window
for field preparation, indirectly encouraging stubble burning. The implementation of existing
regulations banning stubble burning has been inconsistent, with weak enforcement and
inadequate support for alternatives. Institutional challenges include the lack of coordinated
efforts between different government departments (agriculture, environment, energy) and
insufficient integration of stubble management into broader agricultural and rural
development programs
 Example:
o The National Green Tribunal 2023 reported that despite a ban on stubble burning,
compliance rates in major agricultural states remained below 40%.
o A Parliamentary Standing Committee report 2022 highlighted that only 30% of
allocated funds for crop residue management under the National Clean Air
Programme were utilized effectively due to poor inter-departmental coordination.
6. Limited Market for Crop Residues
 Potential uses for crop residues include biofuel production, power generation, packaging
material, and animal feed. However, the lack of a robust supply chain, inadequate infrastructure
for collection and transportation, and limited industrial capacity for processing crop residues
into value-added products have hindered the development of this market
 Technologies like biomass gasification and torrefaction, which could potentially create value
from crop residues, remain underutilized due to limited investment and policy support.
 Example:
o A report by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy 2023 indicated that only 20%
of the total crop residue generated in India is utilized for bioenergy production.
o The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) 2022 reported that
biomass-based power projects utilizing agricultural residues operated at less than 60%
of their installed capacity due to supply chain issues.

[11]
7. Climate and Weather Patterns
 The short window between kharif harvesting and rabi sowing coincides with the dry season in
northern India, making the crop residue highly combustible. Additionally, wind patterns during
this period can either exacerbate or mitigate the air pollution caused by stubble burning.
Climate change-induced variations in monsoon patterns and temperature regimes are further
complicating the agricultural calendar, potentially narrowing the window for crop transitions
and increasing the likelihood of stubble burning.
 Example:
o The India Meteorological Department (IMD) 2023 reported that the average duration
of the monsoon withdrawal phase, critical for the kharif-rabi transition, has shortened
by 5-7 days over the past three decades.
o A study published in Environmental Research Letters 2022 found that unfavorable
wind conditions during the stubble burning season contributed to a 30% increase in
PM2.5 concentrations in Delhi NCR.
A. Stubble burning - Solutions
1. In-situ Crop Residue Management
 In-situ management techniques involve incorporating crop residues back into the soil, offering
a sustainable alternative to burning. Technologies such as Happy Seeders, Super Seeders, and
Mulcher-Rotavators allow for direct sowing of wheat into rice residue
 This practice not only prevents burning but also improves soil health by increasing organic
matter content, enhancing water retention, and promoting beneficial microbial activity.
 Example:
o A study by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) 2023 found that in-situ
residue incorporation increased soil organic carbon by 15-20% over three years
compared to burning.
o The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) 2022 reported that areas using
Happy Seeders saw a 70% reduction in stubble burning incidents.
o Schemes: The Central Sector Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanization
for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue provides subsidies up to 50% for individual
farmers and 80% for Custom Hiring Centers to purchase residue management
machinery.
2. Ex-situ Crop Residue Utilization
 These ex-situ solutions create value from what was previously considered waste, potentially
transforming stubble from a liability into an asset for farmers.
 This approach includes using straw for biomass power generation, bioethanol production,
mushroom cultivation, and as raw material for industries like paper and packaging
 Biomass power plants can convert agricultural residues into electricity, providing a renewable
energy source and an economic incentive for farmers to sell their stubble.
 Bioethanol production from crop residues offers a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels,
aligning with India’s biofuel blending targets.
 Example:
o The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy 2023 reported that biomass power plants
could potentially utilize 30% of India’s crop residues, generating 14,000 MW of power.
o A pilot project by Indian Oil Corporation 2022 demonstrated that ethanol produced
from rice straw could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 90% compared to gasoline.
o Schemes: The National Policy on Biofuels 2018 promotes the use of crop residues for
biofuel production. The SATAT (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable
Transportation) scheme encourages the setting up of Compressed Bio-Gas plants
using agricultural residues.

[12]
3. Conservation Agriculture
 Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that promotes minimum soil disturbance
(no-till), permanent soil cover, and crop rotation.
 CA practices like zero-tillage and retention of crop residues on the soil surface
 improve soil structure, increase water infiltration and retention, reduce erosion, and enhance
soil biodiversity.
 Example:
o A long-term study by Punjab Agricultural University 2023 found that Conservation
Agriculture practices reduced water use by 15-20% and increased wheat yields by 5-
7% over five years compared to conventional tillage systems.
o The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2022 reported that CA practices could
potentially sequester 0.1-0.3 tons of carbon per hectare per year in Indian agricultural
soils.
o Schemes: The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture promotes Conservation
Agriculture practices through demonstrations, capacity building, and incentives for
farmers.
4. Crop Diversification
 Introducing crops like maize, pulses, oilseeds, or horticulture can break the cycle that
necessitates rapid field clearing between rice and wheat.
 Crop diversification also offers ecological benefits such as improved soil health, reduced pest
pressure, and enhanced biodiversity.
 Data
oA study by the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences 2023 found that shifting
20% of rice area to maize in Punjab and Haryana could reduce stubble burning
incidents by 40%.
o Schemes The Sub-Mission on Crop Diversification under the National Food Security
Mission provides support for diversification to maize, pulses, and oilseeds in rice-
wheat cropping system areas.
5. Awareness and Capacity Building
 Educating farmers about the environmental and health impacts of stubble burning and training
them in alternative management practices is crucial for long-term behavioral change.
 Capacity building initiatives should focus on practical demonstrations of alternative
technologies, peer-to-peer learning, and long-term extension support.
 Engaging local communities, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and Krishi Vigyan
Kendras (KVKs) in these efforts can enhance their effectiveness.
 Example:
o A survey by the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) 2024 found
that farmers who received comprehensive training on stubble management were 60%
less likely to burn crop residues.
o The Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare 2023 reported that
districts with active Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) saw a 35% higher adoption rate of
alternative stubble management practices.
o Schemes: The Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA) scheme includes
components for farmer education and training on sustainable agricultural practices,
including stubble management.
6. Market Development for Crop Residues
 This involves developing supply chains, establishing collection centers, and promoting
industries that use crop residues as raw materials.
 Potential markets include bioenergy production, biochar manufacturing, packaging materials,
and animal feed.

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 Example:
o The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) 2023 reported that the
potential market value of crop residues for bioenergy in India could reach 5 billion
dollars annually by 2030.
o A study by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) 2022 estimated that
comprehensive utilization of crop residues could create over 500,000 rural jobs in
collection, transportation, and processing.
o Schemes: The National Biomass Cookstoves Initiative and the Unnat Chulha Abhiyan
promote the use of agricultural residues for clean cooking solutions, creating local
demand for crop residues.
7. Policy and Regulatory Framework
 This includes strengthening and enforcing regulations against burning, harmonizing
agricultural and environmental policies, and providing adequate incentives for adopting
sustainable practices.
 Integrating stubble management into broader agricultural, rural development, and climate
change mitigation strategies can ensure a more holistic approach. Implementing a mix of
regulatory measures (e.g., fines for burning) and positive incentives (e.g., payments for
ecosystem services) can create a balanced policy environment that encourages compliance and
innovation.
 Example:
o The National Green Tribunal 2023 reported that states with integrated stubble
management policies saw a 50% higher reduction in burning incidents compared to
those with fragmented approaches.
o Schemes: The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) includes specific targets and
action plans for reducing stubble burning as part of its overall air quality improvement
strategy.
8. Technological Innovations
 This includes improving existing machinery for in-situ management, developing new
technologies for rapid residue decomposition, and innovating in the field of remote sensing
and AI for monitoring and predicting stubble burning incidents.
 Example:
o The Department of Science and Technology 2023 reported that AI-based prediction
models improved the accuracy of identifying potential stubble burning hotspots by
80%, enabling more effective preventive measures.
o A study published in Nature Biotechnology 2022 showed that genetically modified rice
varieties with 30% less silica content decomposed 50% faster than conventional
varieties, potentially reducing the need for burning.
o Schemes: The Atal Innovation Mission and the Agriculture Grand Challenge under
Startup India provide platforms for innovators to develop and scale up solutions for
stubble management.

3. NCAP
A. Challenges
1. Fund Utilization and Allocation
 Low Fund Utilization: One of the significant challenges has been the underutilization of
allocated funds. As of May 2024, only 51 percent of the Rs 1,615.47 crore allocated to 82 NCAP
cities had been utilized. Similarly, 67 percent of the Rs 8,951 crore allocated to 42 cities and
seven urban agglomerations under the 15th Finance Commission (XV-FC) grant had been
utilized.

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 Asymmetry in Sectoral Funding: For instance, sectors like dust control have received more
focus compared to combustion sources like transport and industry.
2. Inadequate Focus on Key Pollutants and Sectors
 Focus on PM10 over PM2.5: The initial focus of NCAP was predominantly on PM10 due to
limited monitoring infrastructure for PM2.5, which is more critical for health. This has led to
inadequate attention towards PM2.5 and other harmful pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
 Transport Emissions: The transport sector has been particularly challenging, with inadequate
strategies for phasing out old vehicles, limited implementation of electric vehicle policies, and
insufficient emphasis on public transport and non-motorized transport.
3. Coordination and Institutional Challenges
 Multi-Sector and Multi-Department Coordination: Effective implementation requires
coordination across multiple sectors and departments, which has been a significant challenge.
Institutional inertia and legacy pressures have slowed down the absorption and delivery of the
requirements.
 Data Collection and Reporting: The lack of standardized protocols for data recording and the
absence of automated digital systems have further complicated the monitoring and reporting
processes.
4. Challenges in Governance and Policy Implementation
 Complex Policy Implementation: The complexity of new generation policies and the absence
of well-funded schemes for specific sectors have slowed down progress, particularly in the
transport and industrial sectors.
 Inconsistent Performance Metrics: The metrics used to evaluate city performance under
NCAP and the XV-FC grant have been inconsistent. Some cities that performed well in policy
implementation under the Swachh Vayu Survekshan rankings did not show corresponding
improvements in PM10 levels, indicating a disconnect between policy action and actual air
quality outcomes.
5. Meteorological and Regional Challenges
 Adverse Meteorological Conditions: In regions like Delhi-NCR, adverse meteorological
conditions, coupled with high population density and economic activity, have made it
particularly challenging to achieve significant reductions in pollution levels. These factors have
exacerbated the difficulty of meeting clean air targets despite substantial interventions.
6. Need for Improved Sectoral Action Plans
 Inadequate Detailing in Action Plans: Many city and state action plans lack detailed sectoral
targets and timelines. The absence of clearly defined indicators and milestones for various
sectors has hindered effective planning and execution. This has been particularly evident in
areas like waste management, road dust control, and public transport improvement.

4. Water
Water Availability in India
Overall Water Resources
 India's Share of Global Water Resources: India possesses only 4% of the world's renewable
water resources while supporting 18% of the global population. (United Nations World Water
Development Report, 2020)
Water Stress Indicators
 Water Stress Levels: According to the World Resources Institute's (WRI) Aqueduct Water Risk
Atlas, India ranks 13th among the most water-stressed countries in the world.
 Projected Water Stress: By 2030, WRI projects that nearly half of India's population will be
living in areas facing severe water scarcity.
 Source: World Resources Institute (WRI) Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas, 2019

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Groundwater in India
Usage
 Largest User Globally: India is
the largest extractor of
groundwater globally,
extracting an estimated 230
cubic kilometers of
groundwater per year, which
accounts for over a quarter of
the global total.
 Dependence on Groundwater:
80% goes to irrigation; 8% of is
used for drinking; Remaining
12% goes to industrial uses.
Source: Central Ground
Water Board (CGWB) Report,
2011
Groundwater Development
 Over-Exploited States (Development > 100%): Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan
 High Development States (Development 70% and Above): Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, Puducherry
 Source: Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) Report, 2011
Per Capita Water Availability
 2021: 1486 cubic meters per year
 Projected for 2031: 1367 cubic meters per year
 Source: Central Water Commission's "Reassessment of Water Availability in India using
Space Inputs, 2019"
Global Context
 Global Average: The global average per capita water availability is approximately 5000 cubic
meters per year. This puts India's water availability well below the global average, indicating
significant water stress.
 Water Stress Benchmark: According to
the Falkenmark Water Stress
Indicator, a region is considered water-
stressed if per capita water availability
falls below 1700 cubic meters per year.
India is already in the water-stressed
category and is projected to move
closer to the water-scarce category
(below 1000 cubic meters per year) by
2050.
 Source: Falkenmark Water Stress
Indicator, 1989; United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP),
2020.
A. Water Stress in India –Causes
1. Population Growth and Urbanization:
 This demographic shift not only increases the overall water consumption but also leads to the
overexploitation of groundwater resources in urban areas. Furthermore, the concentration of

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population in cities creates localized water scarcity, straining municipal water supply systems
and often resulting in inequitable distribution
 The rapid pace of urbanization also often outstrips the development of water infrastructure,
leading to inefficiencies in water distribution and management.
 Example:
o According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, India's urban population is
expected to reach 600 million by 2030, accounting for 40% of the total population.
o The NITI Aayog's Composite Water Management Index (2019) reports that 21 major
cities, including Delhi, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad, are expected to run out of
groundwater, affecting 100 million people.
2. Agricultural Water Use:
 Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in India, accounting for over 80% of the country's
total water usage. The predominance of water-intensive crops, inefficient irrigation practices,
and the overexploitation of groundwater for irrigation contribute significantly to water stress.
The Green Revolution, while boosting agricultural productivity, has led to unsustainable water
use patterns in many regions. Subsidized electricity for agriculture has encouraged excessive
pumping of groundwater, leading to rapid depletion of aquifers
 Example:
o The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare reports that only 49% of the total
cultivated area in India is irrigated, with groundwater accounting for 64% of the total
irrigated area.
o According to the Central Ground Water Board (2017), out of the 6,881 assessed units,
1,186 are over-exploited, 313 are critical, and 972 are semi-critical.
3. Climate Change and Erratic Rainfall Patterns:
 Climate change has led to increasingly unpredictable and erratic rainfall patterns across India,
significantly impacting water availability and distribution. The alteration in monsoon patterns,
including delayed onset, uneven spatial distribution, and increased frequency of extreme
weather events, disrupts traditional water management practices and agricultural cycles. The
melting of Himalayan glaciers, crucial for perennial river systems in North India, threatens
long-term water security.
 Example:
o The Ministry of Earth Sciences' report on Climate Change Assessment (2020) projects
a temperature rise of 4.4°C and an increase in frequency of heat waves by 3-4 times by
the end of the century.
4. Water Pollution and Degradation of Water Bodies:
 The deterioration of water quality due to pollution significantly reduces the usable water
resources, contributing to water stress. Industrial effluents, agricultural runoff laden with
pesticides and fertilizers, and untreated domestic sewage are major sources of water pollution
in India. The eutrophication of water bodies, particularly in urban areas, further diminishes
water availability. Moreover, the encroachment and degradation of natural water bodies like
wetlands, which play a crucial role in water purification and groundwater recharge, exacerbate
the water stress situation.
 Example:
o The Central Pollution Control Board (2018) reports that 351 river stretches across
India are polluted, with 45 critically polluted stretches across 13 states.
o According to the National Green Tribunal, over 60% of sewage generated in urban
areas is discharged untreated into water bodies.
5. Inefficient Water Management and Infrastructure:
 The lack of proper maintenance of water distribution systems leads to high levels of non-
revenue water, with estimates suggesting losses of up to 40% in some urban areas. Outdated
irrigation systems, characterized by unlined canals and flood irrigation methods, result in

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substantial water wastage in the agricultural sector. The absence of widespread rainwater
harvesting and water recycling practices in urban areas further strains available water
resources.
 Example:
o The NITI Aayog's Composite Water Management Index (2019) highlights that 70% of
India's water resources are contaminated, and 75% of households do not have drinking
water on premises.
o The Ministry of Jal Shakti reports that the per capita water availability in India has
decreased from 5,177 cubic meters in 1951 to 1,545 cubic meters in 2011, and is projected
to reduce further to 1,340 cubic meters by 2025.
6. Lack of Proactive Management Policies:
 Water management policies in India have often been reactive rather than proactive, failing to
anticipate and address emerging challenges in water resource management.
 Example:
o The Ministry of Jal Shakti reports that only 3% of rainwater is harvested in India,
indicating a significant gap in policy implementation for water conservation.
7. Governance Issues:
 Water governance in India is characterized by fragmentation and overlapping jurisdictions,
leading to inefficiencies and conflicts in water resource management.
 The division of responsibilities between the center and states, as well as the separation of
surface water and groundwater management, has resulted in a lack of coordinated action.
 Moreover, the politicization of inter-state water disputes has hindered their timely resolution,
exacerbating water stress in affected regions.
 The lack of a holistic, basin-wide approach to water management, treating surface and
groundwater as separate entities rather than as part of a single hydrological unit, has led to
unsustainable exploitation and inefficient allocation of water resources.
 Example:
o According to a 2018 report by the Standing Committee on Water Resources, there are
18 different ministries and departments at the central level dealing with water-related
issues.
B. Impact
1. Agricultural Productivity and Food Security:
 The lack of reliable irrigation sources affects crop yields, crop diversity, and overall agricultural
productivity. Water scarcity leads to the overexploitation of groundwater resources, causing
soil salinization and land degradation.
 Impacts:
o Reduced crop yields and agricultural output
o Shift towards water-intensive cash crops, affecting nutritional security
o Increased rural distress and migration
 Example: According to the Economic Survey 2020-21, about 89% of groundwater extracted is
used for irrigation. The World Bank estimates that by 2050, India's agricultural yield could
decrease by 10-40% due to climate change and water scarcity.
 Example: The success of micro-irrigation projects in Gujarat, increasing water use efficiency
by up to 50% in some areas.
2. Industrial Growth and Economic Development:
 The lack of reliable water sources can deter investments, affect production processes, and
increase operational costs for industries. Environmentally, industrial water stress often leads
to the overexploitation of local water resources and increased pollution of water bodies
 Impacts:
o Reduced industrial output and economic growth
o Relocation of industries, affecting regional development

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o Increased production costs due to water treatment and conservation measures
 Example: The NITI Aayog report (2018) predicts that water scarcity could lead to a 6% loss in
India's GDP by 2050. The World Bank estimates that India loses about 73 million working days
per year due to waterborne diseases.
3. Public Health and Sanitation:
 Water scarcity directly impacts public health through reduced access to clean drinking water
and inadequate sanitation facilities. This leads to the prevalence of waterborne diseases,
affecting productivity and increasing healthcare costs. Environmentally, the lack of proper
sanitation facilities results in water pollution, further exacerbating the water crisis.
 Impacts:
o Increased incidence of waterborne diseases
o Reduced productivity due to health issues
o Disproportionate impact on vulnerable populations, especially women and children
 Example: The National Health Profile 2019 reports that about 37.7 million Indians are affected
by waterborne diseases annually. UNICEF estimates that 500 children under the age of five die
from diarrhea each day in India.
4. Federal Issues and Inter-State Disputes:
 Water scarcity intensifies inter-state conflicts over water sharing, challenging India's federal
structure.
 These disputes hinder cooperative development and efficient water management across river
basins.
 From an environmental perspective, the lack of a holistic, basin-wide approach often leads to
unsustainable water exploitation and ecological degradation.
 Impacts:
o a) Delayed water management projects due to inter-state conflicts
o b) Inequitable water distribution affecting regional development
o c) Strain on center-state and inter-state relations
 Example: The Interstate River Water Disputes Act, 1956, has seen the formation of 8 tribunals,
with some disputes lasting for decades, as reported by the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
5. International Relations and Transboundary Water Issues:
 India's water crisis has international dimensions, particularly with neighboring countries
sharing river systems.
 This affects diplomatic relations and regional stability. Environmentally, unilateral actions on
transboundary rivers can lead to significant ecological impacts across borders.
 The transboundary nature of major river systems in South Asia highlights the need for regional
cooperation in water resource management, balancing national interests with ecological
sustainability and regional stability.
 Impacts:
o a) Tensions with Pakistan over Indus Waters Treaty implementation
o b) Concerns with China over upstream dam construction on the Brahmaputra
o c) Disputes with Bangladesh over Teesta river water sharing
 Example: The Indus Waters Treaty allocates 80% of the Indus river system's waters to
Pakistan, while India has concerns over China's plans to build dams on the Brahmaputra,
potentially affecting water flow to northeastern states.
6. Urban Development and Migration:
 Water scarcity exacerbates urban challenges by straining municipal water supply systems and
driving rural-urban migration.
 This puts pressure on urban infrastructure and affects the quality of life in cities.
Environmentally, rapid urbanization coupled with water scarcity leads to the overexploitation
of groundwater resources and pollution of urban water bodies.

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 Impacts:
o Increased urban water stress and inequitable distribution
o Acceleration of rural-urban migration
o Growth of water-stressed slums and informal settlements
7. Environmental Degradation and Biodiversity Loss:
 Water scarcity leads to the overexploitation of water bodies, affecting ecosystems and
biodiversity. This ecological imbalance has long-term implications for environmental
sustainability and climate resilience.
 Example: The Living Planet Report 2020 by WWF indicates that freshwater species
populations have declined by 84% globally since 1970, with similar trends observed in India. The
report also highlights that wetlands are disappearing three times faster than forests.
C. Solution
1. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM):
 IWRM is crucial for addressing water stress holistically, considering the interconnectedness of
surface and groundwater resources.
 Environmentally, IWRM helps preserve aquatic ecosystems and maintain environmental flows
in rivers.
 Steps:
o Develop comprehensive river basin management plans
o Implement water budgeting at the watershed level
o Promote conjunctive use of surface and groundwater
 Relevant Ministry/Example:
o Ministry of Jal Shakti: National Water Mission under National Action Plan on Climate
Change
o Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY): Aims at sustainable groundwater management with
community participation
 Example: According to the Central Water Commission (2019), India utilizes only 25% of its
available surface water resources, indicating significant scope for improved management.
2. Water Use Efficiency in Agriculture:
 Enhancing agricultural water efficiency not only addresses water stress but also improves farm
productivity and rural livelihoods.
 Environmentally, it reduces waterlogging, soil salinization, and groundwater depletion.
 Technologically, it involves the adoption of precision agriculture techniques and water-
efficient irrigation systems
 Steps:
o Promote micro-irrigation techniques (drip and sprinkler irrigation)
o Encourage crop diversification and water-efficient cropping patterns
o Implement water pricing reforms in agriculture
 Relevant Ministry/Example:
o Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare: Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana (PMKSY)
o Per Drop More Crop component of PMKSY
 Example: The Economic Survey 2020-21 reports that micro-irrigation techniques have been
adopted in only 11.5 million hectares out of the 69.5 million hectares of irrigated area in India.
3. Urban Water Management:
 It involves improving water supply infrastructure, promoting water conservation, and
implementing effective wastewater management. Environmentally, it helps reduce pollution of
water bodies and groundwater contamination.
 Steps:
o Implement rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge of aquifers
o Promote wastewater recycling and reuse

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o Develop smart water grids to reduce distribution losses
 Relevant Ministry/Example:
o Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs: Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban
Transformation (AMRUT)
o Jal Jeevan Mission (Urban)
 Example: The NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index (2019) reports that 40% of the
population will have no access to drinking water by 2030 if current trends continue.
4. Ecosystem Conservation and Restoration:
 Conserving and restoring water-related ecosystems is vital for maintaining water quality,
regulating water flow, and supporting biodiversity.
 This approach addresses the root causes of water stress by preserving natural water storage
and filtration systems.
 Technologically, it involves the use of nature-based solutions and eco-engineering techniques.
 Steps:
o Implement river restoration and wetland conservation programs
o Promote afforestation and soil conservation in catchment areas
o Enforce environmental flow requirements for rivers
 Relevant Ministry/Example:
o Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change: National Mission for Clean
Ganga
o National Wetland Conservation Programme
 Example: The National Wetland Atlas (2011) by the Space Applications Centre (ISRO)
identified 201,503 wetlands in India, covering 4.63% of the country's geographical area.
5. Climate Change Adaptation:
This approach involves developing resilient water infrastructure and management practices to cope
with changing climate patterns.
Technologically, it requires advanced climate modeling and early warning systems. Climate change
adaptation in water management is essential for ensuring long-term water security in the face of
increasing climate uncertainty.
Steps:
 Develop climate-resilient water infrastructure
 Implement drought and flood management strategies
 Enhance weather forecasting and early warning systems
Relevant Ministry/Example:
 Ministry of Earth Sciences: National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
 National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change
6. Rainwater Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge
 Implementation of Rainwater Harvesting Systems
o Rainwater harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater for reuse, reducing
dependency on groundwater and surface water sources. It helps in recharging aquifers
and maintaining groundwater levels.
o Data According to the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), India has the potential
to harvest 185 billion cubic meters of rainwater annually CGWB, 2019.
o Example The Ministry of Jal Shakti's Jal Shakti Abhiyan promotes rainwater
harvesting and groundwater recharge through community-driven initiatives and
public participation.
 Revival of Traditional Water Bodies
o Reviving and maintaining traditional water bodies like ponds, lakes, and tanks enhances
groundwater recharge and provides a sustainable source of water.
o Example The Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY) focuses on groundwater management and
rejuvenation of traditional water bodies in water-stressed regions.

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7. Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
 Development of Wastewater Treatment Infrastructure
o Treating and reusing wastewater can alleviate water stress by providing an alternative
water source for non-potable uses like agriculture and industrial processes. Advanced
treatment technologies like Membrane Bioreactors MBRs and Reverse Osmosis RO
ensure high-quality treated water.
o Data The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimates that 38,000 million liters
of wastewater are generated daily in urban India, with only about 30 percent being
treated CPCB, 2020.

5. Bangalore - Zero Day

1. Rapid Urbanization and Population Growth
 Bangalore's explosive growth as a tech hub has led to unprecedented urbanization and
population increase, placing immense pressure on water resources. The city's built-up area
expanded by 125% from 2001 to 2011, according to a study by the Indian Institute of Science
(2017).
 This rapid expansion has outpaced the development of water infrastructure, leading to a
supply-demand mismatch
 Environmentally, urbanization has resulted in the loss of green cover and water bodies,
reducing natural water retention and recharge capabilities.
 Causes:
o Exponential increase in water demand
o Inadequate water supply infrastructure
o Loss of permeable surfaces, reducing groundwater recharge
 Example: Bangalore's population grew from 4.3 million in 2001 to 8.4 million in 2011 (Census
2011), with current estimates exceeding 12 million.
 Example: The Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) supplies only 1,453
million liters per day (MLD) against a demand of 2,100 MLD, indicating a significant shortfall.
2. Overexploitation of Groundwater
 The gap between water supply and demand has led to extensive groundwater extraction in
Bangalore. This unsustainable practice has resulted in rapidly declining groundwater levels,
with some areas experiencing a drop of up to 300 meters over the past two decades (Central
Ground Water Board, 2020).
 Technologically, the proliferation of unregulated borewells, coupled with the lack of advanced
groundwater monitoring systems, has exacerbated the problem.
 Causes:
o Unregulated borewell drilling
o Lack of effective groundwater recharge mechanisms
o Reduced natural recharge due to urbanization
 Example: A study by the Centre for Science and Environment (2019) found that Bangalore has
over 400,000 borewells, with the number increasing by about 6,000 annually.
 Example: The Karnataka Ground Water (Regulation and Control of Development and
Management) Act, 2011, aims to regulate groundwater extraction, but implementation remains
a challenge.
3. Pollution and Degradation of Water Bodies
 Bangalore's lakes and water bodies, once crucial for the city's water supply and ecosystem
balance, have been severely degraded due to pollution and encroachment. The city has lost
79% of its water bodies in the past four decades (Indian Institute of Science, 2016).
 This loss not only reduces local water availability but also impacts the urban microclimate and
biodiversity.

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 Environmentally, the pollution of water bodies leads to eutrophication, loss of aquatic life, and
contamination of groundwater.
 Causes:
o Industrial and domestic wastewater discharge into lakes
o Encroachment on lake beds and catchment areas
o Solid waste dumping in water bodies
 Example: Out of 837 water bodies in the 1970s, only 194 remain in Bangalore today (BBMP Lakes
Division, 2021).
4. Climate Change and Rainfall Variability
 Climate change has led to increased variability in rainfall patterns, affecting water availability
in Bangalore. The city has experienced a 6% decrease in annual rainfall over the past decade
(Indian Meteorological Department, 2020).
 This variability not only impacts direct water availability but also affects groundwater recharge
and the health of water bodies
 Causes:
o Altered monsoon patterns
o Increased frequency of extreme weather events
o Rising temperatures leading to higher evaporation rates
 Example: Bangalore experienced its worst drought in 45 years in 2019, with rainfall deficits of
over 50% in some areas (Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre, 2019).
 Example: The Bangalore Climate Action Plan (2021) aims to integrate climate resilience into
urban water management strategies.
5. Inefficient Water Management and Distribution
 Bangalore's water management system is characterized by high levels of non-revenue water
(NRW) and inefficient distribution practices. The city loses about 49% of its water supply to
leaks and theft (BWSSB, 2021).
 Causes:
o Aging and leaking water supply infrastructure
o Inadequate metering and billing systems
o Lack of demand management and water conservation practices
 Example: The BWSSB reports that only 60% of the city's population is connected to the piped
water supply network.
 Example: The BWSSB's Unaccounted for Water (UFW) project aims to reduce water losses to
25% by implementing advanced leak detection and management systems.
6. Cauvery River Water Dispute and Federal Challenges
 Bangalore's primary source of surface water is the Cauvery River, which is subject to a long-
standing inter-state water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. This dispute
significantly impacts Bangalore's water security, as allocations are contested and often subject
to political and legal battles
 Environmentally, the dispute affects the management of the entire Cauvery basin, influencing
agricultural practices, dam operations, and environmental flows.
 Causes:
o Competing demands for Cauvery water between states
o Lack of a comprehensive river basin management approach
o Political and legal conflicts over water allocation
 Example: The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal's 2007 final award allocated 270 TMC
(thousand million cubic feet) of Cauvery water to Karnataka annually, out of which Bangalore
is allocated 1.85 TMC per month. However, the city's current demand far exceeds this
allocation.

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 Example: The Cauvery Water Management Authority, established in 2018, aims to implement
the tribunal's award and manage the Cauvery waters, but challenges persist in ensuring
equitable distribution, especially during drought years.
7. Inefficient Water Management
 Despite being mandatory for large buildings, the adoption and maintenance of rainwater
harvesting systems in Bangalore are inadequate. Rainwater harvesting can significantly
augment water availability, reduce dependence on external sources, and recharge
groundwater.
 Example: The Bangalore Urban District Administration has made rainwater harvesting
compulsory for buildings larger than 1,200 sq. ft., but compliance remains low, limiting its
potential impact on water stress.
8. Pollution and Contamination
 Industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and solid waste have led to the contamination of water
bodies in and around Bangalore, further reducing the availability of clean water. Contaminated
water sources not only reduce the supply of potable water but also pose serious public health
risks.
 Example: The Bellandur Lake, one of Bangalore’s largest water bodies, has become infamous
for its pollution, often catching fire due to the high levels of industrial waste and sewage,
rendering it unusable for water supply.
7. Inadequate Urban Planning and Policy Implementation
 Lack of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): The absence of a cohesive and
integrated approach to managing water resources, including coordination between different
agencies and stakeholders, exacerbates water stress. Effective urban planning that considers
water availability, population growth, and infrastructure development is essential to mitigate
water stress.
8. Geological Constraints and Aquifer Characteristics
 The nature of aquifers in South India, including Bangalore, presents unique challenges for water
sustainability. The rocky terrain results in aquifers with limited water-holding capacity, leading
to quick depletion and recharge cycles. This geological reality exacerbates the water crisis
during prolonged dry spells, as the groundwater resources cannot sustain extended periods of
high demand.
 Example: The Deccan Plateau's hard rock aquifers, which Bangalore sits on, have a typical yield
of 1-5 liters per second, significantly lower than alluvial aquifers found in North India.
 Example: As per the Central Water Commission report (2024), Karnataka's reservoirs are
currently at 26% of their full capacity, which is 10 percentage points lower than the seasonal
norm.
9. Urban Development and Reduced Green Cover
 Example: According to a study by the Indian Institute of Science (2022), Bangalore's green
cover has shrunk from 68% in the 1970s to a mere 3% today, while concretized surfaces have
increased from 8% to 86% over the same period.
A. Solution
1. Rainwater Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge
 By capturing rainwater during monsoons, the city can reduce its dependence on distant water
sources and create a more sustainable local water supply. Advanced rainwater harvesting
techniques such as rooftop harvesting, permeable pavements, and injection wells can be
employed. Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping can identify optimal locations for
recharge structures.
 Example: According to a study by the Indian Institute of Science (2022), implementing
rainwater harvesting in just 50% of Bangalore's buildings could potentially harvest 2,300 million
liters of water annually.

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 Example: The Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) has mandated rainwater
harvesting for all buildings with an area of 60x40 sq ft and above.
2. Wastewater Recycling and Reuse
 By treating and reusing wastewater for non-potable purposes such as industrial use,
landscaping, and toilet flushing, Bangalore can reduce its freshwater demand substantially. This
approach not only conserves water but also reduces environmental pollution caused by
untreated wastewater discharge.
 Advanced wastewater treatment technologies like Membrane Bioreactors (MBR) and Reverse
Osmosis (RO) can be employed to treat wastewater to high standards suitable for reuse.
 Example: The Central Pollution Control Board report (2023) indicates that Bangalore
generates approximately 1,440 million liters of wastewater daily, of which only 40% is currently
treated.
 Example: The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs' AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation
and Urban Transformation) scheme provides funding for urban water management, including
wastewater recycling projects.
3. Smart Water Management Systems
 Implementing smart water management systems can significantly improve the efficiency of
water distribution and reduce losses. These systems use Internet of Things (IoT) devices,
sensors, and data analytics to monitor water flow, detect leaks, and optimize distribution in
real-time. By reducing non-revenue water and improving supply efficiency, Bangalore can
make better use of its limited water resources.
 Advanced technologies such as SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems,
smart meters, and predictive analytics can be integrated to create a comprehensive smart
water grid.
 Example: According to a World Bank report (2022), smart water management systems can
reduce water losses by up to 25% in urban areas
4. Lake Restoration and Urban Wetland Development
 These water bodies act as natural reservoirs, recharge groundwater, and improve the city's
microclimate. By reviving the city's lake ecosystem, Bangalore can enhance its water security
while also creating green spaces for biodiversity and recreation.
 Employing techniques such as bioremediation, constructed wetlands, and sediment removal
can help in lake restoration. GIS and remote sensing can be used for mapping and monitoring
lake ecosystems.
 Example: A study by the Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (2023)
showed that restoring just 20% of Bangalore's degraded lakes could potentially store up to 2
billion liters of water.
 Example: The National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA) by the Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides funding for lake conservation projects.
5. Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)
 Incorporating Water-Sensitive Urban Design principles in city planning can help Bangalore
become more resilient to water scarcity. WSUD integrates urban planning and water
management to minimize hydrological impacts of urban development. This approach includes
strategies like permeable surfaces, green roofs, and bio-retention systems that mimic natural
water cycles in urban environments
 WSUD helps in reducing urban heat island effect, improving air quality, and creating more
livable urban spaces.
 Example: The Melbourne Water's "10,000 Raingardens Program" in Australia has successfully
implemented WSUD principles, significantly reducing stormwater runoff and improving water
quality.
 Initiative: The National Mission for Sustainable Habitat under the National Action Plan on
Climate Change promotes sustainable urban planning, including water-sensitive design.

[25]
6. Enhancing Water Supply through Diversification
 Expansion of Alternative Water Sources
o Diversifying water sources by tapping into rainwater harvesting, treated wastewater,
and inter-basin water transfers can reduce the city’s dependency on the Cauvery River
and groundwater. These alternative sources provide resilience against water shortages
and ensure a steady supply.
o Example: The Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) estimates that
15% of Bangalore’s water needs could be met through treated wastewater by 2025
(BWSSB, 2020).
 Implementation of Rainwater Harvesting
o Example: The Bangalore Urban District Administration mandates rainwater
harvesting for buildings larger than 1,200 sq. ft., but effective enforcement and
widespread adoption are necessary.
o Example: The Ministry of Jal Shakti’s Jal Shakti Abhiyan promotes rainwater
harvesting as a key strategy for water conservation and management in urban areas.
7. Groundwater Management and Recharge
 Sustainable Groundwater Management
o Sustainable management of groundwater resources is essential to prevent over-
extraction and ensure long-term water availability. This includes regulating borewell
drilling, monitoring groundwater levels, and implementing groundwater recharge
projects.
o Example: The Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY) focuses on sustainable groundwater
management in water-stressed areas, promoting community participation and the
revival of traditional water bodies.
 Artificial Recharge of Aquifers
o Artificial recharge techniques, such as percolation tanks, check dams, and recharge
wells, can help replenish depleted aquifers, ensuring the sustainability of groundwater
resources.
o Example: The Ministry of Jal Shakti’s Jal Jeevan Mission includes initiatives for
groundwater recharge, particularly in urban areas like Bangalore, where groundwater
is a critical water source.
6. Public Awareness and Community Participation
 Raising Public Awareness
o Awareness campaigns can drive behavioral change and promote community
involvement in water management efforts.
o Example: The Jal Shakti Abhiyan conducts awareness campaigns and training
programs to educate the public on water conservation techniques, emphasizing the
importance of individual actions in mitigating water stress.

 Community-Based Water Management

o water bodies and monitoring of groundwater extraction, can enhance the effectiveness
of water conservation efforts.
o Example: The Atal Bhujal Yojana promotes community-based water management,
empowering local groups to take charge of water resource management and decision-
making.

6. Carbon Tax
 Carbon tax is a policy instrument designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by putting a
price on carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions. It is based on the 'polluter pays'
principle, internalizing the environmental costs of carbon emissions into economic decision-

[26]
making. By increasing the cost of carbon-intensive activities, a carbon tax creates a financial
incentive for businesses and individuals to reduce emissions and invest in cleaner technologies.
 Data: The World Bank's State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2021 report indicates that 27
carbon tax initiatives were implemented globally, covering about 5.5% of global greenhouse
gas emissions.
Types of Carbon Taxes
1. Direct Carbon Tax: A Direct Carbon Tax is levied on the carbon content of fossil fuels, such as
coal, oil, and natural gas, at the point of extraction or importation. The tax rate is based on the
amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions produced when these fuels are burned. Sweden has
successfully implemented this type of tax, leading to significant reductions in emissions.
2. Cap-and-Trade System: Also known as an Emissions Trading System (ETS), the Cap-and-Trade
mechanism sets a cap on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by covered
entities. The European Union’s ETS is a leading example, where carbon pricing is achieved
through the market-driven price of emission allowances.
3. Carbon Border Tax Mechanism: The Carbon Border Tax Mechanism is a tariff on imported
goods based on their carbon footprint. This ensures that domestic industries, which are subject
to carbon taxes, are not undercut by cheaper imports from countries with less stringent
environmental regulations.
4. Carbon Credits and Offsets: Carbon Credits represent a reduction of greenhouse gases in one
place that can be used to offset emissions elsewhere. Companies or countries can buy these
credits to comply with carbon regulations or to meet voluntary sustainability goals. The Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol allows industrialized countries to
invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries and earn certified emission
reduction (CER) credits.

7. Carbon Border Tax Mechanism

Significance and Impact
1. Mitigating Carbon Leakage
 CBAM aims to prevent carbon leakage, a phenomenon where companies shift production to
countries with laxer emission constraints
 This mechanism utilizes the concept of embodied carbon emissions, accounting for the CO2
emitted during the production of imported goods.
 The implementation of CBAM could lead to a reduction in global carbon emissions by
discouraging the relocation of carbon-intensive industries to less regulated jurisdictions
 Data: A study by the European Commission 2021 estimated that CBAM could reduce carbon
leakage in targeted sectors by 29% by 2030. Research published in Nature Climate Change
2023 projected that CBAM could lead to a 5-7% reduction in global CO2 emissions by 2040 if
widely adopted.
2. Promoting Global Climate Action
 By setting a precedent for carbon pricing at borders, it creates pressure on other countries to
strengthen their own climate policies or face economic disadvantages
 The mechanism could potentially lead to the harmonization of carbon pricing schemes
globally, facilitating international cooperation on climate change mitigation.
 Data: The World Bank's State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2023 report noted that the
number of countries considering or implementing carbon pricing mechanisms increased by
20% since the EU's CBAM announcement. A survey by the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
2022 found that 65% of major economies were considering or developing CBAM-like policies
in response to the EU's initiative.

[27]
3. Enhancing Industrial Competitiveness
 By leveling the playing field, it allows European companies to compete fairly with imports from
countries with less stringent environmental standards.
 This could prevent the deindustrialization of sectors vulnerable to carbon leakage, such as
steel, cement, and chemicals.
 The mechanism could also stimulate innovation in low-carbon technologies within the EU, as
companies seek to reduce their carbon footprint to maintain competitiveness
 Data: An analysis by the European Parliamentary Research Service 2022 estimated that CBAM
could prevent the loss of up to 1.5 million jobs in carbon-intensive industries in the EU by
2030. A study in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 2023 projected
that CBAM could increase R&D investment in low-carbon technologies in the EU by 15-20%
over the next decade.
4. Revenue Generation and Green Transition Funding
 CBAM is expected to generate significant revenue for the EU, which can be channeled into
climate action and just transition initiatives
 This aligns with the concept of "polluter pays principle" and could provide resources for
scaling up renewable energy, improving energy efficiency
 The revenue could also be used to fund climate adaptation measures and support developing
countries in their decarbonization efforts
 Data: The European Commission’s impact assessment 2021 estimated that CBAM could
generate annual revenues of 5-14 billion euros by 2030. A report by the Green Climate Fund
2023 suggested that if 25% of CBAM revenues were allocated to international climate finance,
it could increase the EU’s contribution by 2-3 billion euros annually.
5. Driving Technological Innovation
 This could accelerate the development and deployment of low-carbon innovations across
various industries. Technologies such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), green hydrogen
production, and advanced materials could see increased investment and adoption. The
mechanism could also spur advancements in carbon accounting and traceability technologies,
crucial for accurate implementation of CBAM
 Data: A report by the International Energy Agency (IEA) 2023 projected that CBAM could
increase global investment in clean energy technologies by 10-15% by 2030. Research
published in Energy Policy 2022 found that patent applications for low-carbon technologies in
CBAM-covered sectors increased by 30% in the year following the EU's CBAM proposal.
6. Reshaping Global Trade Patterns
 It could lead to a reconfiguration of international trade patterns, favoring low-carbon
producers and potentially creating new trade alliances based on climate ambition. This could
result in the emergence of "low-carbon trade blocs" and the integration of carbon
considerations into trade agreements
 CBAM might also accelerate the trend towards nearshoring or reshoring of certain industries,
as companies seek to reduce their carbon footprint and minimize CBAM-related costs.
Furthermore, it could stimulate the development of "green corridors" in international shipping
and logistics to facilitate low-carbon trade.
 Data: A study by the Peterson Institute for International Economics 2023 estimated that
CBAM could reduce EU imports from high-carbon intensity countries by 15-25% in covered
sectors by 2030. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
reported in 2022 that CBAM could lead to a 1.6% decrease in global trade volume but a 3.5%
increase in trade value due to shifts towards higher-value, low-carbon goods.

[28]
7. Geopolitical Implications
 It could serve as a catalyst for more ambitious climate commitments in international forums
like the UNFCCC COPs. However, it also risks creating tensions with major trading partners,
particularly emerging economies that may view CBAM as a form of green protectionism
 CBAM could accelerate the shift in global economic power dynamics, potentially favoring
countries with advanced clean energy technologies and robust carbon pricing systems.
 Data A survey by the Council on Foreign Relations 2023 found that 70% of international
relations experts believed CBAM would significantly influence global climate negotiations over
the next five years. The World Trade Organization's World Trade Report 2022 noted a 40%
increase in trade disputes related to environmental measures since the announcement of
CBAM.
8. Addressing Environmental Justice
 By internalizing the cost of carbon emissions, it adheres to the "polluter pays principle",
potentially reducing the disproportionate impact of climate change on vulnerable communities
 The mechanism could be designed to include provisions for supporting just transition in
affected countries, such as through targeted exemptions or the use of CBAM revenues for
climate finance
 Data: A report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 2023 estimated that
CBAM could affect up to 5% of exports from Least Developed Countries (LDCs), highlighting
the need for support mechanisms. Research published in World Development 2022 found that
if 10% of CBAM revenues were allocated to international climate adaptation funding, it could
increase support for vulnerable countries by 500 million to 1.4 billion euros annually.
Carbon Border Tax Mechanism: Challenges and Impacts
1. Trade Tensions and Potential Retaliation
 CBAM could be perceived as a form of protectionism by non-EU countries, potentially leading
to trade disputes and retaliatory measures
 The World Trade Organization (WTO) compatibility of CBAM remains a contentious issue,
particularly regarding the principles of non-discrimination and most-favored-nation
treatment
 This could lead to a scenario of "green trade wars," where environmental policies become tools
for economic leverage, potentially undermining both free trade and climate cooperation.
 Indian Perspective For India, CBAM poses significant challenges to its export-oriented sectors,
particularly steel and aluminum. As the world's third-largest carbon emitter but with lower per
capita emissions than many developed countries, India views CBAM as potentially unfair and
discriminatory
 Developing countries argue that CBAM violates the principle of special and differential
treatment enshrined in WTO agreements.
 Data:
o The WTO's World Trade Report 2022 noted a 40% increase in trade disputes related
to environmental measures since the announcement of CBAM.
o A study by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations
(ICRIER) 2023 estimated that CBAM could impact up to 6.5% of India's exports to the
EU.
o The WTO's 2022 World Trade Report highlighted that 60% of developing country
members expressed concerns about CBAM's compatibility with WTO rules.
2. Burden on Developing Countries
 Many developing nations rely on carbon-intensive exports and may struggle to meet the
standards set by CBAM without significant technological and financial support. This challenge
intersects with the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities" enshrined in the
Paris Agreement

[29]
 . Furthermore, it could lead to a form of "carbon colonialism," where developing countries are
pressured to adopt climate policies that may not align with their development priorities or
capabilities.
 Indian Perspective India, along with other developing nations, argues that CBAM contradicts
the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities
(CBDR-RC)" under the Paris Agreement
 Data:
o A report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
2023 estimated that CBAM could reduce exports from developing countries to the EU
by up to 8% in covered sectors.
o Research published in World Development 2022 found that Least Developed
Countries (LDCs) could face additional costs equivalent to 0.5-1.5% of their GDP due
to CBAM.
o The International Energy Agency (IEA) World Energy Outlook 2023 reported that
developing countries would need 1.5-2 trillion dollars annually in clean energy
investments to align with global climate goals.
3. Technical Complexity and Implementation Challenges
 The implementation of CBAM presents significant technical challenges, particularly in
accurately measuring and verifying the carbon content of imported goods. This requires
sophisticated methodologies for Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) and the development of robust
carbon accounting systems
 Additionally, the mechanism must be designed to prevent circumvention strategies, such as
resource shuffling or transshipment through third countries.
 Data
o A survey by the European Association of Corporate Treasurers 2023 found that 70%
of companies expected significant challenges in complying with CBAM reporting
requirements.
o The European Commission's impact assessment 2021 estimated that the
administrative costs of CBAM implementation could reach 1-2 billion euros annually
for EU authorities and businesses combined.
4. Carbon Pricing Disparities and Market Distortions
 The effectiveness of CBAM is contingent on accurately accounting for carbon pricing
disparities between the EU and its trading partners. However, comparing different carbon
pricing mechanisms (e.g., Emissions Trading Systems (ETS), carbon taxes, regulatory
measures) presents significant challenges. The risk of double taxation arises when exporting
countries have their own carbon pricing systems, necessitating complex adjustment
mechanisms
 Indian Perspective India has implemented a coal cess and Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT)
scheme, but these are not directly comparable to the EU's Emissions Trading System (ETS).
This disparity could lead to Indian exports facing higher CBAM charges, despite domestic
efforts to reduce emissions.
 Data
o The World Bank's State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2023 report highlighted that
carbon prices varied from less than 1 dollar to over 100 dollars per tonne of CO2 across
different jurisdictions, complicating CBAM calculations.
o A study in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 2023 estimated
that carbon pricing disparities could lead to price increases of 10-30% for CBAM-
covered products in the EU market.
5. Geopolitical Tensions and Climate Diplomacy Challenges
 It could be perceived as a unilateral measure that undermines the multilateral approach to
climate change embodied in the Paris Agreement

[30]
 There's a risk that CBAM could be used as a geopolitical tool, influencing trade relationships
and economic alliances beyond its intended environmental purpose.
 This could lead to a fragmentation of global climate efforts, with countries forming competing
blocs based on their approach to carbon pricing and border adjustments.
 Global South Unity CBAM has galvanized unity among Global South countries, with forums like
the BASIC (Brazil, South Africa, India, and China) group taking strong positions against
unilateral carbon border measures in climate negotiations.
 Data
o A survey by the Council on Foreign Relations 2023 found that 65% of international
relations experts believed CBAM would create significant diplomatic challenges for the
EU in the next five years.
o At the 2022 UNFCCC COP, a coalition of 24 developing countries, led by China and
including India, issued a joint statement opposing unilateral carbon border measures,
representing 60% of the world's population.
6. Sectoral Coverage and Competitiveness Concerns
 The initial scope of CBAM is limited to specific sectors (e.g., cement, iron and steel, aluminium,
fertilizers, electricity), raising questions about its overall effectiveness and fairness.
 This limited coverage could lead to competitive distortions between covered and non-covered
sectors, potentially resulting in carbon leakage within the EU economy
 Indian Sector-Specific Impacts Key Indian export sectors like steel, chemicals, and textiles
could face significant challenges.
 The Indian steel industry, which is more carbon-intensive than its EU counterpart due to
higher reliance on coal, could see its competitiveness severely impacted.
 LDC Exemptions While the EU has proposed exemptions for LDCs, there are concerns about
the criteria and duration of these exemptions, as well as their impact on the overall
effectiveness of CBAM.
 Data
o An analysis by the European Parliamentary Research Service 2022 estimated that the
initial CBAM coverage would address only about 55% of emissions from EU imports.
7. Impact on Global Supply Chains and SMEs
 CBAM could lead to significant restructuring of global supply chains as companies seek to
minimize their carbon liability. This could result in the marginalization of suppliers from high-
emission countries, potentially disrupting established economic relationships.
 Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) may face disproportionate challenges in adapting to
CBAM requirements due to limited resources for emissions monitoring and reporting
 Data
o A report by the International Trade Centre 2023 estimated that up to 30% of SMEs
exporting to the EU from developing countries could face significant challenges in
complying with CBAM.
o A 2023 survey by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) found that 70% of Indian
SMEs exporting to the EU were unprepared for CBAM compliance.
8. Technological Disparities and Innovation Challenges
 This could create a "green divide," where developing countries struggle to access and
implement the technologies necessary to comply with CBAM standards. While the mechanism
aims to incentivize global innovation in clean technologies, it may also lead to a concentration
of R&D activities in developed countries, potentially widening the technology gap.
 Technology Transfer Barriers The lack of effective mechanisms for North-South technology
transfer remains a significant obstacle. Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) protection often
conflicts with the need for rapid diffusion of clean technologies to developing countries.
 Data

[31]
o The Global Innovation Index 2023 reported that high-income countries filed 5 times
more "green" patents per capita than middle-income countries, indicating a significant
technology gap.
o A study by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) 2022
estimated that developing countries would need to increase their clean technology
investments by 50-100% to maintain export competitiveness under CBAM.
o The 2023 Global Innovation Index ranked India 40th, highlighting the innovation gap
with developed countries in green technologies.

8. PAT Scheme
 The Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme was introduced in 2012 as a market-based
mechanism under the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) to increase
energy efficiency in large industries in India. It was set up as a competitive mechanism for
reducing energy use in energy-intensive sectors.
The key objectives of the PAT scheme are:
 To reduce specific energy consumption in energy-intensive industries
 To enhance cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency improvements through certification of
excess energy savings that can be traded
 To facilitate financing of energy efficiency projects in designated industries
Working Details
Governance Structure:
 Ministry of Power: Overall responsibility for the scheme
 Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): Implements the scheme, selects sectors, sets targets,
oversees implementation
 Accredited Energy Auditors: Conduct audits and verification
 Power System Operation Corporation (POSOCO): Manages ESCert registry
Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC): Regulates trading of ESCerts
Key Mechanisms:
 Target setting: Based on baseline energy consumption and sector-specific benchmarks
 ESCerts: One ESCert equals one metric tonne of oil equivalent (Mtoe) of energy saved
 Trading: ESCerts can be bought and sold on power exchanges
 Banking: Unused ESCerts can be saved for future compliance periods
 Penalties: Failure to meet targets or surrender ESCerts can result in fines
Challenges
 Excess availability of Energy Savings Certificates (ESCerts):
 Low carbon prices and market activity:
 Unambitious target setting:
 Increased non-compliance:
 Minimal CO2 reductions:
 Sectoral challenges:
 Lack of transparency:
 Transition challenges: As India prepares to launch the new Carbon Credit Trading Scheme
(CCTS), there are concerns about how to effectively transition from PAT to CCTS without
disrupting ongoing cycles or losing the progress made under PAT.

9. Green Credit Program

 India's recent Green Credit Programme (GCP), notified on October 13, 2023, is an innovative
market-based mechanism aimed at incentivizing voluntary environmental actions across

[32]
various sectors. It encourages individuals, communities, private sector industries, and
companies to undertake activities that benefit the environment.
Key Points of the GCP:
 Market-based Mechanism: It operates on a system where Green Credits are issued for specific
environmental actions. These credits can be traded on a domestic market platform, providing
financial benefits to those who earn them.
 Diverse Sectors and Stakeholders: The program welcomes participation from a wide range of
sectors and stakeholders, making it inclusive and comprehensive.
 Governance and Implementation: It is overseen by an inter-ministerial Steering Committee
and implemented by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE).
 Initial Focus Areas: In its first phase, the GCP is concentrating on water conservation and
afforestation activities.
 Benefits Beyond Carbon: While carbon emissions reduction is important, the GCP goes beyond
that to include improvements in air and water quality, biodiversity, and other environmental
aspects.
How it Works:
 Undertake Environmental Actions: Individuals and entities carry out projects related to water
conservation, afforestation, or other eligible activities.
 Claim Green Credits: Based on predefined methodologies, they can claim Green Credits for
their positive environmental impact.
 Trade on Market Platform: These Green Credits can be traded on a dedicated domestic market
platform.
Key Features:
 Green Credits: These credits are issued to individuals, communities, private sector industries,
and companies for undertaking specific environmental activities. They can be traded on a
domestic market platform.
 Eligibility: Open to a wide range of stakeholders including individuals, farmers, industries,
urban and rural local bodies, and forest departments.
 Activities: The program initially covers two categories:
 Increasing Green Cover: Tree planting, agroforestry, and restoration of degraded land.
 Water Conservation and Harvesting: Construction of water harvesting structures,
restoration of water bodies, and adoption of efficient irrigation practices.
 Governance: The program is overseen by a Steering Committee chaired by the Secretary of the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
 Implementation: The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) is responsible
for the implementation and technical aspects of the program.
Data:
 The program aims to generate approximately 50 million Green Credits annually.
Organizations Involved:
 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC): The nodal ministry
responsible for policy and governance.
 Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE): The implementing agency
responsible for technical aspects.
 State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees (PCCs): They play
a crucial role in verification and monitoring.
 Other Ministries: The Ministry of Jal Shakti and the Ministry of Agriculture are also involved in
specific activities related to the program.
Benefits:
 Financial: Entities can earn revenue by selling Green Credits.
 Corporate Social Responsibility: Credits can be used to meet CSR obligations.

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 Compliance: In the future, Green Credits may become necessary for certain compliance
requirements.
 Environmental: Promotes sustainable practices, enhances ecosystem services, and contributes
to climate change mitigation and adaptation.
 Economic: Creates a market for Green Credits, encourages private sector investment in green
projects, and fosters green jobs.
 Social: Encourages community participation and empowers individuals to contribute to
environmental conservation.
Challenges:
 Robust Monitoring and Verification: Ensuring accurate assessment and verification of
environmental actions is crucial to maintain the program's integrity.
 Awareness and Capacity Building: Extensive outreach and training are needed to educate
stakeholders about the program and its benefits.
 Market Development: A vibrant and transparent market for Green Credits is essential for the
program's success.

[34]
Feature PAT (Perform, Achieve, and Carbon Market India Green Credit Scheme
Trade) Scheme

Focus Energy efficiency in Carbon emissions Voluntary

designated industries reduction across various environmental actions
sectors beyond regulatory
compliance

Mechanism Setting energy efficiency Cap-and-trade system Issuance and trading

targets, allowing trade of for carbon emissions, of Green Credits for
Energy Saving Certificates allowing trade of specific environmental
(ESCerts) Carbon Credit actions
Certificates (CCCs)

Regulated Entities Designated industries with Specified sectors Open to individuals,

high energy consumption (initially iron & steel, communities, private
cement, petrochemicals, sector, and various
and pulp & paper) entities

Instruments Traded ESCerts CCCs Green Credits

Benefits Improved energy efficiency, Reduced carbon Promotion of

cost savings for industries, emissions, incentivizing sustainable practices,
potential revenue from low-carbon financial benefits for
ESCert trading technologies, potential Green Credit earners,
revenue from CCC enhanced CSR
trading activities

Scope Limited to energy efficiency Primarily focused on Broader scope,

in specific industries carbon emissions covering diverse
reduction in certain environmental actions
sectors (initially water
conservation and
afforestation)

Regulatory Energy Conservation Act, Energy Conservation Environment

Framework 2001 (Amendment) Act, 2022 (Protection) Act, 1986

Implementation Bureau of Energy Efficiency Bureau of Energy Indian Council of

(BEE) Efficiency (BEE) Forestry Research and
Education (ICFRE)

Current Status Operational since 2012, Launched in June 2023, Notified in June 2023,
several successful cycles details and implementation
completed implementation are underway
ongoing

[35]

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Air Pollution in Delhi: Causes & Solutions

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Air Pollution in Delhi: Causes & Solutions

Uploaded by

CA - ENV - 240819

5. Bangalore - Zero Day

 Community-Based Water Management

7. Carbon Border Tax Mechanism

9. Green Credit Program

Focus Energy efficiency in Carbon emissions Voluntary

Mechanism Setting energy efficiency Cap-and-trade system Issuance and trading

Regulated Entities Designated industries with Specified sectors Open to individuals,

Instruments Traded ESCerts CCCs Green Credits

Benefits Improved energy efficiency, Reduced carbon Promotion of

Scope Limited to energy efficiency Primarily focused on Broader scope,

Regulatory Energy Conservation Act, Energy Conservation Environment

Implementation Bureau of Energy Efficiency Bureau of Energy Indian Council of

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