IM

Information Life Cycle

The Information Life Cycle refers to the stages through which information passes, from creation to disposal. Understanding this cycle is crucial for effective
information management, ensuring that data is used efficiently and securely throughout its lifespan.

1. Creation
Information is created or received and captured in various formats, such as documents, emails, or databases. This stage involves identifying the purpose and context
of the information.

2. Storage
Once created, information needs to be stored securely. This involves selecting appropriate storage media and ensuring data integrity and accessibility. Cloud storage
solutions have become increasingly popular due to their scalability and convenience (Smith, 2022).

3. Use
Stored information is accessed and used for various purposes, such as decision-making, reporting, or analysis. Effective information retrieval systems are essential to
ensure that users can find and use the information they need (Johnson, 2023).

4. Sharing
Information is often shared within and outside an organization. This stage involves ensuring that the right people have access to the right information while
maintaining security and privacy (Brown, 2023).

5. Archiving
As information becomes less frequently used, it may be archived for long-term storage. Archiving involves moving data to less expensive storage solutions while
ensuring it remains accessible if needed (Davis, 2022).

6. Disposal
Finally, information that is no longer needed is disposed of securely. This stage involves ensuring that data is completely destroyed to prevent unauthorized access or
data breaches (Miller, 2023).

Ethical and Legal Considerations in Information Management

Information management involves the collection, storage, and use of data, which raises various ethical and legal issues. Understanding these considerations is crucial
for ensuring that information is handled responsibly and in compliance with relevant laws.

1. Privacy and Confidentiality

Privacy concerns arise when personal information is collected, stored, and shared. Organizations must ensure that they protect individuals' privacy by implementing
robust security measures and adhering to privacy laws and regulations (Smith, 2022).

2. Data Security
Data security involves protecting information from unauthorized access, breaches, and other threats. Organizations must implement strong security protocols to
safeguard sensitive data and comply with legal requirements (Johnson, 2023).

3. Intellectual Property
Intellectual property (IP) laws protect the rights of creators and owners of original works. In the context of information management, organizations must respect IP
rights by ensuring that they do not infringe on copyrights, patents, or trademarks.

4. Ethical Use of Information

Ethical considerations involve the responsible use of information. Organizations must ensure that they use data ethically, avoiding practices such as data manipulation,
unauthorized data sharing, and misuse of information (Davis, 2022).

5. Compliance with Legal Regulations

Organizations must comply with various legal regulations related to information management, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Health
Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). Compliance ensures that organizations handle information lawfully and avoid legal penalties (Miller, 2023).

6. Transparency and Accountability

Transparency involves being open about how information is collected, used, and shared. Accountability means taking responsibility for the ethical and legal handling
of information. Organizations must establish clear policies and procedures to ensure transparency and accountability (Wilson, 2023).

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

1. Define what an information system is.

2. Identify the different types of information systems.

3. Understand the role of information systems in business.

 4. Provide examples of information systems in real-world scenarios.

Overview of Information Systems

An information system (IS) is a combination of components that work together to collect, store, process, and distribute information. These components include
hardware, software, data, people, and processes. Information systems are used to support business operations, decision-making, and strategic planning.

Importance of Information Systems in Today's Digital Age

1. Enhancing Efficiency: Information systems streamline business processes, reduce manual labor, and automate repetitive tasks, leading to increased
efficiency and productivity.

2. Improving Decision-Making: By providing accurate and timely information, information systems support better decision-making at all levels of an
organization.

3. Competitive Advantage: Organizations that leverage information systems effectively can gain a competitive edge by optimizing their operations, improving
customer service, and innovating faster than their competitors.

4. Enabling Connectivity and Collaboration: Information systems facilitate communication and collaboration both within and outside an organization. This is
especially important in today's globalized world where remote work and virtual teams are common.

5. Data Management and Analysis: Information systems enable the collection, storage, and analysis of large volumes of data, helping organizations to identify
trends, patterns, and insights that can drive business growth and innovation.

6. Supporting E-Commerce and Digital Business: Information systems are the backbone of e-commerce platforms, enabling online transactions, customer
relationship management, and digital marketing strategies.

7. Enhancing Customer Experience: Through personalized services, real-time support, and efficient service delivery, information systems play a crucial role in
enhancing the overall customer experience.

Components Of Information System

The information system is made up of five essential components–hardware, software, database, networking communication, and people. These five components can
be grouped into two broad categories. The first three components can be grouped as “Technology” whereas the last two components are meant to “add value to
organizations”.

1. Hardware

Hardware encompasses the tangible components of an information system. This includes devices like computers, servers, storage units, networking gear, printers, and
various peripheral devices. Hardware forms the essential foundation for executing software applications and for the storage and processing of data.

2. Software

Software refers to the collection of instructions or programs that manage and coordinate hardware, as well as analyze and process data. This concept encompasses
not just the programs that control hardware, but also the procedures that individuals use to handle information. Unlike physical components, software is intangible
and is developed by programmers who write a series of instructions in various programming languages. It plays a crucial role in organizing and delivering data to users
while also managing the physical storage of media and virtual resources. Software can be categorized into two main types:

3. Data and Database

Data consists of raw facts and figures that are processed by an information system. It can take various forms, including text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Data
serves as the foundation for building information. Once data is processed, organized, and structured, it transforms into meaningful information that can aid in
decision-making.

Processes consist of a sequence of steps or activities designed to meet specific goals within an information system. They outline the methods for collecting,
processing, storing, and distributing data. Well-defined processes guarantee that information moves smoothly and accurately throughout the organization. These
processes encompass business rules, procedures, and workflows that direct the functioning of the information system.

5. People

People are the users who engage with the information system. The final and arguably the most crucial element of an information system is people, as the previous
four components cannot operate without them. Human resources encompass two categories of individuals:

Types of Information System

1. Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

Definition: TPS are built to manage everyday business transactions. They collect, store, modify, and retrieve all transaction-related data.

Example: Point of Sale (POS) systems found in retail stores that handle sales transactions and update inventory records.

2. Management Information Systems (MIS)

Definition: MIS equip managers with tools to organize, assess, and effectively oversee departments within an organization. These systems emphasize operational
efficiency and aid in decision-making by generating routine summary reports.

Example: An inventory management system that monitors stock levels, orders, sales, and deliveries.

3. Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Definition: DSS are interactive software systems designed to help decision-makers gather valuable information from raw data, documents, and personal insights to
identify problems and make informed decisions. Example: A financial planning system that assists managers in forecasting revenue, expenses, and overall financial
performance.

4. Executive Support Systems (ESS)

Definition: ESS are specialized DSS aimed at helping senior executives analyze the organizational environment, recognize long-term trends, and devise suitable
strategies.

Example: A dashboard reporting tool that presents key performance indicators (KPIs) and strategic insights to top executives.

5. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems

Definition: CRM systems are designed to manage an organization's interactions and relationships with current and potential customers. These systems enhance
customer relationships, retention, and sales growth. Example: Salesforce, a CRM platform that offers tools for sales, customer service, marketing, and customer
engagement.

6. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems

Definition: ERP systems integrate essential business processes in real-time. These systems consolidate all the functions.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Information System

Everything comes with both advantages as well as disadvantages. Although information system is very much beneficial for businesses, they also have some
shortcomings. Here’s a list of the advantages and disadvantages;

Advantages of Information System

1) Storage and protection of information

The storage components of information systems are designed to gather and retain vast amounts of data for extended periods. Users can access this stored information
whenever needed. Ensuring the security of company records is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the organization. Additionally, robust security measures can help
prevent unauthorized access by hackers. Even virtual vaults can minimize the risk of loss or damage to electronic information during system failures.

2) More efficiency and greater productivity

Many businesses today rely heavily on information systems to boost efficiency and productivity. Automated processes allow for more work to be completed in less
time, enabling employees to manage larger workloads with greater accuracy and fewer mistakes. With computers handling many tasks, employees gain more free
time and flexibility to concentrate on other responsibilities, ultimately enhancing the company’s overall efficiency.

3) Reduced risk of errors

As information systems utilize automated processes, users can access the most accurate information required to carry out their tasks. It's fair to say that every step—
from input to organizing, storing, processing data, and ultimately producing output—is executed with high precision. This helps to significantly reduce the potential for
human errors that can occur in manual processes.

4) Better communication

Communication is very essential to personal as well as business relationships. The success of a company depends highly on communication between supervisors and
employees, as well as between employees and clients. Telecommunication in the form of video conferences, emails, faxes, and so on allows easier exchanges of
information and opinions.

Disadvantages of Information System

1) Expensive
At the primary level, certain technologies, hardware, tools, and communication methods can be quite expensive. Additionally, setting up the information system can
incur significant costs. Ongoing maintenance and repairs for this type of equipment are also necessary. Moreover, updating and upgrading devices, software, and
other components come with their own costs. Beyond the technological aspects, personnel must be hired to operate the system, which means they need to be
compensated. Training these individuals also involves additional expenses.

2) Reduction in jobs

Tasks are completed quickly and efficiently with the help of an information system, allowing employees to have more time for other responsibilities. Consequently,
companies are looking to streamline operations by combining roles to minimize the workforce. In certain instances, machines are taking over human jobs, leading to
job losses.

3) Security breaches

Electronic information is very vulnerable to security breaches. Hackers are always improving their skills and adapting to new technologies. Therefore, companies need
to have a security specialist on staff at all times to safeguard their critical information. Failing to do so can disrupt the smooth operation of the system, leading to
customer dissatisfaction and other issues for the business.

Manual Information System VS Computerized Information System

Manual Information System

A manual information system is a traditional type of information system that does not use any computerized or automated tools. All tasks, including recording, storing,
analyzing, and retrieving data, are performed manually by personnel. While these manual processes can be time-consuming, this system is significantly more cost-
effective since it doesn't require expensive equipment and can be operated with basic items like pen and paper. Additionally, it offers greater flexibility compared to a
computerized system.

However, this form of information system has some serious drawbacks which have reduced its popularity and implementation, such as :

 prone to errors

 lack of accuracy

 lack of security

 data inconsistency due to duplication of data

 lack of backups if files get lost or damaged

Computerized Information System

With the rise of technology, computerized information systems were created to tackle the limitations of manual information systems. These systems integrate
hardware, software, databases, and communication networks, along with personnel and procedures, to effectively record, store, analyze, and retrieve information.
However, acquiring and setting up the equipment for computerized information systems can be quite costly. Additionally, ongoing maintenance, repairs, and updates
come with extra expenses. Training staff to effectively use computers and other devices is also necessary. If any component of the computerized system fails, access to
information can be disrupted, halting the entire process until the faulty part is replaced. Despite implementing security measures, the risk of fraud remains if proper
controls and checks are not established.

Geographic Information System

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system designed to capture, manage, store, check, analyze, and display geographically referenced information
related to locations on Earth. It typically examines various types of data linked to a specific area and presents them on a single map, including features like streets,
vegetation, and settlements. This helps individuals visualize, analyze, and understand spatial patterns, relationships, and geographic contexts more effectively.

GIS serves as a foundation for mapping and analysis. By viewing and analyzing data on maps, we can make more informed decisions. This is why GIS is widely used in
science and nearly every industry globally to create maps that communicate, analyze, share information, and address complex challenges.

GIS comprises hardware, software, and databases that may include cartographic data, photographic data, digital data, or information stored in spreadsheets or tables.

Although an emerging technology itself, geographic information systems are constantly evolving, yet its ultimate goal is to provide actionable intelligence from all
types of data. The major applications of GIS are found in:

 Detecting new store locations

 Reporting power outages

 Forecasting and predicting weather

 Routing in-car navigations

Introduction to Database Systems

A database system is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to access, manage, and update that data. Database systems are essential for managing
large volumes of data efficiently and securely.

Furthermore, a database system is a structured collection of data that allows for efficient storage, retrieval, and management of information. It is powered by a
Database Management System (DBMS), which serves as the interface between users and the database. Examples include:

 A university database managing student records.

 An e-commerce platform tracking inventory and sales.

They are widely used in industries such as finance, healthcare, e-commerce, and more. This lecture covers the fundamentals of database systems, recent
advancements, and practical examples.

Key Components of Database Systems

1. Data Models:

o Relational Model: Represents data in tables (relations) with rows and columns. Example: A table of students with attributes
like Student_ID, Name, and Course.

o Entity-Relationship (ER) Model: Uses diagrams to represent entities (e.g., students) and their relationships (e.g., enrollment in courses).

o NoSQL Models: Includes document stores (e.g., MongoDB), key-value stores, and graph databases.

2. Query Languages:

o SQL (Structured Query Language): Used for querying and manipulating relational databases. Example:

sql

SELECT Name, Course FROM Students WHERE Course = 'Database Systems';

o NoSQL Querying: Example in MongoDB:

javascript

db.students.find({ course: "Database Systems" });

3. Database Design:

o Normalization: Organizing data to reduce redundancy. Example: Splitting a table with repeated course names into
separate Courses and Students tables.

o Indexes: Speed up data retrieval. Example: Creating an index on Student_ID for faster lookups.

4. Transaction Management:

o Ensures ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability). Example: A bank transfer either completes fully or not at all.

5. Big Data and Modern Databases:

o Hadoop and Spark: Handle large-scale data processing.

o In-memory Databases: Store data in RAM for faster access (e.g., Redis).

Applications of Database Systems

 Healthcare: Managing patient records.

 Finance: Tracking transactions and fraud detection.

 E-commerce: Personalizing user experiences based on purchase history.

Challenges in Database Systems

 Scalability: Handling growing data volumes.

 Security: Protecting sensitive information.

 Data Integration: Combining data from multiple sources.

References

 Parikh, P. (2022). Database Management Systems Lecture Notes. Retrieved from Internet Archive.

 Bedathur, S. (2023). Introduction to Database Management Systems. Retrieved from IIT Delhi Course Materials.

 Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. (2022). Database Systems Lecture Notes. Retrieved from Studocu.

MCI
Ergonomics – Ergonomics or human factor is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system,
and the profession that applies theoretical principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overll system performance.

Type of ergonomics

1. Physical ergonomics- its is the human body responses to physical and physiological work loads. Repetitive strain injuries from repetition,vibration, force and posture
fall into this category

2.Cognitive ergonomics-It deals with the mental processes and capacities of humans when at work. Mental strain from workload, decision making, human error, and
training fall into this category.

3.Organization ergonomics- It deals with the organization structure, police and processes in the work environment, such as shift work, scheduling job satisfaction,
motivation, supervision, team work, telecommuting and ethics.

Understand the fundamental concepts:

 Human-computer interaction (HCI): Definition, history, and its importance in today's world.

 The user: Understanding human capabilities, limitations, and cognitive processes that influence interaction with computers.

 The computer: Understanding the different components of a computer system and their roles in HCI.

Human–computer interaction (HCI), alternatively man–machine interaction (MMI) or computer–human interaction (CHI) is the study of interaction between people
(users) and computers. With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to create really effective and usable interfaces and screens, why do we continue to
produce systems that are inefficient and confusing or, at worst, just plain unusable? Is it because:

DEFINITION
"Human-computer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the
study of major phenomena surrounding them."

HCI can be used in all disciplines wherever there is a possibility of computer installation. Some of the areas where HCI can be implemented with distinctive importance
are mentioned below −

 Computer Science − For application design and engineering.

 Psychology − For application of theories and analytical purpose.

 Sociology − For interaction between technology and organization.

 Industrial Design − For interactive products like mobile phones, microwave oven, etc.

GOALS
A basic goal of HCI is – to improve the interactions between users and computers – by making computers more usable and receptive to the user's needs.
A long term goal of HCI is – to design systems that minimize the barrier between the human's cognitive model of what they want – to accomplish and the computer's
understanding of the user's task .

WHY IS HCI IMPORTANT?

 User-centered design is getting a crucial role!

  It is getting more important today to increase competitiveness via HCI studies (Norman, 1990)

 High-cost e-transformation investments

 Users lose time with badly designed products and services

 Users even give up using bad interface – Ineffective allocation of resources

DEFINING THE USER INTERFACE

• User interface, design is a subset of a field of study called human-computer interaction (HCI).
• Human-computer interaction is the study, planning, and design of how people and computers work together so that a person's needs are satisfied in the most
effective way.
• HCI designers must consider a variety of factors: – what people want and expect, physical limitations and abilities people possess, --how information processing
systems work, – what people find enjoyable and attractive. – Technical characteristics and limitations of the computer hardware and software must also be
considered.
• The user interface is to – the part of a computer and its software that people can see, hear, touch, talk to, or otherwise understand or direct.
• The user interface has essentially two components: input and output.
• Input is how a person communicates his / her needs to the computer. – Some common input components are the keyboard, mouse, trackball, one's finger, and one's
voice.
• Output is how the computer conveys the results of its computations and requirements to the user. – Today, the most common computer output mechanism is the
display screen, followed by mechanisms that take advantage of a person's auditory capabilities: voice and sound.
• The use of the human senses of smell and touch output in interface design still remain largely unexplored.
• Proper interface design will provide a mix of well-designed input and output mechanisms that satisfy the user's needs, capabilities, and limitations in the most
effective way possible.
• The best interface is one that it not noticed, one that permits the user to focus on the information and task at hand, not the mechanisms used to present the
information and perform the task.

Different types of interaction:

 Command-line interfaces (CLIs): Text-based interfaces where users type commands to interact with the system.

 Graphical user interfaces (GUIs): Interfaces that use visual elements like icons, menus, and windows for interaction.

 Natural language interfaces (NLIs): Interfaces that allow users to interact with the system using natural language (e.g., voice assistants).

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD DESIGN

With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to create really effective and usable interfaces and screens, why do we continue to produce systems that are
inefficient and confusing or, at worst, just plain unusable? Is it because:
• We don't care?
• We don't possess common sense?
• We don't have the time?
• We still don't know what really makes good design?
• But we never seem to have time to find out what makes good design, nor to properly apply it. After all, many of us have other things to do in addition to designing
interfaces and screens.
• So we take our best shot given the workload and time constraints imposed upon us. The result, too often, is woefully inadequate.
• Interface and screen design were really a matter of common sense, we developers would have been producing almost identical screens for representing the real
world.
• Example bad designs – Closed door with complete wood – suggestion : glass door

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE USER INTERFACE

A well-designed interface and screen is terribly important to our users. It is their window to view the capabilities of the system.
It is also the vehicle through which many critical tasks are presented. These tasks often have a direct impact on an organization's relations with its customers, and its
profitability.
A screen's layout and appearance affect a person in a variety of ways. If they are confusing and inefficient, people will have greater difficulty in doing their jobs and will
make more mistakes.
Poor design may even chase some people away from a system permanently. It can also lead to aggravation, frustration, and increased stress.
The Benefits of Good Design

Poor clarity forced screen users to spend one extra second per screen.
o Almost one additional year would be required to process all screens.
o Twenty extra seconds in screen usage time adds an additional 14 person years.
The benefits of a well-designed screen have also been under experimental scrutiny for many years.
o One researcher, for example, attempted to improve screen clarity and readability by making screens less crowded.
o Separate items, which had been combined on the same display line to conserve space, were placed on separate lines instead.
o The result screen users were about 20 percent more productive with the less crowded version.
Proper formatting of information on screens does have a significant positive effect on performance.
o In recent years, the productivity benefits of well-designed Web pages have also been scrutinized.
Training costs are lowered because training time is reduced.
Support line costs are lowered because fewer assist calls are necessary.
Employee satisfaction is increased because aggravation and frustration are reduced.
Ultimately, that an organization's customers benefit because of the improved service they receive.
Identifying and resolving problems during the design and development process also has significant economic benefits
How many screens are used each day in our technological world?
How many screens are used each day in your organization? Thousands? Millions?
Imagine the possible savings. Proper screen design might also, of course, lower the costs of replacing "broken" PCs.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERFACE

• The need for people to communicate with each other has existed since we first walked upon this planet.
• The lowest and most common level of communication modes we share are movements and gestures.
• Movements and gestures are language independent, that is, they permit people who do not speak the same language to deal with one another.
• The next higher level, in terms of universality and complexity, is spoken language.
• Most people can speak one language, some two or more. A spoken language is a very
efficient mode of communication if both parties to the communication understand it.
• At the third and highest level of complexity is written language. While most people speak, not all can write.
• But for those who can, writing is still nowhere near as efficient a means of communication as speaking.
• In modem times, we have the typewriter, another step upward in communication complexity.
• Significantly fewer people type than write. (While a practiced typist can find typing faster and more efficient than handwriting, the unskilled may not find this the
case.)
• Spoken language, however, is still more efficient than typing, regardless' of typing skill level.
• Through its first few decades, a computer's ability to deal with human communication was inversely related to what was easy for people to do.
o The computer demanded rigid, typed input through a keyboard; people responded slowly using this device and with varying degrees of skill.
o The human-computer dialog reflected the computer's preferences, consisting of one style or a combination of styles using keyboards, commonly referred to as
Command Language, Question and Answer, Menu selection, Function Key Selection, and Form Fill-In.
• Throughout the computer's history, designers have been developing, with varying degrees of success, other human-computer interaction methods that utilize more
general, widespread, and easier-to-learn capabilities: voice and handwriting.
Systems that recognize human speech and handwriting now exist, although they still lack the universality and richness of typed input

Historical Development
From the initial stages of computers performing batch processing to the shift towards user-centric design, there have been several significant milestones in the field.
These milestones are outlined below:

1. Early computer (e.g. ENIAC, 1946) - The advancement in hardware technology led to a massive increase in computing power. This sparked innovative thinking
among people.

2. Visual Display Unit (1950s) - The USA's air defense system, SAGE (semi-automatic ground environment), utilized the earliest version of the Visual Display Unit
(VDU).

3. Development of the Sketchpad (1962) - Ivan Sutherland developed the Sketchpad, demonstrating that computers could be used for more than just data processing.

4. Introduction of programming toolkits (1963) - Douglas Engelbart introduced the concept of programming toolkits, where smaller systems could be combined to
create larger systems and components.

5. Introduction of Word Processor, Mouse (1968) - The design of the oNLine System (NLS) led to the introduction of the Word Processor and Mouse.

6. Introduction of personal computer Dynabook (1970s) - Smalltalk was developed at Xerox PARC, leading to the creation of the personal computer Dynabook.

7. Windows and WIMP interfaces - The ability to perform simultaneous tasks on one desktop, switch between work and screens, and engage in sequential interaction
became possible with the introduction of Windows and WIMP interfaces.

8. The idea of metaphor - Xerox star and alto were the first systems to incorporate the concept of metaphors, which allowed for a more intuitive interface.

9. Introduction of Direct Manipulation by Ben Shneiderman (1982) - Direct Manipulation, first used in the Apple Mac PC in 1984, reduced the chances of syntactic
errors.

10. Vannevar Bush introduced Hypertext (1945) - Hypertext was introduced to represent the non-linear structure of text.

11. Multimodality (late 1980s) - The late 1980s saw the emergence of multimodality, where multiple modes of interaction were incorporated into computing systems.

12. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (1990’s) - The concept of Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) emerged, focusing on computer-mediated
communication.
13. WWW (1989) - The first graphical browser, Mosaic, was introduced in 1993, marking a significant milestone in the development of the World Wide Web (WWW).

14. Ubiquitous Computing -Sensor-based/context-aware computing, also referred to as pervasive computing, is presently the most dynamic research field in Human-
Computer Interaction (HCI).

The Fundamental Components of User-Centered Design:

1. Clarity: Users must be able to immediately understand the functionalities of the product, its purpose, and the methods of interaction available to them.

2. Ease of Access/ Accessibility: Information should be readily available and easily locatable. Users should have multiple avenues for accessing information,
such as call-to-action buttons, search functionalities, and menus.

3. Readability/ Legibility: Text must be straightforward and easy to comprehend.

4. Simplicity of Language: Concise sentences are favored. The simpler the language and vocabulary, the more effective the communication.

Key Principles of User-Centered Design

Principles of User-Centered Design User-Centered Design

(UCD) is founded on several fundamental principles that guarantee the final product aligns with the needs and expectations of its users. The essential principles are as
follows:

1. User Focus: Design decisions are based on user needs and goals. Design choices should stem from a comprehensive understanding of users' needs,
behaviors, and motivations. This necessitates direct engagement with users through research techniques such as interviews, surveys, and observations.

2. Iterative Process: Design is refined through continuous testing and feedback. UCD employs an iterative approach involving prototyping, testing, and
refining the product. Each iteration aids in uncovering usability challenges and implementing necessary enhancements based on user feedback.

3. Inclusivity: Designs should accommodate diverse users, including those with disabilities. UCD principles prioritize the creation of products that are
accessible to all users, including those with disabilities. This commitment involves adhering to established accessibility standards and guidelines.

4. Usability: Products should be easy to learn, efficient to use, and satisfying.Users should be involved from the early stages of the design process and their
feedback should be continuously sought. This ensures that the design stays aligned with their needs and expectations.

5. Context of Use: Understanding the environment and conditions in which the product will be used. UCD extends beyond the interface to encompass the
complete user experience, taking into account how users engage with the product across various contexts and environments.

6. Data-Driven and Research-Based Decisions: Design choices should be informed by data gathered from user research and testing. This approach reduces
assumptions and ensures that the design is rooted in genuine user needs and behaviors.

Stages of the User-Centered Design Process

The UCD process typically involves the following stages:

1. Research and Analysis

A. User Research: Conduct interviews, surveys, and observations to understand user needs, behaviors, and pain points.

B. Personas: Create fictional characters representing different user types.

C. User Journeys: Map out the steps users take to achieve their goals.

2. Requirements Gathering

A. Define functional and non-functional requirements based on user needs.

B. Prioritize features that align with user goals.

3. Design

o Wireframes and Prototypes: Create low-fidelity and high-fidelity prototypes to visualize the product.

o Information Architecture: Organize content and features logically.

o Interaction Design: Focus on how users interact with the product.

4. Evaluation

1.

A. Usability Testing: Test prototypes with real users to identify issues.

 B. Heuristic Evaluation: Experts review the design against usability principles.

C. A/B Testing: Compare different design versions to determine which performs better.

1. Implementation

A. Develop the final product based on the refined design.

B. Ensure accessibility and responsiveness across devices.

2. Post-Launch Evaluation

A. Monitor user feedback and analytics.

B. Iterate and improve the product based on real-world usage.

Benefits of User-Centered Design

1.

1. Improved Usability: Products are easier to use and more intuitive.

2. Higher User Satisfaction: Meeting user needs leads to greater satisfaction and loyalty.

3. Reduced Development Costs: Identifying issues early reduces costly redesigns.

4. Inclusivity: Designing for diverse users ensures broader accessibility.

Challenges in User-Centered Design

1.

1. Balancing User Needs with Business Goals: Sometimes user needs may conflict with business objectives.

2. Resource Constraints: UCD requires time, budget, and expertise.

3. Changing User Preferences: User needs and expectations evolve over time.

4. Bias in User Research: Researchers must avoid influencing user responses.

Tools and Techniques for UCD

1. User Research Tools: SurveyMonkey, Google Forms, UserTesting.

2. Prototyping Tools: Figma, Adobe XD, Sketch.

3. Usability Testing Tools: Maze, UsabilityHub, Hotjar.

4. Analytics Tools: Google Analytics, Mixpanel.

Case Studies and Examples

1. Airbnb: Used UCD to simplify the booking process, resulting in increased user engagement.

2. Google Maps: Continuously refined based on user feedback to improve navigation and usability.

3. Apple: Focuses on intuitive design and accessibility features, such as VoiceOver for visually impaired users.

Introduction to Interaction Design

Interaction Design (IxD) focuses on creating meaningful relationships between users and digital products. It involves designing interactive experiences that are
intuitive, efficient, and enjoyable.

Key Principles of Interaction Design:

1. Usability: Ensuring the product is easy to use.

2. Feedback: Providing users with clear responses to their actions.

3. Consistency: Maintaining uniformity in design elements.

 4. Affordance: Designing elements that suggest their functionality.

5. Learnability: Making it easy for users to understand how to use the product.

Example:

 Apple’s iOS 16 : Introduced customizable lock screens with interactive widgets, demonstrating usability and feedback principles by allowing users to
personalize their experience while providing immediate visual feedback.

The Role of Prototyping in Interaction Design

Prototyping is a critical step in the design process, allowing designers to explore ideas, test functionality, and gather user feedback before final
implementation. Prototyping is a critical part of the design process, allowing designers to explore ideas, test functionality, and gather feedback before final
implementation. Prototypes can vary in fidelity, complexity, and purpose. Below are the main types of prototypes, along with examples to illustrate their use.

1. Low-Fidelity Prototypes

Low-fidelity prototypes are simple, quick, and inexpensive representations of a product. They focus on basic structure and functionality rather than visual design.

Characteristics:

 Quick to create: Often made with paper, sketches, or basic digital tools.

 Minimal detail: Focuses on layout, flow, and functionality.

 Ideal for early-stage testing: Used to validate concepts and gather initial feedback.

Examples:

 Paper Prototypes: Hand-drawn sketches of a mobile app’s screens to map out user flows.

o Example: A designer sketches the navigation flow for a food delivery app on paper to test with users.

 Wireframes: Basic digital layouts created using tools like Balsamiq or Figma.

o Example: A wireframe for a website homepage showing the placement of headers, buttons, and content blocks.

2. Mid-Fidelity Prototypes

Mid-fidelity prototypes add more detail than low-fidelity prototypes but are still not fully polished. They often include basic interactivity and more refined layouts.

Characteristics:

 More detailed than low-fidelity: Includes placeholders for images, text, and basic interactions.

 Interactive elements: Clickable buttons or links to simulate navigation.

 Used for refining ideas: Helps test usability and gather more specific feedback.

Examples:

 Digital Wireframes with Interactivity: A clickable prototype of a mobile app created in Figma or Adobe XD.

o Example: A mid-fidelity prototype of an e-commerce app where users can click through product categories and view a basic product page.

 Storyboards: Visual sequences that show how a user interacts with a product.

o Example: A storyboard showing how a user books a ride on a ride-sharing app, from opening the app to confirming the ride.

3. High-Fidelity Prototypes

High-fidelity prototypes are detailed, interactive, and closely resemble the final product. They include visual design, animations, and advanced functionality.

Characteristics:

 Visually polished: Includes colors, typography, images, and branding.

 Highly interactive: Simulates real user interactions, such as animations, transitions, and data input.

 Used for final testing and stakeholder presentations: Helps validate the design before development.

Examples:
  Interactive App Prototypes: A fully designed and clickable prototype of a mobile app.

o Example: A high-fidelity prototype of a fitness app in Figma, complete with animations for workout tracking and progress reports.

 Web Prototypes: A fully interactive website prototype with responsive design.

o Example: A high-fidelity prototype of an online banking portal, allowing users to log in, view account balances, and transfer funds.

4. Functional Prototypes

Functional prototypes are working models of a product that demonstrate its core functionality. They are often used in hardware or software development.

Characteristics:

 Working model: Demonstrates actual functionality, not just appearance.

 Used for technical validation: Tests feasibility and performance.

 Often requires coding or hardware integration.

Examples:

 Software Prototypes: A working version of a mobile app with basic backend integration.

o Example: A functional prototype of a weather app that pulls real-time weather data from an API.

 Hardware Prototypes: A physical model of a device with working components.

o Example: A functional prototype of a smartwatch with a working touchscreen and basic health tracking features.

5. Horizontal vs. Vertical Prototypes

These terms describe the scope of a prototype rather than its fidelity.

Horizontal Prototypes:

 Broad but shallow: Covers a wide range of features but with minimal depth.

 Used to demonstrate the overall user experience.

o Example: A prototype of a website that shows all major pages (home, about, contact) but with limited functionality on each page.

Vertical Prototypes:

 Narrow but deep: Focuses on a single feature or workflow in detail.

 Used to test specific functionality.

o Example: A prototype of a checkout process in an e-commerce app, covering every step from adding items to the cart to payment confirmation.

6. Evolutionary vs. Throwaway Prototypes

These terms describe the lifecycle of a prototype.

Throwaway Prototypes:

Disposable: Created to explore ideas and discarded after testing.

Used for early-stage exploration.


o

 Example: A paper prototype used to test a new app concept, which is discarded after gathering feedback.

Evolutionary Prototypes:

Built to evolve: Gradually refined and improved until it becomes the final product.

Used for iterative development.

 
o

 Example: A software prototype that starts as a basic version and is continuously updated with new features and improvements.

Real-World Examples

1. Low-Fidelity Example: Google’s Material Design 3

o Google used wireframes and low-fidelity prototypes to test new design components for its Material Design system before finalizing them.

2. High-Fidelity Example: Spotify’s AI DJ

o Spotify created high-fidelity prototypes to test the user interface and interactions of its AI DJ feature, ensuring a seamless user experience.

3. Functional Prototype Example: Tesla’s In-Car Interface

o Tesla developed functional prototypes of its updated in-car interface to test touch controls, voice commands, and integration with other
systems.

4. Horizontal Prototype Example: Meta’s Horizon Worlds

o Meta created horizontal prototypes to demonstrate the overall user experience of its virtual reality platform, including navigation and basic
interactions.

5. Evolutionary Prototype Example: Microsoft Copilot

o Microsoft used evolutionary prototyping to refine its AI-powered Copilot feature in Microsoft 365, continuously improving it based on user
feedback.

Prototyping Tools and Techniques

Modern prototyping tools have revolutionized the way designers create and share interactive designs.

Popular Prototyping Tools:

a) Figma

Features: Cloud-based, collaborative design tool with robust prototyping capabilities, including interactive components, animations, and conditional logic.

Use Case: Ideal for teams working on UI/UX design and prototyping.

Example: A designer creates a clickable prototype of a mobile app in Figma, allowing stakeholders to test the user flow and provide feedback in real time.

b) Adobe XD

Features: Vector-based design tool with prototyping, animation, and voice prototyping capabilities. Integrates seamlessly with other Adobe products.

Use Case: Suitable for designing and prototyping web and mobile applications.

Example: A UX designer uses Adobe XD to create a high-fidelity prototype of an e-commerce website, complete with transitions and micro-interactions.

c) InVision

Features: Prototyping and collaboration tool with user testing and feedback features. Supports animations and transitions.

Use Case: Great for creating interactive prototypes and gathering user feedback.

Example: A team uses InVision to prototype a new onboarding flow for a SaaS product, testing it with users to identify pain points.

d) Axure RP

Features: Advanced prototyping tool with support for conditional logic, dynamic content, and data-driven interactions.

Use Case: Best for complex, data-heavy prototypes.

Example: A designer creates a functional prototype of a financial dashboard in Axure RP, simulating real-time data updates and user interactions.

e) Sketch

Features: Vector-based design tool with plugins for prototyping and collaboration. Often used with other tools like InVision or Marvel for interactivity.
Use Case: Popular for designing interfaces and creating low-to-mid-fidelity prototypes.

Example: A designer uses Sketch to create wireframes for a mobile app, then exports them to InVision for adding interactivity.

f) Marvel

Features: Simple prototyping tool with user testing and collaboration features. Integrates with Sketch and Figma.

Use Case: Ideal for quick prototyping and user testing.

Example: A startup uses Marvel to create a clickable prototype of their app idea, testing it with potential users to validate the concept.

2. Prototyping Techniques

Prototyping techniques vary depending on the stage of the design process and the level of fidelity required. Here are some commonly used techniques:

a) Wireframing - Creating basic layouts to outline the structure and functionality of a product.

Tools: Figma, Sketch, Balsamiq.

Example: A designer creates wireframes for a website homepage, showing the placement of headers, buttons, and content blocks.

b) Mockups -Adding visual design elements (colors, typography, images) to wireframes to create a more polished representation.

Tools: Figma, Adobe XD, Sketch.

Example: A designer creates a mockup of a mobile app’s login screen, incorporating branding elements and visual design.

c) Interactive Prototypes - Simulating user interactions and workflows to test functionality and usability.

Tools: Figma, Adobe XD, InVision, Axure RP.

Example: A designer creates an interactive prototype of a food delivery app, allowing users to click through the process of ordering a meal.

User Testing and Evaluation

Prototypes must be tested with real users to ensure they meet user needs and expectations.

Methods of User Testing:

1. Usability Testing: Observing users as they interact with the prototype.

2. A/B Testing: Comparing two versions of a design to determine which performs better.

3. Surveys and Interviews: Gathering qualitative feedback from users.

Example:

Microsoft’s Copilot : Microsoft conducted extensive user testing for its AI-powered Copilot feature in Microsoft 365, refining the interaction design based on feedback
to ensure seamless integration into users’ workflows.

Real-World Examples

Example 1: Meta’s Horizon Worlds

Meta’s virtual reality platform used iterative prototyping to refine user interactions, such as hand gestures and voice commands, to create an immersive experience.

Example 2: Spotify’s AI DJ

Spotify introduced an AI DJ feature that personalizes music recommendations. The interaction design team used high-fidelity prototypes to test the flow of
interactions and ensure a natural user experience.

Example 3: Tesla’s In-Car Interface

Tesla’s updated in-car interface focused on simplifying interactions through intuitive touch controls and voice commands, validated through extensive prototyping and
user testing.

P.E 2

Components of Physical Fitness

1. Health-Related Physical Fitness
a. Cardio-Respiratory Fitness refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory
systems to supply oxygen during sustained physical activity (Kaminsky, 2010).
b. Body Composition refers to the relative amount or percentage of different types
of body tissue (bone, fat, muscle) that are related to health (Kaminsky, 2010).
c. Muscular Strength related to the ability to perform activities that require high
levels of muscular force (Kaminsky, 2010).
d. Muscular Endurance is the ability of a muscle group to execute repeated
contractions over a period of time sufficient to cause muscular fatigue, or to maintain
a specific percentage of the maximum voluntary contraction for a prolonged period
of time (Kaminsky, 2010).
e. Flexibility is the ability to move a joint through its complete range of
movement (Kaminsky, 2010).
2. Skill-Related Physical Fitness
a. Agility refersto the rapid whole-body movement with change of speed or direction
in response to a stimulus (Sheppard & Young, 2006).
b. Coordination is the ability to use all senses with your body parts, or to use two or
more body parts together (DeMet & Wahl-Alexander, 2019).
c. Balance is the ability to keep an upright posture standing still or while moving
(DeMet & Wahl-Alexander, 2019).
d. Power is the ability to perform one maximum effort of a given exercise in a short
period of time (DeMet & Wahl-Alexander, 2019).

e. Speed refers to the ability to perform a movement or cover a distance in a short

period of time (DeMet & Wahl-Alexander, 2019)

Things to Consider in Facilitating Physical Testing

1. Factors Related to Selecting and Implementing Test Items
- To ensure that performance on a fitness test is actually a reflection of
physical fitness, it is necessary to consider the reliability, validity, and feasibility of
test items; the standardization of test protocols; and the confidentiality of test results.
It is vital as well for administrators to ensure the safety of fitness test participants by
being sensitive to such variables as participants' pre-existing disease(s), body
composition, and maturation stage (Committee on Fitness Measures and Health
Outcomes in Youth, 2012).
2. Factors Related to Test Administration (Committee on Fitness Measures and
Health Outcomes in Youth, 2012)
- protocols and use of proper equipment for fitness test items;
- how to familiarize participants with the test, together with specifications
regarding the amount and type of practice;
- how to communicate consistently with the students in ways that create a
positive and encouraging environment for learners of all ability levels;
- teacher burden;
- participant burden;
- class management during test periods
3. Factors Related to Interpretation of Test Results
- Test administrators and those interpreting and communicating results
should be fully familiar with the meaning of cut-points and the effects of
modifiers (e.g., maturation status, race/ethnicity) for each test. Other
variables, such as biology, the emotional investment of the participant, tester
error, equipment, the amount of practice, and testing conditions, also affect
performance on a fitness test. As part of test interpretation, the test
administrator and those interpreting and communicating results must decide
whether the scores are valid or their deviation from expected results is beyond
these sources of error (Committee on Fitness Measures and Health Outcomes
in Youth, 2012).

A. Health-Related Physical Fitness

1. Body Mass Index (BMI) The body mass index (BMI) is defined as the ratio of body weight
(measured in kilograms) and the square of the height (measured in meters). The body mass
index is determined as follows

Anthropometric Measurement
A series of quantitative measurements of the muscle, bone, and adipose tissue used
to measure the composition of the body. The main components of anthropometry are height,
weight, body circumferences (waist, hip, and limbs) body mass index (BMI), and skinfold
thickness. There are significant measurements as it signify for probable weight problem
(underweight/obesity) and can be utilized as a reference point for physical fitness program

Scoring: Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) in mL/kg/min is estimated according to

the following equation

Physical activities that speed up both the heart rate and the breathing rate are referred to
as cardiorespiratory endurance exercises. These exercises are also known as cardiovascular
exercises or aerobic exercises. These exercises boost the efficiency of the heart, lungs, and
circulatory system, which results in an increase in the amount of oxygen and nutrients that are
delivered to the muscles. Also, they assist in the burning of calories, the improvement of
energy levels, and the reduction of the risk of developing chronic diseases such as obesity,
diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Running, cycling, swimming, jumping rope, dancing,
rowing, hiking, and jumping rope are all examples of activities that build cardiovascular and
respiratory endurance.

CARDIOVASCULAR ENDURANCE
Every sort of activity that engages in aerobic metabolism is considered a form of
cardiovascular exercise. Cardiovascular exercise is also referred to as aerobic or
endurance exercise. That is to say, oxygen plays a significant role in the cellular reactions
that take place throughout the activity and provide the necessary amount of energy for the
activity to be sustained. Both your heart rate and the depth of your breath deepen as you
work to increase the amount of oxygen that is carried through your blood and make more effective use of the oxygen that you take in. As a result, you have a greater
sense of vitality and experience less rapid fatigue.

LOW IMPACT MOVEMENT:

Movements that have a low impact on the body Low-impact exercise, in contrast to high-
impact exercise, raises your heart rate more gradually and puts less stress on your joints. These motions put less pressure on your joints and are generally easier for
your body as awhole. Because they can be modified to accommodate a wide range of fitness levels, low-impact workouts are suited for a diverse group of individuals

HIGH IMPACT MOVEMENT

High-impact exercises are movements that put a high level of impact on your joints. it tends
to involve a lot of jumping and jolting movements, which often involve both of your feet
coming off the ground at the same time.

RESISTANCE TRAINING
The term resistance exercise and resistance training are often used interchangeably,
however these important distinction between the two terms. Resistance exercise refers to a
single exercise session, whereas resistance training refers to a combination of many
consecutive resistance exercise session over time. Thus, a resistance exercise protocol is
an exercise prescription for a single session (workout) and resistance training program is
an overall plan guiding the specific parameters chosen for each protocol.

Static exercise. Also called isometric exercise, static exercise involves a muscle
contraction without a change in the length of the muscle or angle in the joint on which the
muscles acts. To perform isometric exercise, a person can use an immovable object like
wall to provide resistance, or just tighten a muscle while remaining still. In isometric, the
muscle contracts, but there is no movement.

Dynamic exercise. Also called isotonic exercise, involves a muscle contraction with a
change in the length of the muscle. Dynamic exercise is the most popular type of exercise
for increasing muscle strength and seen to be most valuable for developing strength that
can be transferred to other forms of physical activity

Different types of resistance training include:

Free weights – classic strength training tools such as dumbbells, barbells and
kettlebells.
Medicine balls or sandbags – weighted balls or bags.
Weight machines – devices that have adjustable seats with handles attached either
to weights or hydraulics.
Resistance bands – like giant rubber bands – providing resistance when stretched.
They are portable and can be adapted to most workouts. The bands provide
continuous resistance throughout a movement.
Suspension equipment – a training tool that uses gravity and the user's body weight
to complete various exercises.
Your own body weight – can be used for squats, push-ups, and pull-ups. Using your
own body weight is convenient, especially when travelling or at work.

Weight machines are preferred by many people because they are safe, convenient, and
easy to use. You just set the resistance (usually by placing a pin in the weight stack), sit down
at the machine, and start working, Machines make it easy to isolate and work specific
muscles. You don't need a potter, someone who stands by to assist when free weights are
used, and you don't have to worry about dropping a weight on yourself. Free weights
require more care, balance, and coordination to use, but they strengthen your body in ways
that more adaptable to real life.
Free weights are more popular with athletes for developing explosive strength for are
sports. Unless you are training seriously for a sport that requires a great deal of strength,
training on machines is probably safer, more convenient, and just as effective as training
with free weights. However, you can increase strength either way, depending on personal
preference The Table below" Exercise Machines Versus Free Weights" can help you make
a decision