MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

ELE4115: POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION & COORDINATION

GROUP 6 ASSIGNMENT

DR MILTON EDIIMU

NAME REGISTRATION NUMBER

AMWINE BRIGHT 20/U/1308
ANENA CUTHBERT WANITHO 20/U/16043
NIWENSIIMA RINAH 20/U/1306
LEKAREBER MERCY 20/U/2929/PS
KIWEEWA DENIS INNOCENT 18/U/22542/PS
KATO ENOCH 19/U/0693
 Types of Faults in Electrical Circuits
Introduction:
Faults in electrical circuits can disrupt the flow of current and cause a wide range of problems, from
equipment damage to safety hazards. Two common types of faults are short circuits and open
circuits.

1. Short circuit fault

A short circuit fault, often referred to simply as a "short circuit," is a type of electrical fault that
occurs when an unintended low-resistance connection is established between two points in an
electrical circuit.

This connection creates a path of minimal or negligible electrical resistance, bypassing the normal
load or intended route of current flow.

Characteristics:
 Low resistance path.
 High current flow.
 A rapid increase in temperature at the fault location.
 Often accompanied by sparks, smoke, or a blown fuse/circuit breaker.

Impact:
 Risk of fire and equipment damage.
 Immediate circuit disruption.
 Safety hazard due to the potential for electrical shocks.
 Frequent cause of electrical system failures

TYPES OF SHORT CIRCUIT FAULTS

A. Symmetrical fault

A symmetrical fault in an electrical system occurs when all three phases (or conductors) experience a
fault with the same magnitude and phase angle simultaneously. This type of fault is also known as a
balanced fault. It's characterized by equal impedance or fault conditions across all phases,
maintaining symmetry in the system

I. Three-Phase Short Circuit Fault:

A three-phase short circuit fault occurs when an unintended low-resistance electrical
connection is made between all three phases (conductors) of a three-phase power system.
This results in a direct and low-resistance path for current flow across all phases

II. Three-Phase Ground Fault:

A three-phase ground fault, also known as a line-to-ground fault, occurs when one or more
of the conductors in a three-phase power system make unintended contact with the ground
or earth.

Both three-phase short circuits and three-phase ground faults are critical events in electrical systems
that require prompt detection, isolation, and resolution to maintain the integrity and safety of the
electrical infrastructure.
Figure 1 shows symmetrical faults

B. Unsymmetrical fault
An unsymmetrical fault in an electrical system, also known as an asymmetrical fault or unbalanced
fault, occurs when the fault impedances or conditions are different across the phases. Unlike a
symmetrical fault where all phases are affected equally, in an unsymmetrical fault, the faulted
phases may experience varying degrees of impedance or fault severity. Here are some examples of
unsymmetrical faults:

i. Phase-to-Ground Fault:
Phase-to-Ground Fault (Single Line-to-Ground Fault): A fault where one phase comes in
contact with the ground or earth, creating an imbalance in the system. This is a common
type of unsymmetrical fault.

ii. Phase-to-Phase Fault

Phase-to-Phase Fault: A fault where two phases come into direct contact with each other,
bypassing the load. The impedance and fault severity will vary depending on the specific
phases involved.

iii. Double Line-to-Ground Fault:

Two Simultaneous Phase-to-Ground Faults: Two different phases independently fault to the
ground simultaneously. The impedance and fault severity will differ for each phase.

Figure 2 shows SLG (i), LL (II) and DLG (III)

Unsymmetrical faults can lead to imbalances in current and voltage across the system, causing stress
on equipment, affecting the stability of the electrical network, and potentially leading to equipment
damage or system failures. Protective relays and devices are used to detect and respond to
unsymmetrical faults to minimize their impact and restore system balance and stability

Protection against Short Circuits faults:

a) Fuses: Fuses are designed to protect against excessive current flow. When a short circuit
occurs and the current exceeds the fuse's rating, it will melt, breaking the circuit and
preventing further current flow. Fuses are relatively simple and inexpensive protection
devices.

b) Circuit Breakers: Circuit breakers provide both short-circuit and overload protection. They
can automatically trip when a short circuit is detected or when the current exceeds a certain
threshold for an extended period. Circuit breakers can be reset after tripping, unlike fuses,
which need to be replaced.

c) Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs): GFCIs are used in residential and commercial
applications to protect against ground faults, which are a type of short circuit. They monitor
the current balance between the hot and neutral wires and trip if an imbalance is detected,
potentially preventing electrical shock.
d) Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs): AFCIs are designed to detect and protect against series
arc faults, which can lead to fires. They monitor the waveform of the electrical current and
trip the circuit if an abnormal pattern is detected.
e) Proper Wiring and Insulation: Regular inspections and maintenance of electrical wiring
systems can help identify and rectify potential short-circuit risks, such as damaged insulation
or exposed wires.

2. Open circuit fault

An open circuit fault in an electrical system occurs when there is an interruption or break in the
electrical path, preventing current from flowing in the circuit. This type of fault is characterized by
the absence of a complete conductive path.

Characteristics:

 Infinite resistance (essentially no current flow).

 No voltage drop across the open segment.
 Electrical devices in the open circuit will not operate.

Impact:
 Complete loss of electrical functionality in the affected branch.
 Devices or equipment connected to the open circuit will not work.
 Typically less dangerous than short circuits, but can still lead to downtime and
inconvenience.
Examples of open circuit faults based on the number of open conductors:

a) Single Open Conductor Fault:

Single-Phase Open Conductor: A fault where one conductor in a multi-phase system
becomes disconnected or broken, interrupting the current flow in that particular phase. For
example, if one of the three conductors in a three-phase system is disconnected, it will result
in a single open conductor fault.

b) Two Open Conductor Faults:

Two-Phase Open Conductors: A fault where two conductors in a multi-phase system become
disconnected or broken, interrupting the current flow in those phases. For instance, if two of
the three conductors in a three-phase system are disconnected, it will result in two open
conductor faults.

c) Three Open Conductor Faults:

Three-Phase Open Conductors: A fault where all three conductors in a three-phase system
become disconnected or broken, resulting in a complete interruption of current flow in the
system. This is a severe fault condition and can cause a complete shutdown of the affected
system.

Figure 3 shows open circuit faults

Open circuit faults can occur due to a variety of reasons, such as faulty connections, damaged
conductors, broken wires, or physical damage to the circuit. Detecting and rectifying open circuit
faults promptly is crucial to maintain the proper functioning of the electrical system and to prevent
potential damage to equipment
Protection against Open Circuits faults:
 Regular Inspections: Periodic inspections of electrical circuits and wiring can help identify
and address open circuits caused by loose connections, broken wires, or damaged
components.
 Use of High-Quality Components: Using high-quality wires, connectors, and switches can
reduce the risk of open circuits due to component failure.
 Circuit Design: Proper circuit design, including redundancy where needed, can minimize the
impact of open circuits. For critical systems, backup or redundant components can be
employed.
 Wire Strain Relief: Strain relief mechanisms, such as cable clamps and connectors, can
prevent wires from being accidentally pulled out or damaged, which can lead to open
circuits.
 Emergency Shutdown Systems: In some industrial applications, emergency shutdown
systems are used to detect open circuits in critical systems and take appropriate actions,
such as isolating the affected circuit.
 Visual and Audible Alarms: In control systems, visual and audible alarms can be set up to
alert operators when open circuits are detected so that they can take immediate action.
2. FAULT RIDE-THROUGH (FRT) IN POWER PLANTS
Fault Ride-Through (FRT) is a capability of a power plant or any electrical generation facility that
allows it to endure and recover from disturbances or faults in the electrical grid while maintaining its
operational status.

This capability ensures that the power plant remains connected to the grid and continues to supply
electricity to the network, within specified performance limits, during and after a fault.

Fault ride-through (FRT) in a power system is the ability of a power generation or transmission
system to ride through and remain operational during various stages of a fault, including steady
state, transient, and dynamic states.

These states represent different aspects of the power system's response to a fault or disturbance.

2.01 Steady State Fault Ride-Through:

Steady-state fault ride-through refers to the ability of the power system to maintain its steady-state
operating conditions during a fault. This includes ensuring that the voltage and frequency remain
within acceptable limits and that the power flow is managed to minimize disruptions.

2.02 Transient Fault Ride-Through:

Transient fault ride-through involves the system's ability to ride through and withstand transient
disturbances caused by the fault. Transients can include sudden voltage spikes, voltage dips, and
other irregularities that occur during and immediately after the fault.

2.03 Dynamic Fault Ride-Through:

Dynamic fault ride-through involves the power system's ability to respond and recover from the fault
in a controlled and stable manner. This includes the system's response to sudden changes in load,
voltage, and other dynamic parameters during and after the fault.

2.1 Importance of Fault Ride-Through

 Grid Stability: FRT enhances grid stability by allowing the power plant to remain connected
and continue supplying power during transient fault conditions.
 Operational Continuity: Maintaining operational continuity during faults is essential to avoid
service interruptions and uphold the power plant's reliability.
 Preventive Measures: By implementing effective FRT strategies, power plants can mitigate
potential damage and system disruptions that may occur during fault events.
2.2 Components of Fault Ride-Through (FRT)
1. Protection and Control Systems:

Protection systems are vital for detecting faults and abnormalities in the power system. They
identify faults and take appropriate actions to isolate faulty sections while maintaining stability in
the rest of the grid. Control systems manage the response to faults, coordinating actions to maintain
grid stability and facilitating fault ride-through.

Role: Protection systems ensure a swift and accurate response to faults, minimizing the impact on
the power system and enabling a seamless fault ride-through.

2. Voltage and Frequency Control Mechanisms:

Voltage and frequency control mechanisms are responsible for maintaining stable voltage and
frequency levels in the power system, especially during faults. This stability is crucial for the fault
ride-through process and to prevent widespread disruptions.

Role: Stable voltage and frequency levels ensure that power generation and distribution systems can
continue to operate within acceptable parameters during and after a fault.

3. Power Electronics and Grid-Forming Inverters:

Power electronics and grid-forming inverters enable fast and precise control of power flow, allowing
for rapid adjustments in response to faults. Grid-forming inverters can sustain grid voltage and
frequency during faults, supporting the stability of the system.

Role: These technologies ensure smooth operation and control of power flow, helping to maintain
grid stability during and after a fault.

4. Energy Storage Systems (ESS):

Energy storage systems, such as batteries or supercapacitors, can provide short-term energy during
faults or disturbances. They can inject power or absorb excess power to stabilize the grid and
support fault ride-through.

Role: ESS can provide immediate response to voltage or frequency dips during faults, assisting in
maintaining grid stability and facilitating fault ride-through.

5. Advanced Communication and Monitoring:

Advanced communication systems enable real-time monitoring and control of the power system.
They facilitate rapid information exchange between various components and control centers,
allowing for swift decision-making during faults.

Role: Effective communication and monitoring enhance coordination and response capabilities,
enabling a more efficient fault ride-through process.
2.3 How to achieve fault ride through in power system
• Reactive power compensation: This method involves injecting or absorbing reactive power from
or to the grid to regulate the voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC), which is the connection
point between the power plant and the grid. Reactive power compensation can be done by using
devices such as static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), static VAR compensator (SVC),
synchronous condenser, capacitor bank, or reactor. For example, a STATCOM can dynamically
control the amount of reactive power injected to or absorbed from the grid by adjusting its output
voltage magnitude and phase angle1.

• Crowbar protection: This method involves short-circuiting the rotor windings of a doubly fed
induction generator (DFIG) during a fault to protect it from overcurrent and overvoltage. A crowbar
is a device that consists of resistors and switches that can be activated when a fault is detected. The
crowbar reduces the rotor current and voltage to safe levels and prevents damage to the generator
and its converter. The crowbar can be deactivated after the fault is cleared and the generator can
resume its normal operation1.

• Low voltage ride through (LVRT): This method involves designing the power plant to tolerate a
certain level of voltage dip without disconnecting from the grid. LVRT can be achieved by using
devices such as chopper, boost converter, or energy storage system to regulate the DC-link voltage
of the power plant during a fault. LVRT can also be achieved by using control strategies such as
maximum power point tracking (MPPT), pitch angle control, or torque control to adjust the output
power of the power plant according to the grid conditions