Chapter 1

Introduction: Matter and Measurement

• Chemistry is the study
of matter, its
properties, and the
changes it undergoes.
• It is central to our
fundamental
understanding of many
science-related fields.
 Chapter Goals

• Differentiate between the behavior of atoms in solids, liquids,

and gases. Also, understand phase transitions.
• Use appropriate terms in the classification of matter.
• Differentiate between physical and chemical changes; physical
and chemical properties; intensive and extensive properties.
• Become familiar with SI base units for mass, length,
temperature, volume, density.
• Become familiar with SI prefixes.
• Use dimensional (unit) analysis for unit conversion.
• Calculate densities and use density as a conversion unit.
 Classifications of Matter

• Matter – anything that has a mass or volume (takes up

space); examples?
• States of Matter
• Classification of Matter
States of Matter
➢ For our discussion, there will be three
states of matter:
1) Solid.
ice P HEYtorderly
• Characteristics:
– Fixed shape
– Fixed volume
– Atomic/Molecular behavior?
2) Liquid.
20
•
–
Characteristics:
18 3 2
No fixed shape
4 er
– Fixed volume
– Atomic/Molecular behavior?
3) Gas.
•
–
Hourani
Characteristics
No fixed shape
– No fixed volume
– Atomic/Molecular behavior?
➢ In this figure, those states are seen as ice,
liquid water, and water vapor.
 States of Matter

• The atoms and molecules in each

type of matter contain a certain
amount of kinetic energy, KE
(energy of motion).
• The atoms and molecules in a
solid contain the least amount of
KE. The particles in a liquid
contain a bit more KE. The
particles in gases contain the most
KE.
• By adding energy (in the form of
heat), we can increase the amount
of KE in a substance and change
the state of matter.
jewelry alloyonly Hommergenous solution Homogenousmixture
Classification of Matter Homogenousmixtures
alloys
Based on Composition
● If you follow this scheme, you
should be able to determine how
to classify any type of matter.
➢ a Homogeneous mixture
➢ Heterogeneous mixture
➢
l Element
➢
d Compound
• Classify each of the following as
mixtures (homogenous or
heterogeneous) or pure substances
(compounds or elements)
– Polluted air Dark chocolate a
– A gold necklace NaCl
a d
– H2O (water) Graphite c
– A silver block Red wine
– Vinaigrette salad dressingb C3H8
– Unpolluted air Aluminum foilad
b
 Definitions

Mixture – 1) combination
of two or more types of
matter 2) with no fixed
composition 3) that can
be physically separated
• Homogeneous mixture – a
mixture with a uniform
composition throughout (ex.
solutions, alloys)
• Heterogeneous mixture – a
mixture that does not have a
uniform composition throughout
(ex. sand in water)
 Definitions
Pure Substance – type of matter with a definite or fixed
composition that does not vary from one sample to another
• Element (atoms)– cannot be broken down into simpler substances with
chemical reactions (ex. You should start memorizing these element symbols
right away: hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), helium
(He), neon (Ne), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K),
fluorine(F), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), gold (Au), silver (Ag),
nickel (Ni), chlorine (Cl), sulfur (S), aluminum (Al) )
• Compound (molecules)– 1) made up of two or more elements in 2) fixed
proportions that 3) can ONLY be separated by chemical reaction (ex. H2O,
NaCl, H2O2, MgSO4)
thesemajor
remember diatomic
elementsHz NaOaFaClaBra It
 Changes of Matter

• Physical change – changes

in matter that do not change
the composition of a
substance.
– Examples include melting,
freezing, dissolving, etc.
• Chemical change – changes
in matter that do change the
composition of a substance,
resulting in new substances
(reaction). The vapor burns,
– Examples include burning combining with
oxygen: a The liquid fuel
gasoline, dissolving metal in evaporates: a
chemical change.
acid, food spoilage, etc. physical change.
 1.3 Properties of Matter
Copper is red-
brown, opaque,
• Physical properties – can be solid: physical
properties.
observed without changing a
substance into another
substance.
– Examples include mass, color,
volume, melting point, etc.
• Chemical properties – can
only be observed when a
substance is changed into
another substance.
– Examples include
flammability, corrosiveness,
reactivity with acids, etc. Ethanol is flammable:
a chemical property.

1
 e
ng
Reading Assignment: Types of Properties

• Intensive Properties are independent of the amount of the

substance that is present.
◦ Examples include density, boiling point,
or color.
• Extensive Properties depend upon the amount of the
substance present.
◦ Examples include mass, volume (amount of space the
substance takes up), or energy.
 Numbers and Chemistry
• Numbers play a major role in chemistry.
• Concepts of numbers in science
➢ Units of measurement
➢ Quantities that are measured and calculated
➢ Significant digits
➢ Dimensional (Unit) analysis

w units attached
units of measurement SI
Units
 Remember 1mL 1cm
1.4 Units of Measurements—SI Units

• Système International d’Unités (“The International System of

Units”) – SI Units
• A different base unit is used for each quantity.
 Units of Measurement—Metric System
• The base units used in the metric
system
– Mass: gram (g)
– Length: meter (m)
– Time: second (s or sec)
– Temperature: degrees Celsius (°C)
or Kelvin (K)
– Amount of a substance: mole
(mol)
– Volume: cubic centimeter (cc or
cm3) or liter (l)
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• There are basic quantities that we measure in science.
• Mass (balance or scale) is a measure of the amount of material
in an object. SI uses the kilogram as the base unit. The metric
system uses the gram (g) as the base unit.
– Mass, not weight

• Length (ruler) is a measure of distance. The meter (m) is the

base unit.
 weight is gradient
Quantities gravity
mass int
that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• Volume is the amount of space an object occupies
– For liquids - measure using appropriate glassware (ex. graduated
cylinder)
– Liter (l) units

– For solids
• Measure using displacement
– Volume of the object = Final volume – initial volume
– Liters (l) base unit
• Calculate the volume using formulas based on the shape of the object
– Ex. Vcube = length x width x height
– If a cube is 5.3 cm by 2.4 cm by 3.8 cm, volume would be 48 cm3
– (Length unit)3
Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• In general usage,
temperature is considered
the “hotness and coldness”
of an object that determines
the direction of heat flow.
• Heat flows spontaneously
from an object with a higher
temperature to an object
with a lower temperature.
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• The Fahrenheit scale is not used in scientific measurements,
but you hear about it in weather reports.
• The first two equations below allow for conversion between
the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales:
– F = 9/5( C) + 32
– C = 5/9( F − 32)
– K = C + 273.15
• Normal body temperature is 98.6 oF. What is this temperature
in oC and K? 37.0 oC, 310.15 K
• On your own: Room temperature is recognized as 25 oC.
What is this temperature in oF and K? 298.15 K, 77 oF
 Used in class
Units of Measurement—
Metric System Prefixes
• Prefixes convert the base
units into units that are
appropriate for common
usage or appropriate
1T
000,000g

1,000g measure.
– Ex. Relationship between
grams and kilograms?
– Ex. Relationship between
milliliters and liters?
– Ex. Relationship between
seconds and microseconds?
– Ex. Relationship between
centimeters and meters?
• Scientific notation review?
 Numbers Encountered in Science: Significant
Figures
• Exact numbers are counted or given by definition.
For example, there are 12 eggs in 1 dozen.
• Inexact (or measured) numbers depend on how they
were determined. Scientific instruments have
limitations. Some balances measure to ±0.01 g; others
measure to ±0.0001g.
 Significant Figures
• The term significant figures refers to digits that were
measured.
• When rounding calculated numbers, we pay attention to
significant figures so we do not overstate the accuracy of our
answers.
• See the handout posted in Canvas.
• You will be responsible for knowing the significant digit rules.

Place holder O's are notconsidered significan

ex 300,000 one significant digit
001 one significant digit
 w g g
Dimensional (Unit) Analysis
• We use dimensional analysis to convert one quantity to
another.
• Most commonly, dimensional analysis utilizes conversion
factors (e.g., 1 in. = 2.54 cm).
• We can set up a ratio of comparison for the equality either 1
in/2.54 cm or 2.54 cm/1 in.
• We use the ratio which allows us to change units (puts the units
we have in the denominator to cancel).
• See the handout posted in Canvas.
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• Density (D) is a unit that we
will calculate.
• Density is a physical
property of a substance.
• It is a measure of how heavy
an object is for its size.
 D
Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• D = mass/volume
• Density has units that are derived from the units for mass and
volume.
• The most common units are g/mL or g/cm3.
• What is the density of a substance that has a mass of 13.62
grams and a volume of 4.56 mL? 2.99 g/mL
• On your own: You come upon a shiny piece of rock near the cafeteria. You get excited
because you think that it could be a piece of gold. On the other hand, it could be iron pyrite
(fool’s gold). You look up the density of gold and find it to be 19.3 g/mL. You then look up
the density of fool’s gold and find it to be 4.9 g/mL. You take the rock to the lab and weigh it
on the balance. The mass is 13.65 grams. You use displacement to measure the volume. You
place 40.0 mL of water in a graduated cylinder. You then drop the rock into the graduated
cylinder. The volume of water increases to 42.8 mL. What is the density of your rock? Is
your rock gold or fool’s gold? Fool’s gold
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• In addition to solving for density (given mass and volume), you must also
be able to find volume (given mass and density) and mass (given volume
and density).
• Copper has a density of 8.96 g/cm3. What would be the volume (in mL) of
a 15.00 gram piece of copper. 1.67 mL
• Mercury has a density of 13.6 g/mL. What is the mass (in grams) of 8.00
mL of mercury? 109 grams
• More on the Dimensional Analysis sheet.
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Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

• Macroscopic – (Chp. 1)can be seen with the

unaided eye (grams, kilograms, meters, liters)
• Microscopic – (Chp. 2) cannot be seen with the
unaided eye (atoms, molecules, ions)
• Atom – smallest part of an element that still has the
characteristics of that element (ex. atom of Fe)
• Molecules – smallest part of a compound that still has
the characteristics of that compound (ex. molecule of
H2O)
• Remember the diatomic molecular elements
Quiz wed 9 11 24
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory of Matter

The theory that atoms

are the fundamental
gonna10m building blocks of
matter reemerged in the
early nineteenth century,
championed by John
Dalton.
Pay attention to
Postulate #2.
 Scientific Laws
• Scientific law – mathematical description that allows us to predict behavior
➢ Law of Conservation of Mass – The total mass of substances present at
the end of a chemical process (reaction) is the same as the mass of
substances present before the process took place.
– When 25.0 grams of CaCO3 are decomposed (broken down), CaO and
CO2 are formed. If 15.6 grams of CaO are formed from the
decomposition, how many grams of CO2 must be formed? 9.4 grams
– On your own: When 1.000 g of water is decomposed into its elements,
6
hydrogen and oxygen, 0.111 g of hydrogen is obtained. How many
grams of oxygen are obtained? 0.889 g

102
25g 15.6g
Calls Cao 9.4g
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 2.3 The Modern View of Atomic Structure

• Protons, p+, and neutrons, n0, are located at the center of an

atom (in the nucleus).
• Electrons, e-, orbit the nucleus in energy shells. e
electronsorbitaroundnuders
protons neutrons incenterofnucleus initial

8
compare
5
48
 Symbols of Elements
•We will use the shorthand below to represent the
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
A
Z E
•E is the element symbol, Z is the atomic number
(# of p+), and A is the mass number (# of p+ + #
of n0).
•More elements for you to know: lead (Pb), tin
(Sn), barium (Ba), lithium (Li), titanium (Ti),
chromium, (Cr), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn),
platinum (Pt), silicon (Si), arsenic (As), zinc (Zn),
bromine (Br), iodine (I), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), mercury (Hg), tungsten (W),
zirconium (Zr)
 find E on periodictable
find2 onperiodictable orange
Symbols of ElementsfindA
A
Z E
• E is the element symbol, Z is the
atomic number (# of p+), and A is the
mass number (# of p+ + # of n0).
• Z (atomic number) is found in the
periodic table.
• For potassium Z =19
• For carbon Z = 6
• On your own: For calcium Z = ?20
• On your own: For neon Z = ?
• On your own: For phosphorus Z is
=?
• A (mass number) is not found in the
periodic table. It must be given or
calculated.
 Representing Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons
P no A atoms areelectronically
Z E mbertt
nuetralcng.fi i
• Determine the number of p+, e-, and n0.
23 7 118 27
11 Na 3Li 82 Pb 14Si

– To name an atom:
• Name the element – mass number sodium 23
• Name each of the atoms above.
lithium 7
lead 118
• Write the shorthand for each of the following
–
–
35
35 p+, 35 e-, 44 n0
56 p+, 56 e-, 81 n0 fy52 56t81
3Brypaa.pt 137
– On your own: 33 p+, 33 e-, 45 n0 338A'S 33 45 78
– On your own: 8 p+, 8 e-, 7 n0
* You don’t have to show the atomic number.
 iii ia
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theories
Isotopes

• Consider hydrogen-1(protium) and hydrogen-2 (deuterium).

How many protons, electrons, and neutrons in each atom?
• Isotopes – atoms of the same element with different masses or
atoms that have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons or atoms that have the same atomic
numbers but different mass numbers
 Example:
Complete the table of atoms
Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Mass Atomic
52 24 Number Number
52Cr
24 28 24 52 24
33 42
its 33 75 33
20 20
i a 20 40 20
311 17 18
11 35 17
85mn 136 86 222
86 86
i r 77 116 77 193 77
 Atomstoo small to use grams
2.4 Atomic Weight
• We will use isotopic masses to determine the average atomic masses
(atomic weights) found in the periodic table.
• Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass units (u or amu).
– Very small unit – 1 u = 1.66054 x 10-24 g = 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom
• Average atomic mass is a weighted average. Calculate
like GPA
• Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass) × (fractional natural abundance)].
– Note: the sum is for ALL isotopes of an element.

12C 13C
Mass 12.000 u atomicmass 13.003 u atomicmass
Percent Abundance 98.9% are 1.11% are
12C
• What is the atomic weight (average atomic mass) of carbon? 12.012 u
Franchikkhundance verysmallur.it lu 1.66054 10 24g Hofthe mass of a 12Catom

1100 989 aug9th 12.0004 989 12.0124

43.00344 011172.01235
12.012
 solveforfractionalabundance of a
P
qf.EE List frastinance
is 2 is
Lis S
9 9
Atomic Weight
63.546u X 62.92989m 11 x 64.92784

6916
• On your own: Calculate the average atomic mass of magnesium using the
data above. 24.310 u
• We can also determine the percent abundance of oooh
an isotope.
– The two naturally occurring isotopes of copper are copper-63, mass 62.9298 u, and
copper-65, mass 64.9278 u. What must be the percent abundances of the two isotopes if
the atomic mass of copper listed in a table of atomic masses is 63.546 u? 63Cu = 69.16%
and 65Cu = 30.84%

learnhowto calculatepercent
Abundantquisin
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 Atomic Weight

• On your own - The two naturally occurring isotopes of

rubidium are rubidium-85, with an atomic mass of 84.91179 u;
and rubidium-87, with an atomic mass of 86.90919 u. What
are the percent natural abundances of these isotopes? 85Rb =
72.163% and 87Rb = 27.387%

AUGantiS of Rb 85.46784
 onch H2 nextFriday
test I 2.5 Periodic Table

• The periodic table is a

systematic organization of
the elements.
• Elements are arranged in
order of atomic number (Z).
• The rows on the periodic
table are called periods.
• Columns are called groups.
• Elements in the same
group have similar
chemical properties.
 Periodic Table

• There are several common

names for the parts of the
periodic table.
– “A” groups = Main group
elements
– “B” groups = Transition
elements
– 1st period at the bottom =
Lanthanides
– 2nd period at the bottom =
Actinides
Periodic Table
Except for H,
elements left of
the zigzag line
are metals.

To the right of
the line we find
nonmetals,
including the
noble gases.

Some elements
adjacent to the
line are called
metalloids.
 2.6 Molecules and Molecular Componds
no subscript
• Compounds are represented with formulas understood 1

0
– H2O – 1 molecule of water contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atom 0
–
Had subscript
(CH3)2CHOH – 1 molecule of rubbing alcohol contains 3 carbon
atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom
rpkfff.fi mgat.ms
Hatoms
– g . 7H2O –
MgSO4 ll
– C12H22O11 - ???
– 1 Iqgsatomsa0atoms
CaCO3 . 3Ca3(PO4)2 - ???
• These are molecular formulas.
 Chemical Formulas
• Three types of formulas: • Molecular formula =
1. Molecular formula – gives the
number of each kind of atom in a
C2H4O2
molecule. • Empirical formula = simplified
CH2O
2. Empirical formula – gives the
whole number ratio of atoms in a • Structural formula =
molecule CH3COOH
3. Structural formula – shows the
order in which atoms are
attached. They do NOT depict the
three-dimensional shape of
molecules.
• Perspective drawings also show the
three-dimensional order of the atoms
in a compound. These are also
demonstrated using models.
 yellowis
Molecules and Molecular Compounds
• Now that you can write formulas.
Let’s talk about the types of metal
compounds.
• Two types of compounds:
1. Binary molecular compounds–
compounds made up of 2 nonmetals
– can’t predict formulas 0
Ex. CO2, H2O,
2. Ionic compounds – compounds
made up of a positive ion and a
metalt negative ion – can (and will)
metal predict formulas
non
Ex. NaCl, CaCO3,
• Label the following as ionic compounds or
binary molecular compounds.
– NH3 BaCl2
– C3H8 Li3N
– CO O3molecular.EE
– NaF H2O2
metalsreactwithnonmetals
onmetakdonotreactwihnonmetalsgreendpmrp.tl non
 g p PH metal
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
• The name consists of two
words.
• First word: name of the
element that appears first in
the formula.
• Second word: stem of the
name of the second element,
ending with -ide.
• Names are further modified
by adding prefixes to denote
the numbers of atoms of
each element in the
molecule. **(Don’t use “mono”
with the first element.)
 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
• Name the following binary molecular compounds.
– N2Odinitrogen monoxide
– H2O2 dihydrogendioxide
– CO bromine pentachloride
MANS
phosphorusdeca
hydride
– CO2
Afford tetra
OFa oxygendifloarde
– NH3 decahydide
liggyhhhhhetratarbon
– H2O
• Give formulas for
– Tetraphosphorus hexaoxide
– Phosphorus pentachloridePus
– On your own: Disulfur decafluoride
 2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds
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• Ionic compounds are made from positive and negative ions.
• Ions – atoms that have lost or gained electrons atomsopket
– Cations – atoms that have lost electrons and now have a
positive charge
Atom
• Na 11 p+ and 11 e-
• Na 11 p+ and 10 e- Na+sundestood
– Anions – atoms that have gained electrons and now have a
negative charge
• O 8 p+ and 8 e-
• O 8 p+ and 10e- O-2
 elementsinthe havethesame
samegroup
behavior

Predicting Ionic Charge

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• We can predict the number of electrons lost

or gained for main group elements.
• Main group metals lose electrons to
become isoelectronic (have the same
before noble
number of e-) with the preceding
gas. IAi2A A
– Na (11p+ and 11e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with Ne (10e-) so Na
H
loses one e- (11p+ and 10e-) and
becomes Na+
– Li (3p+ and 3e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with He (2e-) so Li loses
one e- (3p+ and 2e-) and becomes Li+
– All alkali metals form +1 ions.
– What about Mg and other alkaline
earth metals?
– What about Al in Group 3A?
 Predicting Ionic Charge

• Nonmetals (when forming ionic

compounds) gain electrons to become
isoelectronic with the noble gas that
follows.
– F (9p+ and 9e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with Ne (10e-) so F
gains one e- (9p+ and 10e-) and
becomes F-
– Br (35p+ and 35e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with Kr (36e-) so Br
gains one e- (35p+ and 36e-) and
becomes Br-
– All halogens form the -1 ion.
– What about Group 6A?10 s se 02,5 2
– What about N and P in Group
5A? 3
N p
Symbols and Periodic Table Locations of Some
Monatomic Ions
Copper forms either
copper(I) or copper(II) ions.
Titanium forms both
titanium(II) and
titanium(IV) ions.
C meansaddandt means subtract
protons charge Example:
Complete the table of ions
Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge Mass Atomic
Number Number
127I- 53 127 3374 127
54 1 53
it3 22 44 2222
8
+4 44
22
8 10 87 7
140 7 3 15
88Sr+2 38 883850 36 2 88 38
3416 -2 34 16
3452 16 18 18
19 21 18
4014 H 40 19
 ionsmade
fromOffom

Naming Monatomic Ions

• Main Group Cations
Maingroup
– Name of metal and “ion” element
• Ex. Na+ = sodium ion
• Transition Metal Cations (those that form more than one ion)
– Name of metal (roman numeral for charge) and “ion”
• Ex. Cu+ = copper (I) ion
• Anions for 0
transitionmetals
use
romannumeralforcharge
– Stem of the nonmetal with the suffix –ide
• Ex. F- = fluoride ion Stem ide
• Name the following monatomic ions.
– Mg+2 = ? Magnesiumion
– P-3 = ? Phosphide ion
– S-2 = ? Sulfide ion
– Fe+2 = ? Iron I ion
– Ti+4 = ?titanium Iion
 Polyatomic Ions

A polyatomic ion is a
charged group of covalently
bonded atoms.
You will have to be familiar
with some of them.
– AmmoniumNHyt
– Acetate
– Carbonate
– Cyanide
– Hydroxidef
– Nitrate
– Phosphate poi
– Sulfate 5042
Ionic f bewritten
Compounds

withempiricalformulas
Making Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds are made from cations (+) and anions (-).
• The ions must be combined so that their charges add up to zero
because compounds must be neutral. don'tputcharges in compound

cation anion Li to Liao

– Na+ + Cl- NaCl 4ᵗʰ N CusNa
– Fe+2 + Cl- FeCl2
– Fe+3 + O-2 Fe2O3
• Make ionic compounds from the following sets of ions.
cation anion
– Ba+2 + SO4-2 ?Baj50 Basoy
– Al+3 + CN- ? ALLEN
– NH4+ + SO4-2 ? NH12504
 Naming Ionic Compounds

• To name an ionic compound

1. Name the cation first.
2. Name the anion.
Nat 1
• NaCl = sodium chloride
Fend
• FeCl2 = iron (II) chloride
 Naming Ionic Compounds

• Name the following ionic compounds.

– Fe2O3 = ? IronCIoxide
– CaSO4 = ? calciumsulfate
– Al(OH)3 = ?aluminumhydroxide
– MgS = ? Magnesiumsulfide
– CrCl3 = ? romium II Chloride
– NaCN = ? Sodium Cyanide
• Give formulas for the following ionic compounds.
– Sodium nitrate = ? NaN03
– Ammonium sulfate = ?NH12504 NHI5042
2
– On your own: Potassium oxide = ?1420 K0
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 Chapter 3
Chemical Reactions and Reaction
Stoichiometry
• Stoichiometry – the study of mass relationships
in chemistry
• Topics include
1. The use of chemical equations to represent
chemical reactions symbolically
2. Calculations based on chemical formulas
3. Calculations based on chemical equations and
chemical formulas
 3.1 Chemical Equations
• Chemical equation – a concise representation of a chemical
reaction
 What is in a Chemical Equation?

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Reactants appear on the left side of Products appear on the right side of
the equation. the equation.
 What is in a Chemical Equation?
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

The states of the reactants and products are written in parentheses

to the right of each compound.
(g) = gas; (l) = liquid; (s) = solid;
(aq) = in aqueous solution (solvent is water)
 What is in a Chemical Equation?

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Subscripts are a part of the chemical formula and cannot be changed.

Coefficients are inserted to balance the equation to follow the Law of
Conservation of Mass.
 Balancing Equations Illustrated

• You must balance chemical equations to satisfy the Law of

Conservation of Mass – matter is neither created nor
destroyed. A Btc
10.000g 1 4.009
• Example:
6.009
4
– H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l) not balanced
– 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) balanced
• ***Remember that some elements are expressed as diatomic
molecules. You will need to know the seven elements that
exist as diatomic molecules.
– H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
 Guidelines for Balancing
try
•
Chemical Equations
If an element is present in just one compound on each side of
the equation, try balancing that element first.
• Balance any reactants or products that exist as the free element
last.
• In some reactions, certain groupings of atoms (such as
polyatomic ions) remain unchanged. In such cases, treat these
groupings as a unit.
• At times, an equation can be balanced by first using a
0 fractional coefficient(s). The fraction is then cleared by
multiplying each coefficient by a common factor.
 Practice for Balancing Equations
• Example (Balance the easiest element first):
– PCl5 + H2O H3PO4 +sHCl
EE.IE

• Example (Balance the free element last):

– C3H8 +s O2 CO2 + H2O
E.IT
• Example (Balance the polyatomic ions as groups):
– 2Fe(NO3)3 +3BaCl2 a FeCl3 +3Ba(NO3)2 EEEIF.IE

• Example (Using a fraction for balancing temporarily):

– 2x C4H10 +EsO2 4CO2 +5H2O 855
2644107130 8102 10420
4 130 EEEIF.IT
4Hiot130278102t10Ha0 2
 Balancing Equations Assignment
Balance these and submit them by 11:59pm
September 24th – Assignment #4
•N2O5(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq)

•CH4(g) + Cl2(g) CCl4(l) + HCl(g)

•Zn(OH)2(s) + HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

•Al4C3(s) + H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + CH4(g)

•AlCl3(s) + Ca3N2(s) AlN(s) + CaCl2(s)

 3.3 Formula Weights (FW)

• We discussed average atomic

weights in Chp. 2. They are
found in the periodic table.
• What can we do with average
atomic weights?
• Calculate the formula weight
(FW) for compounds. Formula
weight is the sum of the atomic
weights of the elements in the
chemical formula.
– Ex. Determine the formula weight of
propane, C3H8 44.097 u (or amu)
and NH4NO3 80.043 u
– On your own: Determine the formula
weights of PCl5, N2O5, and
Fe2(Cr2O7)3. 208.237 u, 108.010 u, 348aññ
and 759.658 u respectively t1.00794a8 44.097uLamu
12.0lu 3
14.0067
 m

3.4 Avogadro’s Number and The Molecounting

number

• puris a Countingburner
Scientists make observations on the macroscopic level and
explain those observations based on microscopic behavior.
• We will now quantitatively connect the microscopic to the
macroscopic using the mole.
Microscopic
Mafforic
• Grams, kilograms mole Atoms, molecules

• Mole (mol): amount of substance that contains as many

elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of the
carbon-12 isotope. 6.022 1024
– 6.022 x 1023 items = Avogadro’s number (NA)
– Avogadro’s number is the link between the microscopic and the mole.
 be huge
molecules should always
of Microscopic to Mole: Avogadro’s #

• 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 items so

6 tk nsor60fm
– 1 mole/6.022 x 1023 items or 2.98X102sNaato44.5
•
6.022 x 1023 items/1 mole
2.98 x 1025 Na atoms = ??? moles
msx hs Namo

Na 49.5 moles
www
I
es
• 3.1 moles of H2O molecules = ???
H2O molecules 1.9 x 1024 H2O
EI
molecules
• On your own: How many gold atoms
iii iiiiii iii
are there in 5.9 moles of gold? 3.6 x
1024 gold atoms s.am IIiems
ex6F
3.6X1ot4goldatoms

• On your own: How many moles of

102 Hes
CO2 are there in 5.33 x 1026 CO2 5.33
8857818
molecules? 885 moles CO2
 Quiz next week Mont wed work
on
wed
Moles to Macroscopic: Molar Mass
g moles atomsmolecules
• Use molar mass to convert between grams and moles.
• Molar massgramsmole orcunts gimo or 81T
– The mass of 1 mole of a substance
– Units are grams/mole
– Equal to the atomic weight or the formula weight (same number,
different units)
• Examples: Formula weights
– Atomic weight of H = 1.00794 u (or amu)
• Molar mass of H = 1.00794 g/mole
– Atomic weight of O = 15.9994 u
Fea In 713
• Molar mass of O = 15.9994 g/mole
2fe 2css.syz
–
•
Formula weight of H2O = 18.015 u
Molar mass of H2O = 18.015 g/mole FIE.fi 6 r 6151.946in
is
 Examples: Moles to Macroscopic
g mole atomsmolecules kittorghts
• Example: Calculate the number of 31moles02 grams 31m62
grams in 31 moles of O2. 990 g mm02 2115.99 4
O2 31.9988m sig 991938902
makesit 990802
• Example: Calculate the number of 1289420 moles
1289420
moles in 128 g H2O. 7.11 molesMMH 0 211.00794 01
H2O mm 7 I moleshall
IfhEIBra3
YFo1ssmae
• On your own: How many moles
of Br2 are in 3.0 grams of Br2? jp
mmBra 279.904
gBraxf g
25g 0.01877moles
0.019 moles Br2
159.808gmoleBra 500.019molesters
• On your own: How many
kilograms of Fe2O3 are in 26
moles of Fe2O3? 4.2 kilograms
 Putting it All Together: Macroscopic to Moles to
motor 8 Microscopic ftp.t ordIos

• Now you can connect the atoms molecules

1023
microscopic and the macroscopic.
Cn atoms 1546 6.022
• Example: The copper cylinder 20.00gCu
used in the density experiment
MMA 63.546 00k 1k
had a mass of about 20.00 grams. 1.895 1022toms
How many copper atoms are
there in this copper cylinder?
1.895 x 1023 atoms 4 10moleculesGatland 7lb no
• Example: If you go to the store
and buy 4 x 1024 molecules of
sugar (C12H22O11) how many
twitter.iit.IT 5 Cus'it
pounds of sugar are you buying? 3s
(1 pound = 453.6 g) 5 pounds
 Percentage Composition from Chemical Formulas
• The Law of Definite Proportion – a compound always has the same
elements in the same composition. For example, H2O is always 89% O
and 11% H.
• Why is the mass percentage of oxygen in water so much more than the
mass percentage of hydrogen in water? 84484585mi
• These are mass percent compositions (elemental compositions). Mass
percent composition – the percentage by mass contributed by each element
in a substance
• How do we calculate the mass percent compositions?
(number of atoms)(atomic weight)
% Element = × 100
(FW of the compound)
0in Hao
14851
4 18910
in
t.tt 100 89 0
or just It A
Quiz's
info
Mass Percent Examples H
stopsafter
this slide 400 1001 lot IE
5.03
100 59.96
35.00 5.041 9,7
• Calculate the mass % of elements in NH4NO3. 34.99% N,
5.04% H, and 59.97% O workedoutabove
• On your own: Calculate the mass % of elements in CO(NH2)2.
20.00 % C, 26.64 %O, 46.65 %N, 6.71 % H
• How can we use mass percentages?
– Calculate the g of nitrogen in 5.00 g of NH4NO3? 1.75 g is
• On your own: How many grams of carbon are in 1.00 pound of
urea, CO(NH2)2? (1 pound = 453.6 grams) 90.7 g C
 Assignment #5 – Due 9/30
Show all calculations

• Determine the molar mass of antifreeze (HOCH2CH2OH).

• Is this a molecular compound or an ionic compound?
• Determine the % C, %H, and %O in antifreeze.
• The density of antifreeze is 1.11 g/mL. What is the mass (in
grams) of 1.00 quart of antifreeze? (1 quart = 946 mL)
• How many molecules of HOCH2CH2OH are present in the
mass above?
 3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses
• Previously, you determined mass % from a molecular formula.
Now you will determine empirical formulas from mass
percent. molecularformulashowsyouthe actual ofatoms
molelular
formula simplified formula
empirical

Oimportant
• Example: Cyclohexanol is 71.95% C, 12.08 % H, and 15.97 %
O. steps toremember
Determine the empirical formula. C6H12O
ery
i as.ie n.asycxIf
2.081.418 12.088Hx
s.aaosnkkf ff i satisfy
11.98484014
g 9982mold
97108 15.9780 I É 64120
 3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses
• On your own: Mebutamate is 51.70% C, 8.68% H, 12.06% N,
ddall
gethert and the rest is oxygen. Determine the empirical formula.
to
4417819C5H10NO2

8.61162MOTH
8.681 tl 8.68gHx
4m
If.is 9 EiEi.aamoio
 Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas

• A molecular formula is a simple integer multiple of the

empirical formula.
– Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

actual molar mass

= n (nearly)
empirical formula molar
mass

• Example: The empirical formula of anthracene is C7H5. The

actual molar mass of anthracene is 178.23 g/mol. What is the
molecular formula? C14H10
Hs
1.99 2
1788
4 Clatlio

MM
 Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas

• On your own: The actual molar mass of cyclohexanol is

100.15 g/mol. Use the empirical formula on the previous slide
to determine the molecular formula. C6H12O

empirical Lothal 16H20

9m01
actaalmolarmass 100 IS
Molecular
Lotto 64120

m 188 14
mm164 5.1606
 3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
• Now that you have learned about moles and balancing
equations, you can predict the amount of product made in a
given reaction (stoichiometry).
• Coefficients give mole-mole ratios, also called
“stoichiometrically equivalent quantities”.
– CO + 2H2 CH3OH
• 1 mol CO is stoichiometrically equivalent to 2 mol H2
• 1 mol CO is stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mol CH3OH
• 2 mol H2 is stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mol CH3OH

1 mol CO 1 mol CO 2 mol H2

–––––––– –––––––––––– ––––––––––––
2 mol H2 1 mol CH3OH 1 mol CH3OH
 Examples
• CO + 2H2 CH3OH
• Use the balanced chemical equation above to answer the
following questions.
X
so 2
– If there are 0.105 Imoles2 of CO, how many moles of H2 are needed to
react? 0.210 moles H2
– If you need to make 0.45 moles of CH3OH, how many moles of CO should
you start with? 0.45 moles CO I 4smolesc.tt H

–
ffpx
If there are 1.19 moles of H2, how many moles of CH3OH can be made?
0.595 moles CH3OH 4sc I.lamolestyaxfffit
595

• On your own: Consider the reaction 3NO2+H2O 2HNO3+NO.

How many moles of water are needed to react with 7.3 moles
of nitrogen dioxide? 2.4 moles of water
• On your own: Same reaction: How many moles of nitrogen
aooamaf.aaaaaooaaa.ae

monoxide are produced from 10.0 moles of nitrogen dioxide?

3.33 moles of nitrogen monoxide
 Adding On
• CO + 2H2 CH3OH
– If there are 0.105 moles of CO, how many at
moles of H2 are needed to react? 0.210
moles H2 105m
fm f ffqtfsm xffth hf
• How many grams of H2 is this?
0.423 grams H2
210m62 89k
24258 1 3318.953946
– If you need to make 0.45 moles of 4180 msmolekt.im o45mols
CH3OH, how many moles of CO should
you start with? 0.45 moles CO
4smo1sl0

fffy g
• How many grams of CO is this?
13 grams of CO
É 4
– If there are 1.19 moles of H2, how many
moles of CH3OH can be made? 0.595
moles CH3OH I.itF
• How many grams of CH3OH is
this? 19.1 grams of CH3OH t.am a
IIi
3
I i
t.is
3204216
 Stoichiometric Calculations Using Grams

• Consider the reaction A + B C+D

• In any stoichiometric problem, you can always convert
between moles using the mole ratio. But what about
converting between grams?
• For example, what is the relationship between grams of A and
grams of B?
 More Stoichiometry

• Example: Consider the reaction TiCl4

+ 2Mg Ti + 2MgCl2. How many
ttEortietshkkIiamagnesiummagnesiumtitaniumanion

grams of magnesium are required to

83.6gTilly gmg
react with 83.6 g of TiCl4? 21.4 g flight
• Example: Consider the combustion of
83bg
EIiifII iffna
octane:
– 2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 +
18H2O
i.si itm xtiiit tiIix
– If there are 775 g of octane, how KEEFFE's It so
many grams of water can be inoffs
produced? 1.10 x 103 g
• On your own: Consider the
combustion of methanol, CH3OH.
– 2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 +
4H2O
– If 25.0 grams of methanol is
burned, how many grams of
water can be produced? 28.1 g
 Practice
• Consider the chemical equation below. If you begin with
25.00 grams of barium carbonate, how many grams of carbon
dioxide can be produced?
– BaCO3(s) BaO(s) + CO2(g)

• Consider the chemical equation below. How many grams of

oxygen gas are needed to react with 55 grams of methane?
– CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g) (not balanced)
220902
• Consider the chemical equation below. How many milliliters
of water (density = 1.00 g/mL) can be produced from 6.50
grams of Al(OH)3 and excess HCl?
– Al(OH)3(s) + HCl(aq) AlCl3(aq) + H2O(l) (not balanced)
so tiffin.it
xiiIffgo.s SgLHy
y02
72.011 44.00744
220402
 an 1g
2115.9994 31.9988g

3.7 Limiting Reactants

• So far we have only considered one reactant at a time in our

stoichiometric calculations. What about the other reactants?
• In stoichiometry problems, when dealing with more than one
reactant, you must first find the limiting reactant.
• Limiting reactant
– Reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction

med
if
Reactant

nolonger
 3.7 Limiting Reactants
25.00g 25.00g
• Limiting reactant • 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
– Reactant that gives the least
gFez0 fromas.orgFe
amount of product gFe203from25.00902
– Not necessarily the reactant in
smallest supply as.oogfex.is xEiEiix Es ed
• How do you find the limiting 5 5
reactant? Determine which Ms t.in i E7feaos
reactant gives the least amount of
product.
as.oogoxkixfii.fi ximiii Eo
83.2gFests
• Example 1: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 5
2Fe2O3(s) If there are 25.0
grams of iron and 25.0 grams of
oxygen, which reactant is the
limiting reactant? Iron

Iron It theamountofproduct
limited
thatcouldbemade
 Diatomic HaOrNaFaUaBrs Ir

More Limiting Reactant Examples

withnitrogengastomakesolidmagnesiumnitride
Magnesiumreacts

• Example 2: Consider the reaction of No

magnesium metal and nitrogen gas to 3Mgls t Na My
produce magnesium nitride. mail.in
– 3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
• If 2.00 grams of magnesium metal are gMyzNa From2.00g My
g MysNaFrom 1.25gMy
reacted with 1.25 grams of nitrogen
gas, which reactant is the limiting Max
2.00g
f is
reactant? Magnesium magnesium
• Don’t always assume that the reactant miss i
in the smallest quantity is the limiting
reactant. Do the necessary 4 SOgMgsNa
calculations.
• On your own: Consider the reaction
FeS(s) + 2HCl (aq) FeCl2(aq) +
H2S(g). If 10.0 g of HCl are added to
10.0 g of FeS, which reactant is the
limiting reactant? HCl
 Theoretical
an and
Be Percent
0 Yields
g o o

• There are three types of yields.

1. Theoretical yield
2. Actual yield
3. Percent yield
• Theoretical yield number iswhatthe is
– Amount of product obtained from the limiting reactant
– Maximum amount of product possible
– Example: Theoretical yield for Example #1 (slide 31) is 35.7 g Fe2O3.
Theoretical yield for Example #2 (slide 32) is 2.77 g Mg3N2.
• Actual yield alwayslessthantheoretical yield
– Amount of product actually made in the lab
– Given
• Percent yield
Chowgood
F 100 1
– (Actual yield/Theoretical yield) x 100
– Should be as close to 100% as possible because that means that the amount
inf made in the lab (actual yield) is very close to the maximum amount that could
be made (theoretical yield)
 toxin
14 1 100

Yield Examples
t.es g YE
• On your own: Consider the reaction below
• 2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
• If 25.0 g of C8H18 is reacted with 25.0 g of O2, what is the limiting
reactant? What is the theoretical yield of CO2? If 16.0 g of CO2 are
actually produced, what is the percent yield? O2, 22.0 g, 72.7%

g02fromasoycothr2s.ogwtiox iiiixEiEYEt
fff.tk 77 ly
02from25.0202 8612011

0 i
g

aE.ogio
2s.ogoax g
t.ie
x
Ozisthelimitingreactant
 Yield Examples
theyHetical
30.0965.0g C6H5Br + HBr (balanced)
• On your own: C6H6 + Br2
– When benzene (C6H6) reacts with bromine (Br2), bromobenzne
(C6H5Br) is produced. A) If 30.0 g of benzene reacts with 65.0 g of
bromine, which is the limiting reactant? C6H6 B) What is the
theoretical yield of bromobenzene? 60.3 g C6H5Br C) If the actual
yield of bromobenzene is 42.3 g , what is the percent yield? 70.1%
 Chapter 4
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

•In Chp. 3 we began a discussion of reactions. We

looked at parts of the reaction.
• Reactants and products
• (s), (g), (l), (aq)
•We will discuss aqueous solutions in Chp.4.
•In Chp. 4 we will cover the following:
1. Soluble and insoluble ionic compounds
2. Double-replacement reactions
3. Calculations involved with solutions
 4.1 General Properties of Solutions

• Solutions are defined as homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure

substances.
• The solvent is present in greatest abundance.
• All other substances are solutes.
• When water is the solvent, the solution is called an aqueous solution.
 4.1 General Properties of Solutions

• Substances can dissolve in water

by different ways:
• What Happens When Stuff
Dissolves?

watch this vid

Cgothrough
Canvas
 4.1 General Properties of Solutions
Nat kt Naclean Nation Ilan
• Substances can dissolve in water by different ways:
➢ Ionic Compounds dissolve by dissociation, where water surrounds the
separated ions. - Electrolytes
➢ Molecular compounds interact with water, but most do NOT
dissociate. - Nonelectrolytes
➢ Some molecular substances react with water when they dissolve.
 4.1 General Properties of Solutions

• An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into ions when dissolved in

water.
Nacl aq W Nat ay Cl aq
– A strong electrolyte dissociates completely when dissolved in water.
ex. NaCl(aq) (ionic compounds)
– A weak electrolyte only dissociates partially when dissolved in water.
ex. CH3COOH(aq) (ionic compounds) Hz 00H
aq J Hz ocean ttha
• A nonelectrolyte may dissolve in water, but it does not dissociate into ions
when it does so. ex. C12H22O11(aq) (molecular compounds)
• Strong electrolytes or nonelectrolytes? Identify each of the following.
– CaCl2electrolytes
– PCl5 nonelectro
– CH3CH2CH2OH electrolyte
– KBrelectrolyte
 Solubility of Ionic Compounds

• Not all ionic compounds dissolve in water.

• A list of solubility rules is used to decide what combination of
ions will dissolve.

I
441
 Solubility of Ionic Compounds
Shewillgivechart
onexam
• Determine whether the following
ionic compounds are water
disolve
soluble (aq) or insoluble (s).dodistivein
–Later MgCl2 water
aq Mythagittelland
some
– Al2S3 s
insoluble
– NaOH Nattag t 0HCag
Soluble
– Pb(NO3)2
9 PbatdN
Soluble
– AgBr
insoluble
– BaCO3
insoluble
– (NH4)3PO4 4 3NHatant Pain
Soluble
– CaSO4 lattant 504
Soluble
 studyperiodictable forcharges
Quizopens1018due1019
Remember: Monatomic and Polyatomic Ions

table will • Common Polyatomic Ions:

– SO4-2 = sulfate ion
be on test – CO3-2 = carbonate ion
– OH- = hydroxide ion
– PO4-3 = phosphate ion
– I NH4+ = ammonium ion
– NO3- = nitrate ion
– C2H3O2- = acetate ion
– CN- = cyanide ion

include in sheet
 4.2 Precipitation Reactions

• We will discuss a specific type of precipitation reaction.

– Metathesis, also called Exchange, or Double Replacement reactions
– AB(aq) + CD(aq) AD(aq) + CB(s)precipitate
• There appears to be a double exchange of ions to form
products.
b
– AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
– MgSO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
 Ways to Write Double Replacement Reactions

1) Molecular equation
2) Complete ionic equation
3) Net ionic equation
 Molecular Equation
The molecular equation shows the reactants and products.
• Steps to follow
1) Use the chemical formulas of the reactants to determine which ions are
present.
2) Write formulas for the products: cation from one reactant, anion from the
other. Use charges to write proper subscripts. DON’T SIMPLY
CARRY OVER SUBSCRIPTS FROM THE REACTANTS.
3) Check your solubility rules. If either product is insoluble, a precipitate
forms. Designated with (s)
4) Balance the equation.
 p
stops Molecular Equation
My'THE SOFIE
NI 204 I 1H
• MgSO4(aq) + KOH(aq)
Mg 0H12 s 2142504cal balance

Agt 1
Precipitate
Nat no
Aft 105 at
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) Cagliist
Nanoscan
• stoluble
insoluble balance
Nano
Aglles Bat 52 Lit It

• Barium chloride(aq) + lithium sulfide(aq)

noreaction
 Complete ionic equation

• In the complete ionic equation all strong electrolytes (strong

acids, strong bases, and soluble ionic salts) are dissociated into
their ions.
• Write complete ionic equations for the previous molecular
equations.
 Complete ionic equation
504Law t 2 Kotteau mycomacsitka.sucan Mehlhfik
My
AYNOscan Nathan Ageless Nanoscagsmhtm.sk
Backlag Liascay Basing 24lagmolecular

504 t 2KOHeng My 10H12s kzsoyca.gs

My aq 5042
Mgt
tags 5052g 2kt
can 20H
lag Agatha 2ktLaw t

Agnoscag Nulliant Agclist nanoseng

Agtng NOlawthatcan Clcan Agc's Natan N0531am
3a Kay 1 216am 24dam I522 Baku Schytheitaltallrag
 Net Ionic Equation

• To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not
change from the left side of the equation to the right.
• The ions crossed out are called spectator ions, K+ and NO3−,
in this example.
• The remaining ions are the reactants that form the product—an
insoluble salt in a precipitation reaction, as in this example.
– Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) AgCl(s) +
K+(aq) + NO3−(aq)
• Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
 Net Ionic Equation

• Write net ionic equations for the previous complete ionic

equations.

Mythags Skiing t Ican t20Hlag Agathatenant t 504 2

Mythy 20Hcan MgOHacs t 2ktcan t 504Zag

n
 Assignment #7 – Due 10/14

• Predict products and write molecular equations, complete ionic

equations, and net ionic equations for the following double
replacement reactions.
• NaNO3(aq) + MgCl2(aq)

• SrI2(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)

• potassium carbonate(aq) + barium hydroxide(aq)

Solutioncontains 2parts
Is I disaving
4.5 Concentration of Solutions
• The quantity of solute in a solution can matter to a chemist.
• We call the amount of solute dissolved a solution’s
concentration. amount of
solute
• Molarity is one way to measure the concentration of a
solution:
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters
getafter class
• Example: Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 23.4 g of
sodium sulfate (Na2SO4, MM = 142.042 g/mole) in enough water to form
125 mL of solution. 1.32 M
s
Naas04
MYY
M
23.4g solution
125 mL
23.4gNazS0yX 6474molesNaa
504

125mL 1 34
 1mL
I n

4.5 Concentration of Solutions

• On your own: What is the molarity of a solution that is made

by dissolving 3.68 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) in sufficient
water to form 275.0 mL of solution? 0.0391 M

s g4aHaa0 m 0391M
275.0mL Solution
m
ii.int
3.68gxF 010750801moles
2422011
ff 12H22011

I 30008gmol
275.0mL 275L
 Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume
mm of Na
53149
• Example: How many grams of Na2SO4 are required to make
350. mL of 0.500 M Na2SO4? 24.9 grams
MolesNaz504 350L

son hu xifEk 24.9

• Example: If you need 1.000 L of 0.0100 M KMnO4,(MM =
158.032 g/mole) solution, how many grams of KMnO4 should
you weigh out to make the solution? 1.58 grams KMnO4
mo
iiFi 000 t solution 0100mols
oleskmnofnxlsolntion 4x1
gk Mn04 0.0100mols t.my KMN04

0100mi s 1.58g 4mn04

gkMnOy
• On your own: How many grams of sodium hydroxide are
 Dilution of Solutions

• Not all aqueous solutions are made from a solid solute and
water. Sometimes a concentrated solution is diluted (with
water) to form more dilute solution.
• Dilution is the process of preparing a more dilute solution by
adding solvent to a more concentrated one.
• Addition of solvent does not change the amount of solute in a
solution but does change the solution concentration.
• It is very common to prepare a concentrated stock solution of a
solute, then dilute it to other concentrations as needed.
m
19 7 9 sditI.in m cmotes MYY.rs
molesConcentrate molesdilute
 Dilution

• How do we know how much concentrated solution to use?

• We use the dilution formula.
Mc Vc = Md Vd,
where Mc and Md are the molarity of the concentrated and
dilute solutions, respectively, and Vc and Vd are the volumes
of the two solutions.
 Dilution Examples

• How many milliliters of a 2.00 M CuSO4 stock

solution are needed to prepare 0.250 L of 0.400 M
Mar 2 com
CuSO4? 50.0 mL M N d
Md 400m
50.0mL Vd 250L
N
Vc v

V NL
E
• On your own: How many milliliters of 18.0 M

H2SO4? 5.56 mL
5Om McUc
H2SO4 are needed to prepare 100.0 mL of 1.00 M
MdUdMc 1.00M
Test 2 Friday 10118
7 30 8 50 am
I sheet everythinguntil thispoint
look at old test
 Chapter 10
Gases
• Remember the states represented in a chemical
equation: (s), (l), (g), (aq).
•Chp. 4 introduced aqueous solutions. Chp. 10
introduces gases.
•In this chapter we will discuss
1. Physical properties of gases
2. Relationships between pressure, volume,
temperature, and moles of gas
3. Gases and stoichiometry
 10.1 Characteristics of Gases

• All gases have similar physical properties.

• Gases are composed mainly of nonmetallic elements with
simple formulas and low molar masses. (ex. CH4(g), CO2(g),
CO(g))
• Unlike liquids and solids, gases
➢ expand to fill their containers.
➢ are highly compressible.
➢ have extremely low densities.
• Two or more gases mix to form a homogeneous mixture.
 Properties of Gases
• We are going to discuss the relationships between four
properties of gases:
– pressure (P)
– volume (V)
– temperature (T)
– number of moles (n).
• By now, you should be familiar with volume, temperature,
and number of moles.
• We have not yet discussed pressure.
 10.2 Pressure

• Pressure is the amount of

force applied to an area:

P= F
A
• Atmospheric pressure
is the weight of air per
unit of area. collision pressure
• Affected by the number
of collisions between
gas molecules. the walls
ofcontainers
 Units of Pressure
• Pascals: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (SI
unit of pressure)
• mm Hg or torr: These units
are literally the difference in
the heights measured in mm
of two connected columns
of mercury, as in the Oprissure
barometer in the figure.
• Atmosphere: atm
1.00 atm = 760 Torr = 760 mm
Hg = 101,325 Pa
 Conversions Between Pressure Units
•Question: What is the pressure in atm, mm Hg,
and Torr of 2.0 x 105 Pa of pressure? Ans. = 2.0
atm, 1500 mm Hg, and 1500 Torr respectively
2.0 103 1 973846 atm
2.0atm
2.0X10spaxfksmpatlsn 1500 12336s mmHg
1500mmHg
1500.123365 torn
2 0 10
1511 1500 Torr
•On your own: What is the pressure in atm,
mmHg, and Torr of a pressure of 26.88 inches
Hg? (Hint: 39.37 inches = 1 x 103 mm) Ans. =
682.8 mm Hg, 682.8 Torr, 0.8984 atm
 10.3 The Gas Laws
Only for gas
• We will now discuss the relationship between the four gas
properties:
– pressure (P)
– volume (V)
– # of moles (n)
– temperature (T)
• You will need to know the relationship, the explanation of
the relationship, and the mathematical application of the
relationship.
• We will begin with the relationship between pressure and
volume as stated in Boyle’s Law.
 Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship
whichever two are being talkedaboutthe other
intonstant

• Relationship: For a fixed amount of a gas (n) at constant

temperature (T), the volume of the gas (V) varies inversely
with its pressure (P). As the pressure on a gas increases, the
volume of the gas decreases.
P V
PA
VA
N constant

T constant
 Boyle’s Law moles same
volume smaller
PAVI
• Explanation: As volume 7
decreases, the space
available to the gas molecules are
closertogetherSO
decreases, and the gas more collisions
molecules collide more with p
each other and with the
walls of the container. The
increase in collisions leads
to an increase in pressure.
• Equation: P1V1 = P2V2
pressure volume are
inverse
Boyle’s Law Examples
lessroom more
pressure

• Mathematical relationship P1V1 = P2V2

• Question: A sample of helium occupies 535 mL at 988 Torr
and 25 oC. If the sample is transferred to a 1.05 L flask at the
same temperature, what will be the gas pressure in the flask?
Ans. = 503 Torr 88 torr
Y 10374 BE
Pa 988T
EmL
D convent so
If
ssh 1
4 503 Torr
•
535L p 1
On your own: A sample of air occupies 73.3 mL at 740 mm Hg
and 0 oC. What volume will the air occupy at 4.02 atm and
the same temperature? Ans. = 18 mL
 Charles’s Law: The Temperature-Volume
Relationship
• Relationship: For a fixed amount of a gas (n) at constant
pressure (P), the volume of the gas (V) is directly proportional
to its Kelvin temperature (TK). As the Kelvin temperature of a
gas increases, its volume increases. TAVA for
Kelvin
P constant Tyvy

VA
N constant
P constant
VA
N constant Charles’s Law
T TIP UP
• Explanation: As temperature
increases, the gas molecules Effames
T that
move more quickly and Tz
Molecules move
collide more with each other
and with the walls of the
faster
more collisions
container. The increase in VP need abigger
collisions would lead to an container tokeep
increase in pressure, but pressurefrom
pressure must be held changing
constant. To keep the
pressure from increasing,
the volume must increase.
• Equation: V1/T1K =
 Charles’s Law Examples
t.FI
•
I2 ist
Mathematical relationship: V1/T1K = V2/T2K
• Question: A sample of hydrogen gas occupies 692 L at 602 oC.
If pressure is held constant, what volume will the gas occupy
after cooling to 23 oC? Ans. = 234 L
– K = oC + 273.15
612 1
Vr V
1 2342

• On your own: A balloon has a volume of 1.67 L at a

temperature of -23 oC. What must the temperature be (in oC)
in order for the balloon to have a volume of 2.25 L? Ans. = 64
oC
P constant

A Avogadro’s Law: The Mole-Volume Relationship

Constant constant
• Relationship: For a fixed temperature (T) at constant pressure (P), the
volume of the gas (V) is directly proportional to the number of moles (n).
As the number of moles of a gas increases, its volume increases. nA UP
• With Avogadro’s Law, there must be a constant temperature (T) and
pressure (P). The most common constant T and P is Standard Temperature
and Pressure (STP). STP is 0 oC and 1 atm.
• At STP, 1 mole of any and every gas has a volume of 22.4 liters. This is
called the molar volume. At STP…1 mole of gas = 22.4 L

mbar
Volume
 Avogadro’s Law Examples
• Mathematical relationship using STP (1 mole gas = 22.4 L):
• Question: What is the mass of C3H8 gas in a 50.0 L container
at STP? Ans. = 98.4 g 50OLL3HEEEmolel3H8 gut's
59 1 22T 50OLGHE.lv iEthr 98.4gC3H
g
Eia

• On your own: What is the volume of 19.0 grams of CO2 at

STP? Ans. = 9.67 L
 P constant
nA up T constant
Avogadro’s Law

• Explanation: As the number of moles of gas

increases, the gas molecules collide more with each
other and with the walls of the container. The
increase in collisions would lead to an increase in
pressure, but pressure must be held constant. To keep
the pressure from increasing, the volume must
increase.

EFI
ttisisions coltions

tokeepconstant
 10.4 The Ideal Gas Equation
• Now we will combine all of the gas laws into one law, the
Ideal Gas Law (IGL)
• This law only applies to ideal gases: gases in which there is no
interaction between the molecules. volume
high
– Ideal gas conditions are low pressure (lots of space between the
molecules) and high temperature (to make the molecules move very
quickly). time to interact
• The Ideal Gas Law is PV=nRT. Pressure (P), volume (V),
temperature (T), moles (n). R is the Ideal Gas Constant,
0.08206 L-atm/mol-K.
• Because of the units of R, our pressures must be in atm,
volumes must be in liters, and temperatures must be in Kelvin.
 Ideal Gas Law Examples
PV nRT atmmolk
R 08206L
volume Temp

• Question: What is the volume occupied by 16.0 g of ethane (C2H6) at 720

Torr at 18 oC? Ans. = 13.4 L
sar
E.is 4 I
RFI Y.FgEn 5 5 5291
1 v
I 16.0gCaHox
mo

v e
it rsd E
13.42
 Ideal Gas Law Examples
02
• Question: Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. A 0.050-g sample of dry ice is
placed in an evacuated 4.6-L vessel at 30 oC, Calculate the pressure inside
the vessel after all the dry ice has been converted to CO2 gas. Ans. =
0.0061 atm mlesco
Riise.ie303.15k
P
os0gl02
PYngco.li 8 i EEiii
273.15
303sk I3
1 30
54th p nI
sd1
ggm.it
i 0.006latm
p

• On your own: How many grams of N2 gas would occupy a volume of 565
mL at a temperature of 25 oC and exert a pressure of 757 Torr? 0.644
grams
 10.5 Further Application of the Ideal-Gas Law: Molar
Mass
• The Ideal Gas Law can also be used to determine the molar
mass of a gas.
• Molar mass = grams of gas/moles of gas
• The grams of gas will be given as data in the problem. The
moles of gas will be determined using the Ideal Gas Law.
• Question: Calculate the molar mass of a liquid that, when
vaporized at 98 oC and 715 mm Hg, yields 121 mL of vapor
with a mass of 0.471 g. Ans. = 126 g/mole
P 715mmHyx atm
0.940789

M fa
984 It v 121mL 1214
9811 273 sk 379 is
FfEfLstatk 1 365881
mm
mn n

g
k 128glmole
 10.5 Further Application of the Ideal-Gas Law:
Molar Mass
• Question: A 1.261-g sample of vaporized liquid hydrocarbon
has a volume of 435 mL at 115 oC and 761 Torr. What is the
molar mass of this gas? Ans. = 92.31 g/mole
PV nRT PV nRT 435mL 435L
n T 388.15k
21
1152273.15
2435
76 Torry f 1.00132atm

E tEes 0.013675117
darmuss
I.ge if tn
R 082064ft Mm fi 9g 92.219m0
 Empirical and Molecular Formulas

• Question: A certain anesthetic contains 64.9% C, 13.5% H, and 21.6% O by

mass. Determine the empirical formula. Ans. = C4H10O

iiii
T.IE i i EE iiiiiii i iisano
decular empirical n PV nRTA It
EEII.EE
 Empirical and Molecular Formulas

• At 120 oC and 750 mm Hg, 500.0 mL of the vaporized anesthetic from the
previous slide weighs 2.30 g. Determine the molar mass of the anesthetic
using the gas law data. Ans. = 150.38 g/mol
PV NRT N IF
EEEIEEsn n n name
Tumour
mass Grammsgate n fi 9 150.38gmos

12
-
tn gYI
500L
iI suatm
986
mL
500.0
es
2 hL
082064

• What is the molecular formula of the anesthetic? Ans. = C8H20O2

tattoo 74 name
ftpYII FiIie
molecular Cultivo n
418,0
n 2
-
8112002
 Empirical and Molecular Formulas

• On your own: A compound contains 52% N, 40% B, and 8%

H. A sample of the vapor with a mass of 210 mg occupies a
volume of 84.5 mL at 600. mm Hg and 27 oC.
– Use the mass percent composition values to determine the empirical
formula for this compound. Ans. = NBH2
– Use the gas data to determine the actual molar mass of the compound.
Ans. = 77.55 g/mole
– What is the molecular formula? Ans. = N3B3H6
 Stoichiometry of Gases in Chemical Reactions
oa.com
odd

• We can incorporate the principles learned in the stoichiometry

chapter into our discussion of gases in reactions.
• We will use the molar ratios obtained from the coefficients in
balanced equations just like we did in Chapter 3.
• CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g)
• 1 mol CO(g) is stoichiometrically equivalent to 2 mol H2(g)
• 1 mol CO(g) is stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mol CH3OH(g)
• 2 mol H2(g) is stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mol CH3OH(g)

1 mol CO 1 mol CO 2 mol H2

–––––––– –––––––––––– ––––––––––––
2 mol H2 1 mol CH3OH 1 mol CH3OH
 Stoichiometry and Volumes of Gases in Chemical
Reactions
• Question: Consider the combustion of propane:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 4H2O (g) + 3CO2(g)
How many moles of CO2 are produced in the combustion of 45.8 g of
propane, C3H8? Ans. = 3.11 moles CO2
YxiEF
45.8g3Hsx.tk
3.12molescos

3382.011 811.0074414409652

How many liters of CO2 would this be at 825 oC and 754 Torr? Ans. = 283
L CO2

EE
a q
3.12moles
08206hfFc 1098151

992119th
283.39223442102
2834602
 Stoichiometry and Volumes of Gases in Chemical
Reactions
• Question: How many liters of H2(g) would be needed to produce 15.00
grams of liquid HCl? Ans. = 5.113 liters H2
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(l)

• On your own: Boron hydride reacts with oxygen in the following way
2B4H10(g) + 11O2(g) 4B2O3(s) + 10H2O(g)
If a 0.500 gram sample of boron hydride reacts with excess oxygen, what
will be the volume of gaseous water at 205 mm Hg and 30.0 oC? Ans. =
4.33 L
 10.6 Mixtures of Gases: Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures
• So far we’ve discussed individual gases, but the Ideal Gas Law also applies
to mixtures of gases.
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures gives an explanation of mixtures of ideal
gases. It states that:
– In a mixture of gases, each gas behaves independently of the other
gases.
– Each gas expands to fill the container and exerts its own pressure
(partial pressure).
– The total pressure exerted by the mixtures is the sum of the partial
pressures exerted by the separate gases.
• For example: In the gaseous mixture X, Y, and Z

nXRT nYRT nZRT

PX = ——— PY = ——— PZ = ——— …
V V V
Ptotal = PX + PY + PZ
 More on Partial Pressure

• Question: What are partial pressures and Ptotal for a mixture of

4.05 g of N2, 6.05 g He, and 3.15 g H2 in a 6.10 L at 25 oC?
Ans. = 12.93 atm
nXRT nYRT nZRT
PX = ——— PY = ——— PZ = ——— …
V V V
Ptotal = PX + PY + PZ
 More on Partial Pressure

• We have discussed determining Ptotal from partial pressures,

now we will discuss determining partial pressures from Ptotal.
• To do this, we need to use the mole fraction (c).

n1
x1 = —— P1 = x1 Ptotal
ntotal
• n1 is the number of moles of the substituent gas and ntotal is
the total number of moles.
• Partial pressure is found by multiplying mole fraction by the
total pressure.
 10.6 Mixtures of Gases: Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures
• Question: A mixture of gases contains 0.765 moles He(g),
0.330 moles Ne(g), and 0.110 moles Ar(g) at a total pressure
of 705 Torr. What are PHe, PNe, and PAr? Ans. = 448 Torr,
193 Torr, 64 Torr
n1
x1 = —— P1 = x1 Ptotal
ntotal