Chapter 1 yD eS Introduction to Product Design: Asimow’s Model JAA DEFINITION OF PRODUCT DESIGN product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality and, as in other forms of human activity, i aims at fulfilling human needs. Te ‘A designer does not ual woe goods or services which immediately satisfy consumer's needs. Rather, he produces Totype: which is used as a sample for reproducing the particular goods or services as many times as required. A design may be of a pattern on upholstery or of a dress in the world of Tashion. If the producer believes that a sufficient number of customers will be vaxisfied by the product, then mass production of the item_or service Dy ken_u a production department. In the course of production, an erro made by theCproducer in manufacturi an item may lead to its rejection vat an errorin-desigm which will be repeated in all products, may Iead to an economic misadventure of enormous proportions. The designer's responsibility is therefore ‘serious. a 4.2 DESIGN BY EVOLUTION yechnological sed to evolve over long spans of time, The leisurely pace of \ sk of making major errors. The circumstances rarcly ‘demanded analytical Development of the bicycle from its erank ‘and sprocket version over a period of about a centuryss 4 In the past, designs change reduced the capabilities operated version to its present typical example of design By evolution. The Sra vintages oF eTatOnaty design are: ved design is rather crude and is more (i) Unsuitability for mass production. An cvol oriented towards design by masses for Production by masses (Gandhian philosophy) rather than mass production. It is acceptable at village level bit unacceptable at urban level. Pe (li) Difficulty In modification. A design by evolution is by demands of time. On the other hand, design by invention and creative process uses Sophisticated tools and techniques such as CAD (Computer Aided Design) workstation. The CAD workstation helps generale 2 large numbss of design alternatives within minutes. (lil) inability to tap new technologies. A new technology can result in a totally new design based on a different working principle as compared with evolutionary design which relies heavily on small modifications in an existing design. It is well known that the new technology has made artisans and craftsmen of certain categories redundant. 12 Propet 1.3DESIGN BY INNOVATION Following a scientific now body of technical knowledge develops rapidly; the proper use of this discovery may ‘almost complete deviation from past practice. Every skill, which teeuexipner or the design team can muster in analysis and synthesis, is instrumental in a totally novel design Examples of design by Innovation are brought about a revolution in medical and engineering 1. Invention of laser beam which I fields. Laser based tools have made surgical knife in medicine and gas cutting in engineering obsolete. Invention of solid state electronic devices resulting in miniaturization of electronic products, which has made vacuum tubes obsolete JA” ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCT DESIGN prKieed. A design must be in response to individual or social needs, which can be satisfied by ‘the technological status of the times when the design is to be prepared. (W Physical realizability. A design should be convertible into material goods or services, ic. it must be physically realizable. The technique for determining the physical realizability is termed design tree approach (Fig. 1.1(a)). In this approach, the success of a design concept depends on the represent alternative solutions of Qj, and success of its subproblems, say Q; and Q). Let Di1, Dip, Dz), Dag represent alternative solutions of Q3, and so forth. The probability equations are: P(D) = P(Qi) P(Q2) (aay (12) P(Dj1) + PDx2) - Pu) Pr) a3) P(Q,) = PD, of Dy) P(Qs) = P(Dy ot Dz2) = PD) + P(x) - P(Dx1)P(Dz2) ‘The probability values of Dj, D2, D2y, and Dz, should be estimated from practical considerations. ‘An example of development of device for combating automobile head-on-crash is also illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b).UCT DEBIAN ANMOW® MODEL 3 Design concept'D:Iatable bag wrens “T i 2 a 2 } Me oi ee 2 aa am Hy af iz a 28 5 : ay ih 2 Fig. 1.1 Determination of physical realizability through use of design tree. G9 Eoonomic worthwhileness. The goods or services, described by a design, must have a Silty tothe consumer which equals or exceeds (he ‘sum of the total costs of making it available t© intensity 3 ‘and Tife 4 on a ten-po 7 ten point scale has a lower utility tim. For example, a bulb with luminous i Fe Sbalb with luminous intensity 2.5 and life 5- (iv) Financial feasibility. ‘The operations of designing, producing and distributing the goods must be financially supportable, i.e, & 6&3 ect ‘be. "Being funded by suitable agencies or people. The method for assessment a orca) feasibility coukd be ‘Net present value! sce or on, he ed ain oe whe iin ewe NE i le eats than te ial ivement fori POS (v) Optimality. The choice of a design ‘concept must be optimal amongst the available alternatives: the selection of sen desi oust all possible design proposals. Optimal design, in theory, strives t0 ‘the best of singular point derived by calculus methods. Onna se, ey, Sr er mecca eg ion wea costae usualy taken up as citeria for optimization. ‘which represents Frinchude those. of the (vi) Design criterion. Optimality must be extablised relative toa desis Be ear compromise among poss = , " ose numer, the producer te disibuio, and his own. ve chaps 9 te cones of om OE44 PROOUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING (ett) Morphology. Design ts proxresson rom the abstact 10 she conrete, Ths vs erono phology. Desi ls Htpn pect The thee pnts of design proponed by Asimow(] reco elinary desig phase, and dalled design phe, a indicaed in Fig. 1.2 - Phase | 7 easy ety & $3 Phase Ad breumiary doson a Oe Phase i L. Detaled Soin at = Phase WV Panning for production | Phase V Planning for Distribution Phase Vi Planning for consumption ‘Phases related to production ‘consumption cycle Phase Vil Planning {or retirement Fig. 1.2 Morphology of design process. inputs. This is indicated in Fig. 13. ars; the ane * of Fig 1.1 reveals the concept of subproblems. (yf Design process. Design is an iterative problem-solving process. This gives a vertical ‘cture to each design phase. The iterative nature of design is owing to feedback from existing design and improvement with further information inthe form of technological financial and creativity (ix) Subproblems. During the process of solution of a design problem, a sublayer of ‘subproblems solution of the original problem is dependent on the solution of the subproblems: ‘The * —————INTRODUCTION To PROE DUCT DESIGN: ASIMOW SMO 5, Course of Discipine of design Feedback Fig. 1.3 Iterative nature of design process. Us Reduction of uncertainty. Design is derived after processing of information that results. in a transition from uncertainty, about the success or failure of a design towards certainty. Each step in design morphology from step (i) to step (x) enhances the level of confidence of the designer. Cae worth of evidence. Information gathering and processing have a cost that must alanved by the worth of the evidence, which affects the successor failure of the design. Authentic information should be gathered to make the design project a success, Today, information is regarded wis a resource which is as valuable as money, manpower and material. Bases for decision. A design project is terminated when itis obvious that its failure calls Pets abandonment. It is continued when confidence in an available design solution is high enough to indicate the commitment of resources necessary for the next phase. Minimum commitment. In the solution of a design problem at an) stage of the process, ‘commitments which will fix future design decisions must not be made beyond what is necessary to sxecute the immediate solution. This will allow maximum freedom in finding solutions to subproblems at the lower levels of design. A model of design problem, subproblems vse (eg. a co ) has reached commercial or industrial device, or a private oF public system) te retired” This is one of the principal questions raised by a study of engi antic in use is worn to the point at which it can no Tonger render adequate for replacement is clear, However, the same fat pace of technology which com ‘accelerates the aging process of goods in use. It is a hallm: feared more frequently because of technical ‘obsolescence than for physical deterioration. Changes in fashions, often deliberately cultivated by industry ‘also produce their share of design of soft goods, such as clothing, exploiting fashion changes is am ace] an age at which it should neering economy. If the service, then the need pels the designer also ark of our times that goods in use are casualties. In the ited practice, since the atue of such goods lies in their aesthetic appeal. deterioration or for technical ‘To the product designer, the question whether to design for physical obsolescence is of fundamental importance. Teall, the system should be designed so that it wears tut physically as it becomes technically obsolet: then for & longer than useful life. But usually, the elements of design that contri also essential to adequate reliability and maintenancé vind wearout is generally not possible. These aspects of design need further study. What values are available when a product reaches @ terminal point of service Values influence design? The latter question is purpose of this phase is to take i f product. Designing for retirement, according 19 "Asimow, must consider the following aspects: Aoesining, to reduce the rate of obsolescence by taking into account the anticipated ¢ technical developments. 2 besiening physical life to match anticipated service life. 4 ning for eeverl level of we so that when sevice life a higher level of se the reritl be adaptable for funher use with a less demanding level. Designing the product so that reusable materials and long-lived components can be recovered. Médulgnity in design can be contemplated, instead of integrated designs. samining and testing of serviceterminated products in the laboratory to obtain information. In summary, although the first three design phases, forming a pri the : 5 a primary set, are concem of the design group, the remaining four, which constitute a poe oncom cy; bre ick «aims on he Ses ho extra cost would be incurred for providing bute to a longer life are thus a full compromise between obsolescence and how do these The conoem of the retirement phase in design. The into account the problems associated with retiring and disposing of ffects of is terminated, useful design principal set, arising from the they must be considered12 PROOUCT DESIGN ANO MANUFACTURING. Y DESIGN PHASES AND FLOWCHARTING—THE 25 STEPS PRIMAR) of design: Morris Asimow, the design philosopher, has proposed three phases ¥ 1. Feasibility study 2. Preliminary design 3. Detailed design phase. “These will be discussed in detail now, Asimow [1] represented his model as a flow chart (Fig. 1.5) tsa eirele indicating information input; a rectangle indicating step in design process; a decision fox asa rhombus: and a rounded box as an output. Output from an earlier step, together with a iuitional information, results in activating a subsequent design process and its accompanying output aihich acts as an output to a decision box. This cycle continues from top to bottom in a zig-zag repetitive manner. Feasibility study has six steps, preliminary design has 10 steps, and detailed design hhas nine steps, making a total of 25 steps. These are indicated in Fig. 1.5. 1.8.1 Phase I—Feasibility Study Step 1: The need—Establishing its economic existence. The starting point of a design project is a hypothetical need which may have been observed currently on the socio-economic scene. It may be worded in the form of a primitive need statement; or it may have been elaborated into a sophisticated and authenticated statement based on market and consumer studies. The need may not yet exist, but there may be evidence that it is latent, and that it may arise when economic means for its satisfaction become available. The need may be suggested by a technical breakthrough which motivates its exploitation through product for social good. In whatever way the need has been perceived, its economic existence, latent or current, must be established with sufficient confidence justify the commitment of the funds necessary to explore the feasibility of developed means isfying it. By economic existence of a need, we mean that individuals, institutions or society will recognize the need and will pay the price of the product which can satisfy the need. The product may be available in the market for a purchase price and there could be a number of firms supplying the product. The importance of establishing the need can hardly be overestimated. Too often, an organization will go in for a project and develop a base while ending up in financial failure because the assumed need was imaginary and disappeared in the light of reality. Primitive need statement contains a vague description of what is required. It does not point out the way a design should be made. It only states the sponsor's need in a general statement. For example, a primitive’s need statement for an electronic fire alarm could be “A gadget to accurately and precisely sense the rise of temperature in the building above 80°C and have a sound system to alarm or warn inhabitants of such an occurrence.” Note that inthe primitive need statement, nowhere is a mention of “Electronic” or “Fire” made. Primitive statements enable the generation of more ideas than specific statements. Intuitive knowledge about people, their habits and lifestyles and their behaviour in the socio- economic system, may be combined with specific information obtained by market research to provide the information necessary for making a need analysis. After performing the need analysis, a decision must be made about the validity of the economic worthwhileness of the need. If it is favourable, the results of this step are summarized in a set of specifications of desired outputs which the product or system must be capable of producing in order to satisfy the need. As stated earlier, the need statement should not immediately converge ous a single design but should be primitive or general and encourage multiple solutions and idea generation,“The information available ‘of desired outputs, and ‘step ‘engineering principle of vi for | Step 2: comes from the results of the preced Fame relevant technical knowledge about environ Fm information, an activity analysis 18 performed whereby the design problem s given vit anmuttion. The question which must be asked before this step may be considered complet, te ting engincering statement ofthe problem sufficiently relevant and adequate to commit a is: Te steps 10 the design? New information is constantly developed by the design work ise prc to tiously was ether overlooked of unknown. This new information changes the confiden 2 hich Previn prior decisions were made. If the deterioration in confidence is enough to destroy Sjocision, the decision-maker will demand that the affected steps be reworked f T confidence is restored. It can be seen from Fig. 1.5, that this results in : the basis for a particular until the necessary level of feedback as shown by the joining the vertical dashed line i 3: The synthesis of possible solution: ideas to produce an integrated whole. Iti this step which cl project as design undertaking. This requires innovative and creative Pi essential ingredient for product design. In the context of design, ao tion of creativity: “A talent for discovering a combination of principles, materials oF components solutions to the problem in hand”. For example, design systems that hh could be among others: (a) seat belt, (b) collapsible steering which are especially suitable as may reduce the fatality of a car crast rod, and () air cushion. Step 4: Physical realizability. The problem is whether itis possible to. accomplish such a practical physical embodiment, as is suggested by the concept. ‘The designer can visualize the elements vet results of a new concept. (The concept of design tree has already been explained.) Step 5: Economic worthwhileness. No object is a proper subject of product design if itis tunable to pass the test of economic worthwhileness. Literally, this means that the object of the design must be “... of sufficient value to repay off effort.” Value has meaning which is singularly personal, it depends on the evaluator, his viewpoint, and the prevailing circumstances. The only objective ‘measure is in the market place. When this instrument of measure can be applied, the results can be quantitatively expressed in terms of money. Indirect tools, highly sophisticated and difficult to apply, ‘must be used for their measure. Utility is a good measure of economic worthwhileness of a product. Repeating the earlier example, on a comparative basis, a bulb with 4 units life (on a 10-point scale) = Tuminous intensity 3 units has a higher utility than a bulb with $ units life and luminous intensity 5 units. It is of interest to note the different values set a producer and a consumer attach to a product. The producer must acquire the requisite resources of raw materials, energy, capital, and manpower. ‘These he can obtain in the open market; therefore, their value of acquisition can be determined objectively. The final product, after its completion, by transforming the input resources, is retuned ralue can be determined, ‘dashed line starting at the vertex of the decision box and the dashed line indicating a feedback channel. 6. Synthesis implies combining or bringing diferent Snaracterizes, more than anything else, the effort. Creativity is therefore we offer the following as a ‘Step and the input-output values compared. If hhas occasioned an augmentation of value sufficient to the market place. Again, the v the flux of values through the production process to induce its continuance, the process is deemed to be economically worthwhile. The extension to ‘The consumer attaches value to a product because it the distributor follows in the same manner. meets some of his needs.INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCT DESIGN: ASIMOW'S MODEL 16 Step 6: Financial feasibility. Sometimes it happens that a project, meritorious from every point of view, and of great economic worth, cannot be realized because it is difficult to mobilize resources for its implementation. ‘The last three steps are like sieves. Through the first sieve only those solutions are passed which are physically realizable; through the second, only those possessing economic worthwhileness for producer, distributor and consumer; and through the third, only those that are financially feasible. The ‘et of usefull solutions comprise the ones passing successfully through each of the three sieves. 1.8.2 Phase |I—The Preliminary Design ‘The preliminary design is intended to establish an overall concept for the project, which will serve as a guide for the detailed design. An evolution of the design concept is carried forward far enough so that a decision can be made about committing for the next phase. The preliminary design phase is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.5. Optimization is the main objective in this phase. Step 1: Selection of the design concept. In the set ‘of useful solutions developed in the feasibility study, the most promising one must be identified. The design concept is selected on the basis of utility. Factors such as reliability, safety, cost, and user friendliness are given consideration and the design concept with the highest point rating qualifies as the best concept. Step 2: Formulation of mathematical model. Design proceeds from the abstract (9 the ae ete We do this by describing the idea in words, in graphic illustrations, and in mathematical tquations. Mathematical models enable useful software to be developed so thatthe design can be optimized on a computer. Step 3: Sensitivity analysis. We visualize a system as being described inthe form of equations sie achematical model involving the design parameters and the input and output variables. We asd tike to know how sensitive the performance of the system is to the adjustment of several Uesign parameters. Those which critically affect the performance must be carefully adjusted, whereas the which are less critical can be adapted to suit convenience. In recent years, Taguchi the Tapanese pioneer of quality control, has been advocating the concept of robust design. According to his philosophy, the design parameters which, on changing, result in large change in undesirable output from the system, should be deleted. Identification of such parameters is possible through factorial design of experiments. Step 4: Compatibility analysis. A system or a complicated device can be thought of as an object which is itself a combination of objects on the next lower order of complexity. In the case of a complex system such objects would be referred to as sub-systems. Compatibility may involve straightforward considerations such as geometrical tolerance or chemical tolerance, More difficult problems of compatibility arise when interacting co-members must have matching operating characteristic, as when one member is in series with another so thatthe output of one are the inputs of the other. One example of this aspect of compatibility is electric motor and pump combination. Step 5: Stability analysis. Systems and devices that engincers design are often exposed V0 § dynamic environment. For example, a building is apparently a stable and static suet Not earthquake mav apolv an impulsive displacement to the foundation, resulting in ®oe 16 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUEACTURING AA designer would like the systems he designs to have an inherent stability so that unc Perturbations in the environment or accidental large inputs or loads will not cause catastrophi failures or malfunctions, ic Step 6: Formal optimization. Till now we have not tried to fix all the major des 8 definite and singular values. However, forthe design to advance, the paremoten ne racers specific design values. Among all the feasible combinations of parameter values ae combinations which satisty all the design constraints and therefore could be expected to woth, teen ia superior (0 all others viz. the optimum combination. The process for finding ihe, destination i, called aprimization. In mechanical design, R.C. Johnson developed in 1979 a method at option design (MOD) subject to constraints It is called Johnson's MOD and is discussed in soc detail in ‘Chapter 9 on Optimization. ‘Step 7: Projections into the future. We may now pose two main questions: the first is on the Socio-economic environment that will exist when the product comes into actual use, and the second refers to the race against technical obsolescence. The development period for a Product should not be so large that by the time it comes in the market, the competitor would have launched a Superior Product. The other aspect of the future projections is the expected useful ‘shelf life’ of the product, Step 8: Prediction of system behaviour. A system must function in an acceptable manner throughout a reasonable service life. The desired outputs must be produced over a span of time ag well as at the start when the system is new. Step 9: Testing the design concept. The proof of a design is in the use of the product. Evolutionary design waits for the evidence and allows time to pass for its utility to be revealed, A novel design cannot wait because it relies much more on innovation. Innovation must speed ahead: otherwise it will be overtaken by the next wave of new technology. The new design concept can be tested with a scale model or through computer simulation. Step 10: Simplification of design. As a design moves through various steps, the original concept becomes more complicated. The simple and the obvious are hard to achieve. One of the most important questions for the designer to ask is whether the projected solution is the simplest. The detailed design to be discussed nowonwards- carries the overall design concept, developed in its preliminary stage, to the final hardware. To do so, the overall concept must be brought to a State of design that is clearly Physically realizable. This state is achieved by finally constructing a Prototype from a full set of design instructions, testing it and making the necessary revisions in both Prototype and design instructions until the system or device is satisfactory for production, distribution and consumption. 1.8.3 Phase Ill—Detalled Design suspend the project, or to approve the necessary budgets. The art and science of estimation is very important. One must make use of costing data such as provided by Trucks (2] and Wilson [3].nermoOUOTION TO PRORRICN Onion nomucmrs monn. ST In the preliminary design, we mre comcerned with the ie the quality of the overall system cOmeeyh. stop 2: Overall design of subsystems S emity, Connpatibiity «A ome wiry erm Ste concept subsystems are examined only 1 evalua ovprecquently eat subsystem must Be lke at as aid ih the other also needs 10 be verified nally, a provisional master layout is prepared for each whey which translates the reads of the nubsystem designs into drawings, ‘These master layouts ‘become the basis for developins the design of the components step 3: Overall design of components. ‘The wrk which ix required for the overall design of Srmponents is practically a repetition of what has been indicated for the subsystems, Sust as the SJatem comprises several subsystems, 40 the whey ‘usually comprive a certain number Srtnponents, which are developed in the same way ss the subsystem, But as we move down 10 wareig in the design project, the objects we deal with become progressively less ‘Some of the components can even ff ultimate hardware becomes urgent. ye ee all beatings is «typical example of successively lower Abstract and the problem of te purchased as complete assemblies of hardware, ought-out items. Sr the case of the subsystem, the results ofthe component designs are covered in Jayouts which form the basis for the detailed desizn of parts. step 4: Detailed design of pat leces from which components afe arcembled. It is here in the work of designing part that we c ith the concrete realities Targe numberof relatively minor questions of hardware. In the desi cial achieving physical realization are allowed 10 B® vranswered because we feel very sure that aoovyers will come from sources of immediately a ceesible knowledge and from available exPeneneS cee ened. When a part is being designed, no provisional master reality. Today, great progress i ‘eth as photoelastcity and the finite element methods. Step 5: Preparation of assembly drawings. ‘After the constituent parts have been designed, the form of a Mensou layout of te component cn 0 Be by tentative final ly drawings. In producing the cisembly drawings, cases of incompatibility ‘and oversight in the ib nPjysea will generally be revealed. The affected Parts 2° suitably modified. ‘After the component assemblies are prepared, the corresponding assembly drawits for the in, i il + riafits of vious kinds may be revealed and subsystems can be drafted. Again, ated Ne rae proces, Fal he Sal ase or We OT 7 b oar doe,4g 18 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING When the prototypes have to serve an experimental purpose, greater freedom in revision ig permissible, but change for the sake of change is undesirable. Step 7: Product test program. The programs can be enormous Planned, yield insufficient evidence for or against the design. ‘They which suitable revisions can be based. Factorial experiments provi testing with low cost. In this method, the independent variables are and low limit. The effect of such change on the response variable determined. Interested readers can refer to Cochran and Cox [4], detailed literature on response surface methodology. Y expensive, and if improperly Provide scant information on ide a very effective method of changed between their high limit (or the main design objective) ig and Davies (5), and others, for Step 8: Analysis and prediction. With the notes and records of the ex and the data and other general observations of the test program, can begin, if necessary. e ‘perimental construction Preparation for revision or redesign Step 9: Redesign. The analysis and predications of performance are the prelude to redesign, If the experimental construction and the test program have not found the design inadequate, the work of redesign may be just that of minor revision. If major flaws and shortcomings have been exposed, then the work of redesign may reach major proportions, and entirely new concepts may have to be sought for major components and even for subsystems. 1.9 ROLE OF ALLOWANCE, PROCESS CAPABILITY, AND TOLERANCE IN DETAILED DESIGN AND ASSEMBLY 1.9.1 Allowance (A) Allowance is the difference of dimension between a female member and a male member of the assembly. A practical example of a male member would be a shaft, and its corresponding female ‘member would be a hole. The concept of allowance is illustrated in Fig. 1.6(a). If the allowance is Positive, the type of fit is termed a clearance fi; ifthe allowance is negative, the type of fit is termed ‘an interference fi; if the allowance has a very small positive value or a very small negative value, it is called a transition fit. The various types of fits are described in Section 1.9.4 A=(0,-D) Fig. 1.6(a) Concept of allowance in a shaft-hole combination. 1.9.2 Process Capability (P) A production process which is set up to produce a certain dimension (D) of a part will not be able to produce all parts to the set-up dimension. There will always be a few oversized parts with dimension Drax and a few undersized parts with dimension nig. The difference between Dax and Din is termed process capability. A precise production process such as grinding will have a narrower ‘ninINTRODUCTION TO PRODUCT DESIGN: ASIMOW'S MODEL 19 band width (Dyax ~ Din) a8 compared with a less precise production process such as, say, rough turning on lathe, Referring to Fig. 1,6(b), a frequency distribution curve of machi a bell-shaped normal distribution curve, armrest pare iow 1.9.3 Tolerance (7) The product designer is aware that a process set up ata size D will occasionally produce pieces which are either oversized or undersized. For this reason, a designer always specifies a part dimension (D + 2), where T is the tolerance prescribed by the designer. In order to avoid the production of defective parts, the tolerance T should be matched to the process capability P such that P is less than T. The usual ratio of 7/P is 2. This ratio is termed relative precision index. Figure 1.6(b) i the relationship between P and T, Fig. 1.6(b) Tolerance and process capability. 1.9.4 Types of Fits Taking the example of the assembly of a shaft and hole, the allowance A is the difference of dimensions D, and D, (see Fig. 1.6(a)). A designer usually starts with an ideal allowance between a shaft and a hole. ()) Clearance fit. For a bearing, allowance is positive, ie. (Dy - D,) = positive. This is called clearance, and this type of fit is called a clearance fit. The designer visualizes the clearance fit for successful operation of a bearing in which the shaft and hole are separated by a film of lubricant, (il) Interference fit. In the case of a press fit, a designer recommends a negative clearance so that (Dy D,) = negative. This type of fit is called interference fit. A practical example of this is a bush fitted in a housing bore. (ili) Snug fit and transition fit. A third type of fit is called the snug fit which has (Dy - D,) = zero (small positive value or a small negative value in practice). Such a fit is useful for location of component having a bore with a pin. It is termed transition fit. Figure 1.7(a) illustrates the designer's concept of a clearance fit. This will be discussed in detail now from Fig. 1.7(b), it may be observed that due to the inability of a process to produce an exact dimension, it becomes essential for the designer to specify certain permissible variation, T which is more than the process ty P. ae Permissible variation has to be indicated on any realistic detailed drawing. Figure 1-7(b) shows20 PRODUCT DRBION AND MANUPAGTURING Shaft hole combination of Mijn. 1,7(0) modified to take eare Of lolermwe for the production Ne ayy and the hole, Figure 1.7(e) iHlustrates # vonventional ingrnrn of fits (0) Dosignor's (b) Manutacturing concopt ‘specication Fig. 1.7 Fundamentals of a limit system, 1.9.5 Selection of Fit A designer's concept of fit, ‘manufacturing specifications for a fit, and conventional iagramms of fy, are shown in Figs. 1.7(a)-1:7(c), respectively, ‘\fitcan be obtained by a combination of two apparently independent Variables; 1. Tolerance grades, 18 in Number: IT-1 to IT-18, 2. Fundamental deviation FD denoted by lower case letters such as c,d,e etc, for shafts and capital letter H for holes, However, due to designer's intent to standardize and effect Variety reduction and the types of fit, only a few preferred combinations are adopted in practice. One typical example followed by 1.9.6 Specific Principles 1. Tolerance need not be assigned to atmospheric surfaces, For such surfaces, finish should be good enough to prevent corrosion and ill effects of pollutants, However, for journal bearing type design 4 Positive clearance ig desirable, 2. For a location fit such as pulley on a shaft (where subsequently a key shall be driven in),a location fit or a transition fit is essendat, 3. A situation Where one component has (0 be rigidly fitted to another, an interference fit or a Press fit is recommended. An example of such a fit is fitting gear on a shaft for transmission of power, ne, microg a pat it ce pe: 6a obi by pig honing, microfinishing and precision grinding.INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCT DESIGN: ASIMOW'S MODEL 21 Fig. 1.8 Preferred combinations of fits, és 17-7 and IT-8 represent finished turning and semifinished turning, whereas 5, Tolerance grad ide IT-9 belongs to various primary processes grade IT-9 is rough turing. All tolerances above gra such as rolling, casting, forging etc. 14.10 SUMMARY OF DETAILED DESIGN PHASE We have seen that the detailed designs, involving large commitments for design work, requires careful preparation of capital budgets and time This is the first step. Top management, in the light ofthese estimates, must decide whether to continue withthe design project If the decision is favourable, then a project organization must be developed. "The second and third steps involving the overall designs of subsystems and components are similar in many ways to the preliminary design. In the fourth step, the detailed design of parts is undertaken, and followed in the fifth step by the preparation of assemblies for the components and subsystems. Th the sinth and seventh steps, the prototype is built and tested. The difficulties encountered in both ofthe operations, constructing and testing, become the subjects of analysis in the eighth step. Also, performance is predicted under conditions of customers operation, and any shortcomings, evident or anticipated, are included in the difficulties. ‘The final step is the making of revisions. A major problem to be tackled is that the design as ‘a whole should be least affected. Small revisions can start a chain of consequences which could destroy the originality of the earlier design. Finally, the interative character of design work should be noted. After the revisions have been made in the redesign step, building of new prototypes and subsequent testing may follow, again leading to further revisions. A successful project is, however, highly convergent 5° that only a few iterations are required to reach a final solution. The high rate of convergence st confidence levels which are required in critical decisions. tems from the high