Chapter 7: Variables

CHAPTER 7: VARIABLES

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Define what a variable is and explain its uses in research;

2. Explain how a variable differs from a constant;
3. Distinguish between a quantitative and a categorical variable;
4. Explain how independent and dependent variables are related

Total Learning Time: Week 7 & 8 (6 hours)

WHAT IS A VARIABLE?

A variable is a concept—a noun that stands for variation within a class of objects, such as chair,
gender, eye color, achievement, motivation, or running speed. Even spunk, style, and lust for life are
variables. Notice that the individual members in the class of objects, however, must differ—or vary—to
qualify the class as a variable. If all members of a class are identical, we do not have a variable. Such
characteristics are called constants, since the individual members of the class are not allowed to vary,
but rather are held constant. In any study, some characteristics will be variables, while others will be
constants.

An example may make this distinction clearer. Suppose a researcher is interested in studying the
effects of reinforcement on student achievement. The researcher systematically divides a large group of
students, all of whom are ninth-graders, into three smaller subgroups. She then trains the teachers of these
subgroups to reinforce their students in different ways (one gives verbal praise, the second gives monetary
rewards, the third gives extra points) for various tasks the students perform. In this study, reinforcement
would be a variable (it contains three variations), while the grade level of the students would be a constant.

Notice that it is easier to see what some of these concepts stand for than others. The concept of chair,
for example, stands for the many different objects that we sit on that possess legs, a seat, and a back.
Furthermore, different observers would probably agree as to how particular chairs differ. It is not so easy,
however, to see what a concept like motivation stands for, or to agree on what it means. The researchers
must be specific here—they must define motivation as clearly as possible. They must do this so that it
can be measured or manipulated. We cannot meaningfully measure or manipulate a variable if we cannot
define it. As we mentioned above, much educational research involves looking for a relationship among
variables. But what variables?

There are many variables “out there” in the world that can be investigated. Obviously, we can’t
investigate them all, so we must choose. Researchers choose certain variables to investigate because they
suspect that these variables are somehow related and believe that discovering the nature of this
relationship, if possible, can help us make more sense out of the world in which we live.

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

Examples of variables:

Age Sex Marital status Income

Location of business Revenue Type of work Number of meetings
Degree of malnutrition Level of fertilizer Type of crop Size of land

QUANTITATIVE VERSUS CATEGORICAL VARIABLES

Variables can be classified in several ways. One way is to distinguish between quantitative and
categorical variables. Quantitative variables exist in some degree (rather than all or none) along a
continuum from less to more, and we can assign numbers to different individuals or objects to indicate
how much of the variable they possess. Two obvious examples are height (John is 6 feet tall and Sally is
5 feet 4 inches) and weight (Mr. Adams weighs only 150 pounds and his wife 140 pounds, but their son
tips the scales at an even 200 pounds). We can also assign numbers to various individuals to indicate how
much “interest” they have in a subject, with a 5 indicating very much interest, a 4 much interest, a 3 some
interest, a 2 little interest, a 1 very little interest, down to a 0 indicating no interest. If we can assign
numbers in this way, we have the variable interest.

Quantitative variables can often (but not always) be subdivided into smaller and smaller units. Length,
for example, can be measured in miles, yards, feet, inches, or in whatever subdivision of an inch is needed.
By way of contrast, categorical variables do not vary in degree, amount, or quantity but are qualitatively
different. Examples include eye color, gender, religious preference, occupation, position on a baseball
team, and most kinds of research “treatments” or “methods.” For example, suppose a researcher wishes
to compare certain attitudes in two different groups of voters, one in which each individual is registered
as a member of one political party and the other in which individuals are members of another party. The
variable involved would be political party. This is a categorical variable—a person is either in one or the
other category, not somewhere in between being a registered member of one party and being a registered
member of another party. All members within each category of this variable are considered the same as
far as party membership is concerned (see figure below).

Quantitative Variables versus Categorical Variables

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

Now, here are several variables. Which ones are quantitative variables and which ones are categorical
variables?

1. Make of automobile
2. Learning ability
3. Ethnicity
4. Cohesiveness
5. Heartbeat rate
6. Gender

Researchers in education often study the relationship between (or among) either (1) two (or more)
quantitative variables; (2) one categorical and one quantitative variable; or (3) two or more categorical
variables. Here are some examples of each:

1. Two quantitative variables

• Age and amount of interest in school

• Reading achievement and mathematics achievement
• Classroom humanism and student motivation
• Amount of time watching television and aggressiveness of behavior

2. One categorical and one quantitative variable

• Method used to teach reading and reading achievement

• Counseling approach and level of anxiety
• Nationality and liking for school
• Student gender and amount of praise given by Teachers

3. Two categorical variables

• Ethnicity and father’s occupation

• Gender of teacher and subject taught
• Administrative style and college major
• Religious affiliation and political party membership

Sometimes researchers have a choice of whether to treat a variable as quantitative or categorical. It is

not uncommon, for example, to find studies in which a variable such as anxiety is studied by comparing
a group of “high-anxiety” students to a group of “low-anxiety” students. This treats anxiety as though it
were a categorical variable. While there is nothing really wrong with doing this, there are three reasons
why it is preferable in such situations to treat the variable as quantitative.

1. Conceptually, we consider variables such as anxiety in people to be a matter of degree, not a matter
of either-or.
2. Collapsing the variable into two (or even several) categories eliminates the possibility of using
more detailed information about the variable, since differences among individuals within a
category are ignored.
3. The dividing line between groups (for example, between individuals of high, middle, and low
anxiety) is almost always arbitrary (that is, lacking in any defensible rationale).

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

INDEPENDENT VERSUS DEPENDENT VARIABLES

A common and useful way to think about variables is to classify them as independent or dependent.
Independent variables are those that the researcher chooses to study in order to assess their possible
effect(s) on one or more other variables. It is the “assumed cause” of a problem. It is an assumed reason
for any “change” or variation in the dependent variable. An independent variable is presumed to affect
(at least partly cause) or somehow influence at least one other variable. The variable that the independent
variable is presumed to affect is called a dependent variable. In commonsense terms, the dependent
variable “depends on” what the independent variable does to it, how it affects it. The dependent variable
is the “assumed effect” of another variable. It is the change that occurs in the study population when one
or more factors are changed or when an intervention is introduced. Sometimes the dependent variable is
the problem itself. For example, a researcher studying the relationship between childhood success in
mathematics and adult career choice is likely to refer to the former as the independent variable and
subsequent career choice as the dependent variable. It is possible to investigate more than one
independent (and also more than one dependent) variable in a study. For simplicity’s sake, however, we
present examples in which only one independent and one dependent variable are involved.

The relationship between independent and dependent variables can be portrayed graphically as
follows:

At this point, let’s check your understanding. Suppose a researcher plans to investigate the following
question: “Will students who are taught by a team of three teachers learn more science than students
taught by one individual teacher?” What are the independent and dependent variables in this question?

Notice that there are two conditions (sometimes called levels) in the independent variable-“three
teachers” and “one teacher.” Also notice that the dependent variable is not “science learning” but “amount
of science learning.” Can you see why?

At this point, things begin to get a bit complicated. Independent variables may be either manipulated
or selected. A manipulated variable is one that the researcher creates. Such variables are typically found
in experimental studies. Suppose, for example, that a researcher decides to investigate the effect of
different amounts of reinforcement on reading achievement and systematically assigns students to three
different groups. One group is praised continuously every day during their reading session; the second
group is told simply to “keep up the good work”; the third group is told nothing at all. The researcher, in
effect, manipulates the conditions in this experiment, thereby creating the variable amount of
reinforcement. Whenever a researcher sets up experimental conditions, one or more variables are created.
Such variables are called manipulated variables, experimental variables, or treatment variables.

Sometimes researchers select an independent variable that already exists. In this case, the researcher
must locate and select examples of it, rather than creating it. In our earlier example of reading methods,
the researcher would have to locate and select existing examples of each reading method, rather than
arranging for them to happen. Selected independent variables are not limited to studies that compare
different treatments; they are found in both causal-comparative and correlational studies. They can be

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

either categorical or quantitative. The key idea here, however, is that the independent variable (either
created or selected) is thought to affect the dependent variable.

Example No. 1

In the study on “The Relationship Between Exposure to Mass Media and Smoking Habits Among
Young Adults”, the dependent variable is “smoking habits” while the independent variable is “exposure
to mass media.” A person’s smoking habits is assumed to change or vary depending on his/her mere
exposure or degree of exposure to print or broadcast media related to smoking.

Exposure to Mass
Media Variable Smoking Habits
Independent Dependent Variable

Example No. 2

In the experimental study to test the “Effect of Peer Counseling on the Students ‘Study Habit,” the
dependent variable is “study habits” while the independent variable is “exposure to peer counseling.” It
is assumed that students who have been counseled by peers will have better study habits that those who
were not counseled by peers or those who have been exposed to traditional counseling techniques.

Exposure to Peer
Counseling Study Habits

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 3

In the study entitled “Factors that Influence Extent of Participation in Household Decision-making
among Married Professionals,” the dependent variable is “extent of participation in decision-making”
while the independent variables are “factors,” which may include personal characteristics of the
respondents, such as age, sex, educational attainment and income.

Factors Extent of
Sex Education Decision-making
Age Income Participation

Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Intervening Variable

The intervening variable is a factor that works “between” the independent and dependent variables.
It can weaken (decrease) or strengthen (increase) the effect of the independent on the dependent variables.
It also called a “facilitating variable”, moderator” or a ‘control variable.” It is a secondary independent
variable that has been selected for study in order to determine if it affects or modifies the basic
relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent variable. Thus, if an
experimenter thinks that the relationship between variables X and Y might be altered in some way by a
third variable Z, then Z could be included in the study as a moderator variable.

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

Example No. 1

In the study on “Knowledge on the Dangers of Smoking, Attitudes towards Lie and Smoking Habits
of Young Professionals,” the intervening variable is “attitude towards life.” A person’s attitude may
increase or decrease the influence of “knowledge on dangers of smoking (independent variable), on
“smoking habits” (dependent variable.) Knowing the dangers of smoking one may shun smoking. One
may argue, however, that knowledge about the dangers of smoking may not necessarily prevent a person
from smoking, if he does not mind dying early as long as they enjoy life.

Knowledge on the Attitudes

Dangers of Smoking towards Life Smoking Habits

Independent Variables Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 2

In the study on “Factors that Influence Household Decision-making Participation of Married

Professionals,” the intervening variable “gender sensitivity” may affect the relationship between
“selected factors” (independent variables) and decision-making participation (dependent variable). Men
are generally expected to participate in decision-making more than women because of social prescription.
Older, better educated individuals and those with big income are also expected to participate more
actively in decision-making than their younger, less educated and poorly paid counterparts. It may also
be possible that a woman with a gender sensitive partner may also be actively involved in decision-
making, despite poor education or low income.

Factors Gender Sensitivity

Sex Education (Perception about Decision-making
Age Income Gender Roles) Participation

Independent Variables Intervening Variable Dependent

Variable

Example No. 3

In the study on “The Effect of Information Education Campaign (IEC) on Land Reform on the
Farmer’s Attitude towards Land Reform,” the length of farmer-landlord relationship is the intervening
variable. It is assumed that this variable can strengthen or weaken the relationship between exposure to
IEC materials and attitudes towards land reform. A farmer may have read or heard about the benefits of
land reform, but still reject it (negative attitude) because of a long and close relationship with his landlord
and his landlord and his family which they do not want to be “cut” off by land.

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

Exposure to IEC Length of Farmer-

Materials on Land Landlord Relationship Attitude toward Land
Reform Reform

Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Antecedent Variable

An antecedent variable is a factor of characteristic which is found before (ante) the independent
variable. It expected to influence the independent variable/s. It is usually irreversible.

Example No. 1

In the study entitled “Attitudes towards Land Reform and Acceptance of the Program among
Lowland Farmers of Northern Luzon,” the major concern is the influence of attitude towards and land
reform on the farmers’ acceptance of the program. The farmers’ attitude is expected to vary according to
their education, tenurial status and the size of the land they own. More educated farmers who own their
farm lot and are tilling more than less educated farmers and those educated farmers and those who do not
own any farm land of those who own less than a hectare lots.

Education Attitudes towards Land

Tenurial Status Attitude toward Land
Reform
Reform
Size of Land Owned

Antecedent Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Example No. 2

In the study entitled “Extent of Exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of College Freshmen,”
the main concern of the study is the relationship between students’ extent of exposure to print media and
their reading ability. The students’ exposure to print media, however, may depend on their sex, residence
and their parents’ education.

Sex
Residence Extent of Exposure of Reading Ability
Parents’ Education Print Media

Antecedent Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Operational Definition of Variables

Some researchers cannot answer their research questions because they do not have clear measures of
their variables. A variable must be operationally defined according to how it is used in the study, so that
it can be properly measured.

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

The operational definition gives a specific meaning to the variable. The definition clarifies how a
variable or a term is used and measured in the study. A variable must be defined in terms of events/units
of measurement that are observable by the senses (Fisher, et al., 1991). These events/units of
measurement serve as indicators of the variable.

The operational definition of a variable specifies how a variable or a term is interpreted in the study
and also sets the procedure for measuring variables. An operational definition of a variable used in one
study may differ from that employed in another studies.

Variables Indicator/Operational Definition

1. Age 1. This refers to the length of time a person has lived since he/she
2. Educational attainment was born. In this study, it refers to the age of a respondent on
3. Exposure to smoking his/her last birthday.
information campaign 2. This refers to the highest grade/year completed by respondent.
4. Knowledge about smoking 3. This means whether or not the respondent has heard or read
about the anti-smoking campaign. It also refers to the number
of times he/she has heard/read the message/s.
4. This is represented by the total number of correct answers on
smoking and its dangers.

Establishing Categories of Variables

In some cases, a number, an amount, or a score may not be sufficient to represent a variable. To
facilitate description and analysis of data, categories of variables can be established. Each category should
also be operationally defined. The categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

Mutually Exclusive Categories

Mutually exclusive categories do not overlap. Categories are mutually exclusive when a respondent
cannot be assigned to more than one category.

Some variables like knowledge scores can be grouped and each group assigned to a category, such as
“high level of knowledge,” “average level of knowledge,” and “low level of knowledge.” Each of these
level categories should also be operationally defined.

Example No. 1

If for instance, the operational definition of level of knowledge about cancer is “the number of questions
about cancer which a respondent answered correctly,” each level of knowledge may be assigned a range of
scores. Assuming that the total possible score is 20, the possible categories could be:

High level of knowledge = scores of 14 to 20

Average level of knowledge = scores of 7 to 13
Low level of knowledge = scores of 0 to 6

In the example above the categories are mutually exclusive because a respondent with a score of 15 can be
assigned only to “high level of knowledge.” However, if scores are decimal numbers, the score limits of each
level should be specified, like, “0 to 6.5,” “6.6” to 13.5,” “13.6. to 20”

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

Example No. 2

For a variable like “residence,” if its operational definition is “geographical characteristics of the area
where the respondents permanently reside,” the possible answers may be categorized as “rural” and “urban.”
The meaning of “rural” and “urban,” however, may be different in other studies. The operational definition
depends on how the word is used and measured. The categories may be defined as:
Rural – refers to a place of residence which is located outside the geographical jurisdiction of a city or a
town center.
Exhaustive
Urban –Categories
refers to a place of residence which is located within the city proper or within the town proper of
a municipality.

Categories are exhaustive if all the possible responses are included among the options of responses.
The answers given by every respondent can be assigned a particular category. If a researcher is not sure
about the exhaustiveness of the categories identified, he/she should include “Others,” the “catch all”
category. Under this category, responses which cannot be assigned to any of the other categories can be
classified.

Example

A list of categories like: “Protestant, Catholic, Muslim, and Buddhist” for responses to a question on
religion is not exhaustive because a Mormon cannot be classified under any of the categories in the list.

For instance, the variable “hobbies” is operationally defined as “a type of activity a person engages in
during leisure or free time.” The possible categories of this variable may be: “singing” “reading”, “painting”,
writing poems”, “sewing,” “Others, specify.” What may not be classified under the five specific categories can
be classified under “Others.” However, if during data analysis, the number of responses categorized under
“Others” exceed
Operational three, theofresponses
Definition must be specified and based on these an additional category can be added.
Key Terms

There may be terms in the study (not variables) that have meanings different from their “dictionary
meaning” or they take on different meanings, depending on situations or events. These terms must also
be defined operationally to avoid misinterpretation. The definition depends on how the word is used
and measured.

Examples:

1. Family planning user is any currently married woman aged 15 to 49 years old who has used a method to
prevent or space pregnancy at least once during the last three months.
2. Costal barangay is a community located at near the sea where fishing is the main activity of the residents.
3. Merging is the absorption of one or more business firms by another firm which retains its identity and takes
over rights, privileges, franchises, and properties and assumes all the liabilities or obligations of the
absorbed firm/s (Pudadera, 2002).
4. Interest rate represents the cost of borrowing money, expressed as a percent rate, for a given period of
time.

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

How to Make Operational Definitions

Here are some guidelines to follow in defining variables operationally.

1. List your independent, dependent and intervening (if any) variables.

2. Write an operational definition for each variable.
3. Identify the possible categories of each variable and determine if the categories can be clearly
understood, are mutually exclusive (do not overlap) and exhaustive. The list of categories is complete
so that all respondents can be categorized.
4. List the key terms which may be interpreted differently by different people, unless they are operationally
defined. Write an operational definition for each term.
5. When defining a variable or a term be guided by the following questions.
a. Does the definition clearly specify the way the variable will be measured?
b. Are the categories of each variable mutually exclusive?
c. Are the categories exhaustive?

References:

David, F.P. (2002). Understanding and doing research: A handbook for beginners. Iloilo City: Central
Philippine University-Social Science Research Institute

Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E. and Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education.
Eighth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

EXERCISES

Name: _________________________________ Course & Year: ________________ Score: _______

Answer the following questions.

1. Differentiate the following pairs of variables.

a. Quantitative versus Categorical Variables
b. Dependent versus Independent Variables
c. Intervening versus Antecedent Variables
2. What is meant by mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories? Give two (2) variables along with
their categories which are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

Examples: Sex - Male and Female

Income - Php10,000 and below, Php10,001-Php20,000 and Php20,001 and above

3. Refer to the research problem below:

“English Language Classroom Anxiety: Its Relation to Achievement in English of

Senior High School Students in Mambusao, Capiz”

a. Identify the independent and dependent variables.

b. Illustrate in a diagram the possible connections between the variables. Indicate with an arrow
the direction of assumed relationship between the variables.
c. Draw another diagram inserting possible antecedent and intervening variables.

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

EVALUATION

Name: _________________________________ Course & Year: ________________ Score: _______

Test I. Choose your answer from the choices. Write the letter of your answer on the space provided
before the number.

______1. A characteristic or property that can take different values or attributes is called:
A. data B. variable C. sample D. hypothesis
______2. A factor that works “between” the independent and dependent variables is:
A. intervening variable C. dependent variable
B. antecedent variable D. independent variable
______3. A factor or characteristic which is found before the independent variable
A. intervening variable C. dependent variable
B. antecedent variable D. independent variable
______4. In the problem “Socio-economic Characteristics of the 4P’s Beneficiaries in the Province of
Capiz,” the dependent variables is:
A. socio-economic characteristics C. 4P’s beneficiaries
B. province of Capiz D. none of the choices
______5. In the problem “Extent of Exposure to Managerial Trainings and Managerial Capabilities of
Bank Executives in Roxas City,” extent of exposure to managerial trainings is the:
A. intervening variable C. dependent variable
B. antecedent variable D. independent variable
______6. The relationship between “Extent Exposure to Advertisement and Expenditure Patterns of
Young Professionals” can be strengthened or weakened by their income. Thus, income can be:
A. dependent variable C. independent variable
B. intervening variable D. antecedent variable
______7. The grade of Student A in English is 98. Using his grade, which of the following has mutually
exclusive categories?
A. 90-100 B. 90-95 C. 95-100 D. 90-95
80-89 85-89 90-94 80-89
70-79 80-84 85-90 70-79
69 and below 75-79 80-84 60 and below
______8. Which of the following is NOT exhaustive?
A. Sex- male and female C. Occupation- teacher, farmer, nurse, and doctor
B. Religion- Catholic and non-Catholic D. Age- 41 years and above, 21-40 years, 20 years
and below

Test II. Answer what are asked for based on the research problem below:

“The Relationship between Sleep Quality and Achievement in English

of College Students at CAPSU Mambusao”

Independent Variable:
______________________________________________________________________

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado

Chapter 7: Variables

Dependent Variable:
___________________________________________________________________________________
Intervening Variable:
___________________________________________________________________________________
Antecedent Variable:
___________________________________________________________________________________

Illustrate in a diagram the possible connections between the variables. Indicate with an arrow the
direction of assumed relationship between the variables.

Test III. Let us assume that the following are the variables of the research problem in Test II.
Provide categories for the following variables. Make sure the categories are mutually
exclusive and exhaustive.

Examples:

Class of municipality - categories: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th

Number of children - categories: 1-3, 4-6, 7 and above

a. Sex _____________________________________________________________________________
b. Course ___________________________________________________________________________
c. Year Level _______________________________________________________________________
d. Coffee Intake (number of cups per day) ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
e. Amount of Time Spent for Using Gadget (minutes per day) ________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
f. Amount of time spent for sleeping per day (in hours) ______________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Language Research 1: Methodology / F. S. Delgado