Data Structures (DS)

GTU # 3130702

Unit-2
Data communication
and networking

Department of BCA & B.Sc.CSIT

Rajarshi Janak University
[email protected]
+977- 9844071035
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

 The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.

 The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
 Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on the
three fundamental characteristics:
Delivery
Accuracy
Timeliness
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Components of a data communication system

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Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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Types of computer network basis of architecture
 On the basis of architecture computer networks are of two types:
 Peer – to – peer network
 Client / sever network

 Peer – to – peer network:

 Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
 Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
 Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
 Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem
if the computer with the resource is down.
Types of computer network basis of architecture contd…
 Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

 Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up
the data as the data is different in different locations.
 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Types of computer network basis of architecture contd…
 Client/server network:
 Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the resources
such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
 The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients.
 A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
 A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
 All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send some
data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the
response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.
Types of computer network basis of architecture contd…
 Advantages Of Client/Server network:
 A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily.
 A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole system.
 Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
 It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

 Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

 Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
 A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS
is very high.
 It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
Types of computer network on the basis of area:
• A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is
mainly of four types:
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
LAN(Local Area Network)

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Types of computer network contd…
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
PAN(Personal Area Network)

• There are two types of Personal Area Network:

• Wired Personal Area Network
• Wireless Personal Area Network

• Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using wireless
technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Examples Of Personal Area Network:
• Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
• Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as
a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers,
computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
• Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
• Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

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Types of computer network contd…
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN, MAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
• Examples Of Wide Area Network:
• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
• Last mile(eg. worldlink): A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
• Private network(eg. Nepal Bank Limited): A bank provides a private network that connects
the 44 offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the
telecom company.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
A heterogeneous network(In computer networking, a heterogeneous
network is a network connecting computers and other devices where
the operating systems and protocols have significant differences.) made of
four WANs and two LANs

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Types of computer network contd…
• Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
• Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the
branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The
internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to
buy the emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the
productivity of our company.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Types of computer network contd…
• Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
• The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject
the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Physical structure of computer network(Topology)
• We have said that a network is a two or more devices connected together and
that a path is set up for communication to be reached between the two. Now we
will discuss the physical connections for Networks.
• There are two possible connection types when it comes to Networks
• Point-to-point connections – provides a dedicated link or between two devices.
• Multipoint connections – more than two devices are sharing a link

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Physical Topology
• the way a network is laid out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link Two or more links form a topology.
• A linking device in a network is called a node.
• There are four basic types of topologies available.

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Mesh topology
• every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
• In a mesh topology, each physical link carries information only between the two
devices that it connects.
• If it is a duplex connection, you only need half the physical links, since each link
travels both ways.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Mesh topology contd..
• Advantages of a Mesh topology
• Avoid traffic since each link can carry its own data and none are being shared
• If one link breaks, the rest of the network is still functional
• Privacy since only the dedicated device receives the message.
• Easy to detect a problem in the network by discovering which device is having problems and examining
the link that connects to it.
Disadvantages of a Mesh topology
• A lot of cables are needed
• Too many cables too much cost
• Too many cables not enough physical space

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Star topology
• Each device is connected to a hub through a dedicated point-to-point link.
• The devices are not directly linked to each other.
• If one device wants to send data to another, it sends it first to the hub, which
then forwards the data to the other connected device.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Star topology contd…
• Advantages of a Star topology
• Less expensive than mesh
• Easy to install, easy to configure
• If one link fails the network can still function
• Disadvantages of a Star topology
• Everything depends on the hub

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Bus topology
• Multipoint connection.
• One long cable acts as a backbone; other devices are connected through a drop
line and a tap in the link.
• Drop line – a connection running between a device and a main cable.
• Tap – a physical device that punctures the cable and connects to it.
• The longer the cable and the more taps it has the weaker the signal becomes.
• Taps should be a short distance from each other.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Bus topology contd..
Advantages of a Bus topology
• Easy to install
• Minimal Cable
Disadvantages of a Bus topology
• Difficult reconnection
• Difficult to find the problem
• Difficult to add new devices
• Break stops all transmission of data

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Ring Topology
• Devices in a ring topology has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until the
destination is reach.
• Each device has a repeater that passes the data received that is intended for
another device along.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Ring Topology contd…
Advantages of a Ring topology
• Easy to install
• Easy to reconfigure
• Easy to detect a problem
Disadvantages of a Ring topology
• Break means the whole system is dead

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Classifications of transmission media

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Classifications of transmission media

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Classifications of transmission media contd..
• Guided Media
• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It
is also known as Bounded media.
• Types Of Guided media:
• Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A
twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the
twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair
cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

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Guided Media contd..
• Types of Twisted pair:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair:
• An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the
categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
• Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
• Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
• Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
• Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
• Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
• Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.
• Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Guided Media contd..
• Shielded Twisted Pair
• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows
the higher transmission rate.
• Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It has a higher attenuation.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
• Disadvantages
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
• It has a higher attenuation rate.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Guided Media contd..
• Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
• The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
• Coaxial cable is of two types:

• Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high

speed.
• Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously. BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Guided Media contd..
• Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
• Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Guided Media contd..
• Fiber Optic
• Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
• Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to
send the data by pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
• Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
• Diagrammatic representation of fiber optic cable:

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Guided Media contd..
• Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:
• Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a
light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the core, the more light will be
transmitted into the fiber.
• Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the cladding
is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the
core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fiber.
• Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a
jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.
• Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:
• Greater Bandwidth: The fiber optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore,
the fiber optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
• Faster speed: Fiber optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic cable
to carry the signals at a higher speed.
• Longer distances: The fiber optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper
cable.
• Better reliability: The fiber optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any
temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
• Thinner and Sturdier: Fiber optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more pull
pressure than copper cable.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Classifications of transmission media contd..
• Un-Guided Transmission
• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using
any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
• In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.
• Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
• Radio wave
• Microwave
• Infrared wave

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Un-Guided Transmission contd...
• Radio waves
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free
space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave
sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
•

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Un-Guided Transmission contd...
• Applications Of Radio waves:
• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
• Advantages Of Radio transmission:
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
• Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Un-Guided Transmission contd...
• Microwaves
• Microwaves are of two types:
• Terrestrial microwave transmission
• Satellite microwave transmission
• Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
• Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a
radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to
1000 GHz.
• Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e.,
the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
• In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna
which is km away.
• It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the
direct sight of each other. BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Un-Guided Transmission contd...
• Characteristics of Microwave:
• Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
• Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
• Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
• Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
• Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and
antenna size.
• Advantages Of Microwave:
• Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
• It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
• Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in
terrain is quite a difficult task.
• Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
• Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
• Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch
the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
• Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
• Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition.
This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
• Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth BY P. is limited
K. Sah (MCA) in the case of microwave transmission.
Un-Guided Transmission contd...
• Satellite Microwave Communication
• A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
• Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fiber optic systems.
• We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
• How Does Satellite work?
• The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth
station.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Un-Guided Transmission contd...
• Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
• The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
• The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of
the coverage area.
• Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
• It is easy to install.
• It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
• Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
• Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
• The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains
in orbit.
• The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the
satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Un-Guided Transmission contd...
• Infrared
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short
ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides
in the same closed area.
• Characteristics Of Infrared:
• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in
one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
• An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves. BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Transmission impairments
• In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media,
which tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the
signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of
the medium. The imperfection causes signal impairment. Below are the causes of
the impairment.
• Causes of impairment –
• Attenuations
• Distortions
• Noise

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Attenuations
• Attenuation – It means loss of energy.
• The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which causes loss of
energy in overcoming resistance of medium.
• This is also known as attenuated signal.
• Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original
signal back and compensate for this loss.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Distortion
• Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal.
• This is generally seen in composite signals made up with different frequencies.
Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling through a
medium. And that’s why it delay in arriving at the final destination Every
component arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they
have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
Noise
• Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is
called noise.
• There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal
noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices
act as sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna.
• Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.
• Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.
• Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power
lines

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
 Basic terms and tools used in computer network:
 IP address: An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP addresses are
expressed as a set of four numbers — an example address might be 192.158.1.38. Each
number in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range goes from 0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.
 The use of IP addresses typically happens behind the scenes. The process works like this:
 Your device indirectly connects to the internet by connecting at first to a network connected to the internet,
which then grants your device access to the internet.
 When you are at home, that network will probably be your Internet Service Provider (ISP). At work, it will be
your company network.
 Your IP address is assigned to your device by your ISP.
 Your internet activity goes through the ISP, and they route it back to you, using your IP address. Since they
are giving you access to the internet, it is their role to assign an IP address to your device.
 However, your IP address can change. For example, turning your modem or router on or off can change it. Or
you can contact your ISP, and they can change it for you.
 When you are out and about – for example, traveling – and you take your device with you, your home IP
address does not come with you.
 Basic terms and tools used in computer network: contd…
 Private IP addresses: Every device that connects to your internet network has a private IP
address. This includes computers, smartphones, and tablets but also any Bluetooth-enabled
devices like speakers, printers, or smart TVs. With the growing internet of things, the number
of private IP addresses you have at home is probably growing. Your router needs a way to
identify these items separately, and many items need a way to recognize each other.
Therefore, your router generates private IP addresses that are unique identifiers for each
device that differentiate them on the network.
 Public IP addresses: A public IP address is the primary address associated with your whole
network. While each connected device has its own IP address, they are also included within
the main IP address for your network. As described above, your public IP address is provided to
your router by your ISP. Typically, ISPs have a large pool of IP addresses that they distribute to
their customers. Your public IP address is the address that all the devices outside your internet
network will use to recognize your network.
Basic terms and tools used in computer network: contd…
 Public IP addresses
 Public IP addresses come in two forms – dynamic and static.
 Dynamic IP addresses: Dynamic IP addresses change automatically and regularly. ISPs buy a large pool of IP
addresses and assign them automatically to their customers. Periodically, they re-assign them and put the
older IP addresses back into the pool to be used for other customers. The rationale for this approach is to
generate cost savings for the ISP. Automating the regular movement of IP addresses means they don’t have
to carry out specific actions to re-establish a customer's IP address if they move home, for example. There
are security benefits, too, because a changing IP address makes it harder for criminals to hack into your
network interface.
 Static IP addresses: In contrast to dynamic IP addresses, static addresses remain consistent. Once the
network assigns an IP address, it remains the same. Most individuals and businesses do not need a static IP
address, but for businesses that plan to host their own server, it is crucial to have one. This is because a
static IP address ensures that websites and email addresses tied to it will have a consistent IP address —
vital if you want other devices to be able to find them consistently on the web.
 Basic terms and tools used in computer network: contd…
 Subnet mask: A subnet mask is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s and
setting network bits to all 1s. In this way, the subnet mask separates the IP address into the
network and host addresses.
 The “255” address is always assigned to a broadcast address, and the “0” address is always
assigned to a network address. Neither can be assigned to hosts, as they are reserved for these
special purposes.
 The IP address, subnet mask and gateway or router comprise an underlying structure—the
Internet Protocol—that most networks use to facilitate inter-device communication.
 When organizations need additional subnetworking, subnetting divides the host element of
the IP address further into a subnet. The goal of subnet masks are simply to enable the
subnetting process. The phrase “mask” is applied because the subnet mask essentially uses its
own 32-bit number to mask the IP address.
 Basic terms and tools used in computer network: contd…
 Default gateway: A default gateway is a node that enables a connection between networks in
order to allow machines on other networks to communicate. The 'default' part of the
terminology relates to the fact it is often the first and default route taken. A default gateway is
most commonly used for webpage access; a request is sent through the gateway before it
actually gets on to the internet.
 Network classes: IPv4 provides hierarchical addressing scheme which enables it to divide the
network into sub-networks, each with well-defined number of hosts. IP addresses are divided
into many categories:
 Class A - it uses first octet for network addresses and last three octets for host addressing
 Class B - it uses first two octets for network addresses and last two for host addressing
 Class C - it uses first three octets for network addresses and last one for host addressing
 Class D - it provides flat IP addressing scheme in contrast to hierarchical structure for above three.
 Class E - It is used as experimental.
Basic terms and tools used in computer network: contd…
 MAC Address: MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a computer, which is
embedded into network card (known as Network Interface Card) during the time of
manufacturing. MAC Address is also known as Physical Address of a network device. In IEEE
802 standard, Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers –
 Logical Link Control(LLC) Sublayer
 Media Access Control(MAC) Sublayer

 MAC address is used by Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of Data-Link Layer. MAC Address
is worldwide unique, since millions of network devices exists and we need to uniquely identify
each.
 Internet: The internet is world wide computer network that interconnect, millions of
computing devices throughout the world.
Basic terms and tools used in computer network: contd…
 Intranet: An intranet is a private enterprise network, designed to support an organization’s
employees to communicate, collaborate and perform their roles.
 Extranet: An extranet is a controlled private network allowing customers, partners, vendors,
suppliers and other businesses to gain information, typically about a specific company or
educational institutions, and do so without granting access to the organizations entire
network.
Network tools
 Packet tracers: Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation tool designed by Cisco
Systems that allows users to create network topologies and imitate modern computer
networks. The software allows users to simulate the configuration of Cisco routers and
switches using a simulated command line interface.
 Remote login: Remote login is the ability for an authorized person to access a computer or a
network from a geographical distance through a network connection. It enables users to
connect to the systems they need when they are physically far away.
 Here are the best remote desktop and screen sharing software:
 FreeConferenceCall.com
 Team Viewer
 AnyDesk
 Join.me
 Windows Remote Desktop Connection
 Screanleap
 Mikogo
 SplashTop
 Network components(Terminologies)
 Server computer: A server is a computer or system that provides resources, data, services, or
programs to other computers, known as clients, over a network. In theory, whenever
computers share resources with client machines they are considered servers. There are many
types of servers, including web servers, mail servers, and virtual servers.
 Client computer: Client computers are simply those operated by the 'end-user' of the client-
server system of the Internet, i.e. employed by individuals browsing the Internet, sending
email messages, etc.
 Network cable: Networking cables are networking hardware used to connect one network
device to other network devices or to connect two or more computers to
share printers, scanners etc. Different types of network cables, such as coaxial cable, optical
fiber cable, and twisted pair cables, are used depending on the network's physical layer,
topology, and size.
Network components(Terminologies) contd…
 NOS: Network Operating System is a computer operating system that facilitates to connect and
communicate various autonomous computers over a network. An Autonomous computer is an
independent computer that has its own local memory, hardware, and O.S. It is self capable to
perform operations and processing for a single user. They can either run the same or different
O.S.
 Modems: Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – De-modulator. Modems are used for data
transfer from one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines.
The computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying
massages across phone lines. Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog
mode at the transmitting end and de-modulator converts the same from analog to digital at
receiving end.
 Network components(Terminologies) contd…
 NIC: A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer
cannot be connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides
a dedicated network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller,
network adapter or LAN adapter.
 Bridges: A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is
also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and
single output port, thus making it a 2 port device
 Network components(Terminologies) contd…
 Routers: A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs
together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions
on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
OSI reference model
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
• It has been developed by ISO – ‘International Organization of Standardization‘,
in the year 1984.
• It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.
• All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
• It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• The functions of the physical layer are :
• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing
a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit
level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-
duplex and full-duplex.
• * Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
• The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.
• Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)
• The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.
• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• The functions of the data Link layer are :
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgement.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC
sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at
a given time.
• Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
• Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
• Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
OSI reference model contd…
• Network Layer (Layer 3) :
• Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
• The functions of the Network layer are :
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer. Such
an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
• Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
• Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
• Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At sender’s side:
• Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
• performs Segmentation and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission.
• It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.

• Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a
web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the
default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default port assigned.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data
which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing
and reassembling of the segmented data.
• The functions of the transport layer are :
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer ,
breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus
by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• The services provided by the transport layer :
• Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the
source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.
• Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more
reliable than connectionless Service.
• Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
• Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• Session Layer (Layer 5) :
• This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
• Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
• All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in
the TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
• Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :
• Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
• Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form
or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.

BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
OSI reference model contd…
• Application Layer (Layer 7) :
• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications.
• These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
• Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.
• The functions of the Application layer are :
• Network Virtual Terminal
• FTAM-File transfer access and management
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
• OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in the Internet because of
its late invention.
BY P. K. Sah (MCA)
 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)
 IPv4 is 32-bit addressing scheme used as TCP/IP host addressing mechanism. IP addressing
enables every host on the TCP/IP network to be uniquely identifiable.
 IPv4 provides hierarchical addressing scheme which enables it to divide the network into sub-
networks, each with well-defined number of hosts. IP addresses are divided into many
categories:
 Class A - it uses first octet for network addresses and last three octets for host addressing
 Class B - it uses first two octets for network addresses and last two for host addressing
 Class C - it uses first three octets for network addresses and last one for host addressing
 Class D - it provides flat IP addressing scheme in contrast to hierarchical structure for above three.
 Class E - It is used as experimental.

 IPv4 also has well-defined address spaces to be used as private addresses (not routable on
internet), and public addresses (provided by ISPs and are routable on internet).
 Though IP is not reliable one; it provides ‘Best-Effort-Delivery’ mechanism
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)
 Exhaustion of IPv4 addresses gave birth to a next generation Internet Protocol version 6. IPv6 addresses its
nodes with 128-bit wide address providing plenty of address space for future to be used on entire planet or
beyond.
 IPv6 has introduced Any cast addressing but has removed the concept of broadcasting. IPv6 enables devices
to self-acquire an IPv6 address and communicate within that subnet. This auto-configuration removes the
dependability of Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. This way, even if the DHCP server on
that subnet is down, the hosts can communicate with each other.
 IPv6 provides new feature of IPv6 mobility. Mobile IPv6 equipped machines can roam around without the
need of changing their IP addresses.
 IPv6 is still in transition phase and is expected to replace IPv4 completely in coming years. At present, there
are few networks which are running on IPv6. There are some transition mechanisms available for IPv6
enabled networks to speak and roam around different networks easily on IPv4. These are:
 Dual stack implementation
 Tunneling
 NAT-PT