Introduction to the special issue on

positive psychology and wellbeing

Pia Resnik and Sarah Mercer

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This introduction to the Special Issue on ‘Positive Psychology and Wellbeing’
begins by outlining the history and relevance of Positive Psychology (PP) for
ELT. A key construct in PP is wellbeing, which all the papers in this Special
Issue focus on. In this introductory article, we describe how the term wellbeing
has been used and how it is defined in this collection. We discuss why wellbeing
matters in language learning and teaching and point out some of the key
controversies surrounding this term. We then introduce the nine articles
highlighting their unique contributions to furthering our understandings in
this field. We conclude by reflecting on key practical implications derived from
the contributions and by presenting possible avenues for future research in this
area. Our hope is that this collection of papers will serve as an impetus for
innovations in practice, research, and theoretical thinking about this vitally
important topic.
Key words: emotions, PERMA, positive psychology, wellbeing, ELT

Introduction This Special Issue looks at the burgeoning field of positive psychology (PP)
research in language education with a focus on the topic of wellbeing in
ELT. PP has a relatively recent history in language learning and teaching
but has seen an explosion of research in the field (Dewaele et al. 2019),
with an exponential growth in the area of wellbeing, in part, accelerated
by global experiences in education during the pandemic (Mercer 2021). In
this Special Issue, we present original research designed and conducted
specifically in the field of ELT. Each study offers fresh insights into the
topic and is accompanied by concrete considerations for practice on how
to strengthen, maintain, and promote higher wellbeing for both teachers
and learners. Overall, we hope this Special Issue will not only offer some
evidence-inspired actions for practice, but it will also lay the foundation
for a rich tapestry of possible directions for future research expanding
on contexts, populations, interventions, methodological designs, and
constructs.
What is positive Traditionally, psychology has focused on what is wrong with people
psychology? and how to improve their situation or solve possible problems. It is
an inherently deficit perspective. In contrast, PP has emerged as a
counterbalance to the negative emphasis and instead incorporates a

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© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
Advance Access publication 28 December 2023
 focus on the positives, seeking to understand what people need to thrive
and flourish (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000). PP is built on the
three pillars of scholarship: positive emotions, positive character traits,
and positive institutions (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000: 5). While
the former have been the centre of attention for initial research in SLA
(Dewaele et al. 2019), research into the role of positive institutions remains
scarce, which is surprising given that learners’ and teachers’ wellbeing is
critically determined by the institutions, educational systems, and cultures
they work and study in (Sulis et al. 2023). Especially in language education,
it is to be expected the nature of the languages being taught, the contexts
they are taught in, and the intercultural settings and profiles of those
in language education will impact on how wellbeing is understood and

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experienced.
In their seminal work on PP in SLA, MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012)
stress the need to understand emotional experiences of language learning
and teaching holistically, examining the interplay and functions of both
positive and negative emotions. A prevailing myth about PP is that it only
looks at the positives and ignores the negatives. This is simply not true.
While there will be some studies that perhaps choose to focus on positive
emotional states, this serves as a balance in the field generally to previous
work in SLA which was almost exclusively concerned with the negative
emotion of anxiety (see, e.g., Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope 1986) with little
or no attention paid to the full range of learners’ emotional experiences
(Dörnyei and Ryan 2015). In reality, however, many PP-informed studies
are concerned with the interplay between both positive and negative
emotions, examining the function of each and how they influence one
another (Dewaele et al. 2019). At the heart of this approach is the quest to
gain a fuller, more comprehensive understanding of learners’ and teachers’
emotional experiences covering the full palette of emotions (Dörnyei and
Ryan 2015). In respect to wellbeing, this more balanced approach has been
evinced in studies which have, for example, examined both the resources
that boost, protect, and strengthen wellbeing, alongside the stressors and
challenges which can threaten and damage a person’s wellbeing (Sulis et al.
2023).
What is Wellbeing is a difficult construct to grasp and define due to its complexity
wellbeing? and the individual variation in how it is experienced. Traditionally,
researchers have studied wellbeing from one of two main perspectives:
hedonic and eudaimonic. Hedonic wellbeing stems from individuals’
subjective assessment of their own life experiences and life satisfaction
and the relative balance of positive to negative emotions. Eudaimonic
approaches emphasize positive functioning, self-actualization, and
finding meaning and purpose in life. To adequately address the complexity
of wellbeing, some frameworks have chosen to consider aspects from
both perspectives (Ryan and Deci 2001). One such blended approach
is Seligman’s (2011) PERMA theory of wellbeing, which captures the
multidimensionality of wellbeing in five elements: positive emotion,
engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. By
including positive emotion, Seligman acknowledges its importance for
wellbeing but stresses that long-term life satisfaction cannot stem from
happiness and pleasure alone. Engagement refers to being absorbed in a

110 Pia Resnik and Sarah Mercer

 pleasurable task of interest. With the third element, positive relationships,
Seligman (2011: 24) stresses that, ‘[v]ery little that is positive is solitary’,
emphasizing the vital role relationships with other people play in wellbeing.
Meaning refers to having a clear sense of purpose in life, and finding sense
in what you do. The final component, accomplishment, refers to the sense
of achievement people have when fulfilling goals that matter to them
personally.
In SLA, the PERMA model has been the most popular, possibly due to its
links to PP and its founding father, Seligman. A model that has originated
in SLA specifically is Oxford’s (2016) EMPATHICS model. This is a
theoretical model which brings together a range of components that work
together to individual degrees of significance to contribute to individual

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wellbeing. It stands for: emotions and empathy, meaning and motivation,
perseverance (including optimism, resilience, and hope), agency and
autonomy, time, hardiness and habits of mind, intelligences, character
strengths, and self factors, which capture self-efficacy, self-concept, self-
esteem, and self-regulation (Oxford 2016: 10). However, work using this
model is in its infancy at present.
Why wellbeing A useful lens for understanding the significance of why wellbeing matters
matters in so much is the work on positive emotional states by Fredrickson (2001) in
language learning her broaden-and-build theory. This theory explains how positive emotions
can open up individuals’ minds to learning and new experiences,
encouraging them to try out new things, and, subsequently, build a
repertoire of positive resources and skills. In turn, these skills can be drawn
on to support further learning and generate a positive upward spiral of
growth. The underlying premise is that positive emotions do not merely
serve as an antidote to negative emotions, but they actually serve unique
broadening and growth functions. Similarly, a person who is thriving with
high wellbeing does not merely have a low level of negative emotions and
stress, they are experiencing a positive state, which brings specific benefits
of its own.
In general education, a large body of work already attests to the benefits
of attending to learner wellbeing as it can enhance their motivation, self-
regulatory skills, and, ultimately, achievement (e.g., Seligman et al. 2009).
It has been shown that investing time in fostering wellbeing does not
detract from learning and academic achievement, but it actually enhances
it. As such, programmes and interventions designed to promote learner
wellbeing are not only beneficial for learners in the present for their
academic attainment, but also equip them with valuable skills for their
future lives (Seligman et al. 2009). It has also been shown that teachers
with higher levels of wellbeing tend to be better teachers with greater
creativity and better relationships, which also reflects positively on their
learners’ wellbeing and achievements (e.g., Roffey 2012). Indeed, in general
education, the centrality of wellbeing as a key variable in determining the
quality of learning and teaching is now reflected in the OECD’s decision to
include measures of both learner and teacher wellbeing in all PISA studies
moving forward from 2023 as a core base measure (OECD 2018). In other
words, if an education system is to be evaluated on its success, it must also
be evaluated on the wellbeing of its key stakeholders.

Introduction to the special issue on positive psychology and wellbeing 111

 While the body of research on learner wellbeing is extremely limited both
in scope and diversity at this stage, in respect to teachers, there has been
more work than on learners with a blossoming of studies showing that
educators with high wellbeing appear more likely to be happier in their
jobs, less at risk of burnout, and more likely to remain in the profession
(e.g., Sulis et al. 2023). There is also strong evidence that highlights the
critical role played in language teacher wellbeing of structural and systemic
conditions such as pay, working hours, administration, leadership, and
workplace culture (Sulis et al. 2023). This is an important caution that
although wellbeing is positioned as a subjective psychological construct,
it cannot meaningfully be understood without acknowledging the impact
of socio-contextual factors (Mercer 2021). This body of language teacher

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wellbeing research too is in its early stages and remains patchy in coverage
and range. There remain notable gaps, for example, about the domain-
specific character of wellbeing for English language learners and teachers,
how it relates to other domains of work, learning, and life, how different
cultures may conceptualize it, and how it may be differently experienced
across contexts. The research agenda and field for both language learner
and teacher wellbeing is thus wide open with much scope and potential for
further exploration.
For those practitioners wishing to enhance their own and/or their
learners’ wellbeing in the field of ELT, there remain very few studies or
interventions that provide practical guidelines. While there is much of
value and relevance also in general education for this topic, this Special
Issue is intended to be the first to explicitly mark out a pathway of action
for practitioners by drawing on research evidence from across the globe
specifically in the domains of ESL and EFL. By nature, it cannot possibly
hope to be fully comprehensive, but it can serve as a starting point for
further discussions, research, and thinking. As wellbeing is highly personal
and subjective in how it is experienced, it is a field that would benefit
enormously from input and insights from as many perspectives as possible
including teacher researchers and participatory research projects from
diverse contexts and settings. If we wish to truly embrace the goal of
positive wellbeing for all in the ELT ecology, then we will need to ensure
that future work embraces as many perspectives and voices on this topic as
possible (Mercer 2021).
Introduction to This Special Issue has nine empirical-based articles taking diverse
the articles perspectives on wellbeing in ELT. It starts with two papers that look
specifically at the wellbeing of teachers: Using an ecological lens, Sulis et
al.’s study reports on a thematic analysis of 30 in-depth interviews with EFL
teachers based in Austria to explain how teachers exercise their agency for
wellbeing, focusing on their perceived sense of control about their ability
to change aspects of their personal and professional lives to benefit their
wellbeing. The findings demonstrate how crucial wellbeing is for teachers
to be able to teach to the best of their abilities and thus the importance
of finding practical ways to empower teachers to take proactive steps in
their contexts to enhance or maintain their wellbeing. In the following
contribution, Gregersen and MacIntyre focus on the widely overlooked third
pillar of PP, the role of institutions in human flourishing. Acknowledging
that teachers’ wellbeing is strongly influenced by the characteristics and

112 Pia Resnik and Sarah Mercer

demands of the context in which they work, this study draws on teachers’
voices to understand what would make a positive workplace from their
perspective. The findings from this study offer valuable lessons for policy
makers and leadership to reflect on what they can do to actively support
their staff and promote their wellbeing.
Next, the third paper looks at the relationship between teacher and learner
wellbeing. In her article, Moskowitz starts out from the fact that teachers
and learners are often emotionally in lockstep, mutually influencing each
other’s emotional states. Based on a web-based study with 129 adult EFL
learners, she investigates how students infer their teachers’ wellbeing
from their in-class behaviours, which has implications for learners’ own
wellbeing given the processes of contagion linking the two. The paper

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provides practical ideas for teachers, learners, and also institutions.
Pinter’s paper moves on to report on an approach to conducting
collaborative research with learners. Drawing on Seligman’s (2011) PERMA
model of wellbeing, the study analyses teachers’ reflection data collected
during a classroom action research project in India to reveal how these
research partnerships with children have the potential to impact positively
on both teachers’ and learners’ wellbeing.
The next three papers (Khajavy and Vaziri; Li et al.; Chik and Murray)
focus on the nature of learner wellbeing looking at different contexts,
populations, and the relationship of wellbeing with diverse other variables.
In their study, Khajavy and Vaziri sought to understand ELT learners’
perceptions of their stressors in class and what things they felt would
help to improve their wellbeing. Eighteen participants were selected for
oral survey interviews from a large survey sample based on the highest
and lowest scores on a wellbeing measure. The findings reveal four main
stressors for ELT learners with insights for practice on aspects learners may
find threatening for their wellbeing.
Li et al. turn their attention to how L2 engagement is associated with
students’ general life satisfaction, which represents a core element of
wellbeing. The study used an online survey with 1,109 seventh grade EFL
learners from a rural secondary school in China. Data analysis shows that
life satisfaction generally predicted L2 engagement positively. The findings
imply that, among other things, fostering learners’ positive perceptions of
self, family, school, and friends could be one pathway to boosting learner
engagement, which in turn could enhance their wellbeing in language
classes.
Chik and Murray report on a case study of two Chinese-heritage senior
migrants and the role English plays in their lives. Migrant families often
invite grandparents to move to Australia when babies are born to help
with childcare. These senior migrants often have only limited access to
state-funded English learning opportunities and so often have to make
their own informal learning opportunities. The study shows how drawing
on their past experiences can enhance their quality of life, recognizing the
value they bring with them and how having English competencies is key to
their overall wellbeing, empowering them to engage in their families and
communities.

Introduction to the special issue on positive psychology and wellbeing 113

 Finally, the Special Issue closes with two intervention-style studies that
show how certain teaching activities such as PP interventions (PPIs) or
social-emotional learning (SEL) activities appear to impact positively
on learners’ wellbeing. Rogers et al. report on a study to investigate
the effectiveness of PPIs in an intensive English program for university
students using short daily activities in their regular lessons and taking PP
as the content of the course. In self-report data, the learners viewed the
PPIs as being helpful for their well-being, crucially, without detracting from
their linguistic development. Pentón Herrera investigated ninth grade ESOL
learners’ perceptions of the effectiveness of SEL strategies in terms of
their emotions and wellbeing. The analysis suggests students experienced
positive emotions, increased emotional awareness, and a sense of safety in

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class. The students identified a number of key strategies as being especially
effective including restorative circles, writing poetry, writing letters to
themselves, and classroom decorations.
Future directions The articles cover a wonderfully broad spectrum of contexts and
inspired by the perspectives on wellbeing and PP. They also suggest a number of exciting
articles avenues for further scholarship. One of the perpetual tensions in work in
wellbeing is understanding the relative roles of agency and structure; in
other words, how much control do people have over their own wellbeing
and what role do contextual factors play in determining an individual’s
wellbeing. It is clearly a blend of both, but what affects this relationship,
how is a teacher’s or learner’s agency for their own wellbeing fostered
or constrained by their social context, and how may this vary across
individuals needs to be investigated. This is an area with strong and critical
implications for equity and justice in practice and policy. Related to this is
the central role played by institutions, especially in terms of the systems
they have in place and the culture they foster. What makes a school or
institution a nurturing establishment for all its stakeholders is key to
understand and remains woefully underexamined from either learners’ or
teachers’ perspectives, and whether in fact these perspectives are similar
or different. We also know that teacher and learner wellbeing represent
‘two sides of the same coin’ (Roffey 2012) and are tightly interconnected.
Yet, little is known about what processes mediate that relationship in both
directions and from both perspectives. The notion of contagion is often a
key justification for addressing teacher wellbeing first and foremost as this
is assumed to be a precursor and determinant of learner wellbeing. Thus,
understanding processes of contagion for wellbeing would help guide
possible interventions.
When it comes to interventions and suggestions for practice, this Special
Issue has plenty of original ideas. Pinter’s paper reveals an approach
to working in class together with students as co-researchers which
is beneficial for both teacher and student wellbeing. This is perhaps
reminiscent of work on Exploratory Practice which shows how teachers
and learners benefit from working together on the quality of life in class
(Hanks 2017). It also raises the question of how other didactic approaches
to language teaching, including which task designs, can affect teacher and
learner wellbeing. The intervention studies here also indicate the potential
of integrating explicit approaches to fostering wellbeing alongside language
learning, such as by using SEL as a framework or teaching with PPIs. Such

114 Pia Resnik and Sarah Mercer

 dual-focused approaches combining language and wellbeing learning
objectives represent an exciting avenue for further work in practice and
research, and work on transversal competences or content and language
integrated learning offer possible inspiration in this regard. Finally, we need
more work looking at wellbeing among different contexts and populations.
Chik and Murray’s study shows how migrant grandparents can boost their
wellbeing through language learning that recognises their strengths and
personal histories. How do other populations experience their wellbeing
in the ELT context such as those with intersectional or marginalized
identities or those working in diverse educational contexts in and beyond
formalized instructional contexts. Research also needs to examine the
cultural connotations of wellbeing and explore the possibility to which the

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notion of and experience of wellbeing may vary across cultures, linguistic
communities, and social settings.
Collectively, the nine contributions in this Special Issue show clearly that
wellbeing-supportive ELT, which empowers both learners and teachers to
achieve their best, requires teacher- and learner-driven actions but also
institution- and policy-driven ones to ensure that everyone can flourish
while learning and teaching the language. Wellbeing is a key determinant
of language learning success and, above all else, the process of learning
ought to be positive and wellbeing-enhancing for all those involved. We
now need to take next steps as a community to better understand what
is needed to ensure that this happens for every learner and every teacher
in every context. There is much work still to be done and we hope this
collection inspires others to take up this challenge.
Final version received December 2023

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Introduction to the special issue on positive psychology and wellbeing 115

Psychology and Classroom Interventions.’ Oxford focus on emotions in multilingual contexts and the
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Sulis, G., S. Mercer, S. Babic, and A. Mairitsch. 2023. Sarah Mercer is Professor of Foreign Language
Language Teacher Wellbeing across the Career Span. Teaching at the University of Graz, Austria. Her
Bristol: Multilingual Matters. research interests focus on the psychology of the
language learning and teaching experience. She has
written, coauthored, and coedited several books in

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The authors this area including one with Tammy Gregersen on
Pia Resnik is Professor of ELT Research and teacher wellbeing published by Oxford University Press
Methodology at the University College of Teacher and one with Giulia Sulis, Sonja Babic, and Astrid
Education, Vienna|Krems, Austria. Her research Mairitsch on language teacher wellbeing published by
interests include all aspects surrounding multi- Multilingual Matters.
competent LX users of English, with a particular Email: [email protected]

116 Pia Resnik and Sarah Mercer