Cell Communication
Cell-to-cell communication is critical for the function
and survival of cells
● Responsible for the growth and development of
multicellular organisms
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How Do Cells Communicate?
Cells communicate through three general ways
1. Direct Contact
2. Local Signaling
3. Long-distance signaling
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Direct Contact
● Direct contact: communication through cell junctions
○ Signaling substances and other material dissolved in
the cytoplasm can pass freely between adjacent
cells
■ Animal cells: gap junctions
■ Plant cells: plasmodesmata
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Direct Contact
● Example:
○ Immune cells
■ Antigen presenting cells (APCs) communicate to
T cells through direct contact
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Local Regulators
● Local regulators: a secreting cell will release
chemical messages (local regulators/ligands) that
travel a short distance through the extracellular fluid
○ The chemical messages will cause a response in
a target cell
○ Examples:
■ Paracrine signaling
■ Synaptic signaling
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Local Regulators
Paracrine signaling:
secretory cells release local Target cell
regulators (ie growth factors) Local
via exocytosis to an adjacent regulator
cell
Secretory cell that
acts on nearby cells
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Local Regulators
Synaptic signaling: Occurs
in animal nervous systems Axon
● Neurons secrete Neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters
○ Diffuse across the
synaptic cleft- space
between the nerve Synaptic
cell and target cell cleft
Target cell
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Long Distance Signaling
● Animals and plants use hormones for long
distance signaling
○ Plants release hormones that travel in the plant
vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) or through
the air to reach target tissues
○ Animals use endocrine signaling
■ Specialized cells release hormones into the
circulatory system where they reach target cells
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Long Distance Signaling
● Example:
○ Insulin
■ Insulin is released by the pancreas into the
bloodstream where it circulates through the
body and binds to target cells
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Quick Check
1. What type of communication involves a cell
secreting a substance to an adjacent target cell?
a. Answer: paracrine signaling
2. Plant cells in direct contact with each other can
diffuse substances through these structures to
communicate. What are they?
a. Answer: plasmodesmata
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Practice Problems
Work on practice problems 1-7 in your packet
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Think, Pair, Share
How do you think cells process signals?
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Cell Signaling: Overview
Cell-to-cell messages can be divided into three
stages
1. Reception
○ Ligand binds to
receptor
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Cell Signaling: Overview
Cell-to-cell messages can be divided into three
stages
1. Reception
○ Ligand binds to
receptor
2. Transduction
○ Signal is converted
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Cell Signaling: Overview
Cell-to-cell messages can be divided into three
stages
1. Reception
○ Ligand binds to
receptor
2. Transduction
○ Signal is converted
3. Response
○ A cell process is
altered
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A B C
Stage 1: Reception
Reception: the detection and receiving of a ligand by a
receptor in the target cell
● Receptor: macromolecule that binds to a signal
molecule (ligand)
○ All receptors have an area that interacts with the
ligand and an area that transmits a signal to another
protein
■ Binding between ligand and receptor is highly
specific
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Stage 1: Reception
When the ligand binds to the receptor, the receptor
activates (via a conformational change)
● Allows the receptor to
interact with other cellular
molecules
○ Initiates transduction
signal
● Receptors can be in the
plasma membrane or
intracellular
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Stage 1: Reception
Plasma Membrane Receptors Intracellular Receptors
● Most common type of ● Found in the cytoplasm or
receptor involved in nucleus of target cell
signal pathways ● Bind to ligands that can
● Bind to ligands that are: pass through the plasma
○ Polar, water-soluble membrane
○ Large ○ Ie hydrophobic
● Examples: molecules
○ G protein coupled ■ Steroid and thyroid
receptors (GPCRs) hormones
○ Ligand-gated ion ■ Gasses like nitric
channels oxide
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Stage 1: Reception
Intracellular receptors
Note: the AP exam will not expect you to be able to classify any
given molecule as hydrophobic, usually they will either tell you it
is hydrophobic, or they will say the molecule is a steroid hormone
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Stage 2: Transduction
Transduction: the
conversion of an
extracellular signal to an
intracellular signal that will
bring about a cellular
response
● Requires a sequence of Intracellular
changes in a series of signaling
molecules
molecules known as a
signal transduction
pathway
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Stage 2: Transduction
● The signal transduction
pathway regulates protein
activity through:
○ Phosphorylation by the
enzyme protein kinase
■ Relays signal inside cell
○ Dephosphorylation by the
enzyme protein Intracellular
signaling
phosphatase molecules
■ Shuts off pathways
*Remember: a change in shape
means a change in function
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Stage 2: Transduction
● During transduction the
signal is amplified
● Second messengers:
small, non-protein
molecules and ions help
relay the message and
amplify the response
○ Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is Intracellular
signaling
a common second molecules
messenger
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Stage 3: Response
Response: the final molecule
in the signaling pathway
converts the signal to a
response that will alter a
cellular process
Examples:
A. Protein that can alter
membrane permeability
B. Enzyme that will change a
metabolic process
C. Protein that turns genes on
or off A
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B C
Quick Review
1. What are the three stages of cell signaling?
a. Answer: reception, transduction, reponse
2. What is the actual “signal” being transduced in a
signal transduction pathway?
a. Answer: a ligand
3. How is this “signal” passed from outside to inside
the cell?
a. Answer: through transduction. During
transduction the signal is relayed by protein
kinases and amplified by second messengers
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Signal Transduction Pathways
● Signal transduction pathways can influence how a
cell responds to its environment
○ They can result in changes in gene expression
and cell function
■ Can alter phenotypes or result in cell death
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Changes in Signal Transduction
Pathways
● Mutations to receptor proteins or to any
component of the signaling pathway will result in
a change to the transduction of the signal
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Practice FRQ
Some diseases, such as cancer and diabetes, are
caused by defective protein phosphatases. Explain
how such a defective protein would affect a signal
transduction pathway.
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Important Receptors
In eukaryotic organisms there are two main
categories of cell membrane receptors:
● G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
● Ion channels
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GPCRs
G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs):
● Largest category of cell surface receptors
● Important in animal sensory systems
● Binds to a G protein that can bind to GTP, which is an
energy molecule similar to ATP
GPCR
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GPCRs
● The GPCR, enzyme, and G protein are inactive until
ligand binding to GPCR on the extracellular side
Inactive
ligand enzyme
Inactive
G protein
Inativate
GPCR
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GPCRs
● Ligand binding causes cytoplasmic side to change shape
○ Allows for the G protein to bind to GPCR
■ Activates the GPCR and G protein
● GDP becomes GTP
Inactive
Ligand enzyme
binds
Active G
protein
Active GDP
GPCR becomes
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GTP
GPCRs
● Part of the activated G protein can then bind to the
enzyme
○ Activates enzyme
○ Amplifies signal and leads to a cellular response
Active
enzyme
Signaling
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pathway
Ion Channels
Ligand gated ion channels:
● Located in the plasma membrane
● Important in the nervous system
● Receptors that act as a “gate” for ions
○ When a ligand binds to the receptor, the “gate”
opens or closes allowing the diffusion of specific ions
■ Initiates a series of events that lead to a cellular
response
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Ion Channels
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