MANAKULA VINAYAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

PUDUCHERRY

EC P81 – ADVANCED COMMUNICATION LAB

NAME : _______________________________________________

REGISTER NO : _______________________________________________

CLASS : _______________________________________________

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

Vision
The department aspires to produce dexterous professionals, competent
Researchers and entrepreneurial leaders for the benevolence of the society.

Mission
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering is committed.
Higher Order Thinking: To invoke higher order thinking among the students
by means of comprehensive teaching and learning process.
Competency: To provide training on cutting-edge technologies to improve the
competency of the students.
Continuous learning: To promote innovation through providing state of-art
facilities and active industry institute interaction.
Entrepreneurship: To facilitate the students to improve their leadership and
entrepreneurship skills with ethical values.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
VIVA
Sl. no EXPERIMENT Marks Signature
10 marks

10

Overall Marks

3
Ex.No. 1 ESTABLISHMENT OF MICROWAVE Date:
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

AIM:

To set up a communication link using a microwave source and two antenna and to
transmit receive signals.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.NO COMPONENT QUANTITY

1. Reflex klystron 1
2. Reflex attenuator 1
3. Isolator 1
4. Frequency meter 1
5. Variable attenuator 1
6. VSWR meter 1
7. CRO 1
8. Antenna(horn,parabolic) 1

FORMULA USED

Minimum antenna spacing:

2d 2
dmin=
0

4s 4s  vr v f 
Gain   anti log 
p 0  z0 
0 r
pB

4S Pr
=
 0
Pt

v 
 20 log10  out 
 vin 

4
BLOCK DIAGRAM

HORN ANTENNA

PARABOLIC ANTENNA

THEORY:

The reflex klystron is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low
power and low efficiency. This is most widely used in applications where variable frequency
is desired as

1. In radar receivers
2. Local oscillator in μw receivers
3. Signal source in micro wave generator of variable frequency
4. Portable micro wave links.
5. Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier
Voltage Characteristics: Oscillations can be obtained only for specific combinations of
anode and repeller voltages that giveVariable transit time.

Power Output Characteristics: The mode curves and frequency characteristics. The
frequency of resonance of the cavity decides the frequency of oscillation. A variation in
repeller voltages slightly changes the frequency.

Any mismatched load leads to reflected waves resulting in standing waves along the
length of the line. The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives the VSWR. Hence
minimum value of S is unity. If S<10 then VSWR is called low VSWR. If S>10 then
VSWR is called high VSWR. The VSWR values more than 10 are very easily measured with
this setup. It can be read off directly on the VSWR meter calibrated.

5
 The measurement involves simply adjusting the attenuator to give an adequate
reading on the meter which is a D.C. mill volt meter. The probe on the slotted wave guide is
moved t get maximum reading on the meter. The attenuation is now adjusted to get full scale
reading. Next the probe on the slotted line is adjusted to get minimum, reading on the meter.
The ratio of first reading to the second gives the VSWR.

The meter itself can be calibrated in terms of VSWR. Double minimum method is
used to measure VSWR greater than 10. In this method, the probe is inserted to a depth
where the minimum can be read without difficulty. The probe is then moved to a point where
the power is twice the minimum.

TABULATION

OUTPUT VOLTAGE (Vout) GAIN (dB)

ANTENNA
LEFT LEFT RIGHT
RIGHT
DEGREE ORIENTATI DEGREE ORIENT ORIENTA
ORIENTATION
ON ATION TION

PARABOLIC
Vin =

HORN
Vin =

6
MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the block diagram. Keeping the axis of both antenna
in same line.
2. Energize the Reflex Klystron for maximum output at desired frequency with square
wave modulation by tuning square wave amplitude and frequency of modulating
signal of Gunn power supply and by tuning the detector.
3. Tune the SS tuner in the line for maximum output.
4. Obtain full scale deflection on normal dB scale at any convenient range switch
position of the VSWR meter by gain control knob of VSWR meter or by variable
attenuator.
5. Tune the receiving horn to the left in 20 or 50 steps up to 40-50 and note the
corresponding VSWR dBin normal dB range. When necessary, change the range
switch to next higher range and add 10 dB to the observed value.
VIVA
1.List some of the types of antennas used in microwaves.
2. Why is a parabolic antenna preferred compared to horn at microwave frequencies?
3. Write the formula for directivity & power gain of horn antenna.
4. What are the different types of horn antenna is used in microwave frequencies?
5. List some common features of horn antenna.
6. What is HPBW?
7. Define FPBW
8. What is minimum distance?
9. Define VSWR?

RESULT
Thus a communication link using a microwave source and two antenna and to
transmit receive signals is set up and the radiation pattern of the antenna is plotted.

7
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING IN FIBRE
Ex.No. 2 OPTIC LINK Date:

AIM
To set up a TDM link using fiber optic cable and transmit the multiplexed data and
receive the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

SL.NO. COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1. Optical fiber & digital 1

communication

2. Two channel oscilloscope 1

MULTIPLEXING SOURCE DEVICE:

8
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Theory:
A very high speed multi-terabit/s optical core networks require optical technologies
capable of managing ultra-high bit rate OTDM/DWDM (optical time division
multiplexing/dense wavelength division multiplexing) channels at 160 Gbit/s or higher bit
rates. OTDM (Optical Time-Division Multiplexing) is a very powerful optical multiplexing
technique that delivers very high capacity of data over optical fiber. The basic principle of
this technology is to multiplex a number of low bit rate optical channels in time domain. The
key functionalities in ultra-high speed network nodes are all-optical wavelength conversion
and demultiplexing of OTDM signals.
Advanced optical networking techniques (optical add-drop multiplexing and optical
routing) are studied in simulations and their performance evaluated considering 160 Gbit/s
OTDM/DWDM channels. Optical time-divisionmultiplexing (OTDM) is an important
technique to overcome the electronic bottleneck and achieve single channel high bit-rate
system. The commercially available electronic components are limited to around 10Gb/s data
rate. The first 100Gb/s OTDM transmission experiment over a 36-km fiber link was already
reported in 1993, OTDM was first demonstrated as early as 1968, primarily as means to
increase the capacity of an optical link. OTDM technologies have made a lot of progress
toward much higher bit rates and much longer transmission distance. For example, 160Gb/s
transmission over a record length of 4320 km and on 2.56Tb/s transmission over 160-km

9
 have been reported. Overall, successful demonstration of OTDM up to 400Gb/s has
brightened the future of commercial OTDM [2]. This system has the advantage of operating
only on a single wavelength. It is possible of running OTDM on a number of existing WDM
channels, which improves the overall data capacity. It is purely digital and compliant with the
concepts of all-digital network. With rapid advancement in semiconductor technology and
integration techniques, it will eventually make possible to manufacture compact, stable and
higher performance components for commercial OTDM system.
Procedure:
1. The interfaces used in the experiment are summarized in Table 5.1. Identify them on the OFT
with the help of the layout diagram (Fig 5.1). The block diagrams of the circuit used in this
experiment are shown in Fig the transmitter and receiver respectively. Set the jumpers and
switches, and short the shorting links.
2. Turn on at least one of the Switches SWO-SW7 in the 8 bit data transmit block. This ensures
that the multiplexer is correctly aligned, and should be the normal practice whenever the
mux-demux are being used.
3. Connect LED1 in the optical Tx1 block and PD1 in the optical Rx1 block using the 1m
optical fibre to set up the 850 nm Digital link. Adjust the GAIN control until the LEDs L0-L7
in 8-bit-data receiver block light up corresponding to the ON positions of SWO-SW7. When
the TDM link is working, the LEDs L8 and L9 in the marker detection block will be OFF
without any flicker. Toggle SW0 and observe the toggling of L0. The digital link and the
TDM MUX-DEMUX are now set up. Connect the telephone handsets at PHONE 1&
PHONE 2.
4. OFT is now being used in the loop-back mode. The data and voice channels multiplexed on
the Transmit side are demultiplexed on the Receive side of the Trainer. The voice input at the
mouthpiece is now being looped back through the fibre to the earpiece. Check this by
disturbing the fibre link by removing the fibre from PD1, while speaking into the mouth-
piece of one of the handsets. Note that you can now no longer hear yourself in the earpiece.
(The best way to check this is to blow into the mouthpiece while you disturb the link).
5. Establish the fibre link again. Remove the shorting plugs of the voice enable shorting links S7
and S8 in the timing & control block on the Transmitter side. Using the patch cords,
interchange the voice slots by interconnecting the Slot Select 1 signal [post A of S7] to the
Voice Enable 2 [post B of S8] and the Slot Select 2 signal [post A of S8] to the voice 1 and
Voice 2 Enable 1 [POST B of S7] at the TX Side. Voice 1 and Voice 2 are now cross-
connected and a conversation can be carried out between two People using two phones. The
two slots carrying voice data are now time-switched to provide the necessary connection.
Carry on a conversation, while at the same time turning data switches SW0-SW7 on and off,
to observe the simultaneous transmission of eight bit data in one channel and two voice
channels on the link.
Reconnect the shorting links S7 and S8 to restore the original connection. However, now
remove the shorting plugs of the voice enable shorting links S27 and S28 in the timing &
control block on the Receiver side, and cross-connect them as explained before. Note that
once again the Voice 1 and Voice 2 are cross-connected. This cross-connection is now on the
Rx side. Now remove S7 and S8 again and cross-connect as before. Note that Voice 1 Tx
signal is now connected back to Voice 1 Rx. Switching at both Transmitter and Receiver
cancel out each other.

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6. Reconnect shorting links S7, S8, S27 and S28. Remove the shorting plug of voice 1 shorting
link S1 in the voice coder block [the Phone 1 mike is now detached]. Feed a sinusoidal signal
of 1KHz and 1V P-P with zero DC at post B of S1 and display it on channel 1 of the
oscilloscope. Trigger the scope on channel 1. Observe the received signal at voice 1 signal
post P23 on channel 2 of the scope. Vary the frequency of the input signal and observe the
received signal. Note the lower frequency cut off and the higher frequency cut off when the
output voltage falls to 0.7V peak to peak (3dB below 1V p-p).
The signal is being digitized by a CODEC at 64 Kbits/sec, multiplexed and
transmitted on the fibre link. The received optical signal is converted to a TTL signal and
demultiplexed to obtain the transmitted signal back. The signal at P23 is the reconstructed
version of the signal. The frequency response obtained is that of the CODEC used to digitize
and reconstruct the voice signal. Observe the received signal closely on the oscilloscope.
Note that it is a step approximation of the original signal.
7. The multiplexer also multiplexes the TTL signals controlled by switches SWO-SW7. At the
receiver, the received signal is demultiplexed and the switch inputs are displayed at the
LEDsL0-L7 respectively. OFT also provides for directly feeding in two low-frequency TTL
signals instead of the static switch settings at SW7 & SW6. If SW7 and SW6 are kept in the
ON position, then asynchronous TTL signals from a function generator (the function
generator signal is not synchronized to the clock of the multiplexer) can be inserted at P1 and
P2. The received signal can then be observed at P21 and P22 respectively.
Insert a 100Hz TTL signal at P1. Display the transmitted signal on channel 1 and the
received signal at P21 on channel 2 of the oscilloscope. Vary the frequency of the TTL signal
and observe the two signals. Sketch the received signal at 500Hz, 1000Hz, 2000Hz and
4000Hz.
The output signal transitions between levels 1 and 0 have an overlap of 125 microsec.
Remember that the TTL signal at P1 is sampled at 125 microsec [8K samples per sec] and
transmitted on the fibre link. Increase or decrease the frequency of the input signal in the
range 100 – 4000 Hz. Note that the overlap remains unchanged, always measuring 125
microsec.
8. Now insert the TTL signal at both P1 and P2. Observe the outputs at P21 and P22 on channel
1 and channel 2 of the oscilloscope. Note the simultaneous transmission on both the channels.
9. Repeat Steps 2 to 7 using the 650nm link (either using LED2 & PD2 or LED2 & PD1). Note
that the MUX-DEMUX work equally well at either wavelength.
10. Set up a full duplex fibre optic link between two OFTs connecting LED1 (or LED2) of the
first OFT with PD1 (or PD2) of the, second OFT and vice-versa. The multiplexer allows two
full duplex voice communication channels and eight full duplex data (8 Kbits/sec data)
communication channel between the two OFTs.

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FRAME STRUCTURE

TABULATION

SIGNAL AMPLITUDE TIME PERIOD

Marker

Voice 1

Voice 2

Data

MODEL GRAPH:

Viva:

1. What is multiplexing? Its types.

2. Why TDM is required? show its advantages.
3. Compare TDM, FDM,WDM.
4. What are process involved in ADC?

RESULT:

Thus TDM link using fiber optic cable is setup and the multiplexed data is transmitted and
received.

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 SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF ANALOG AND
Ex.No. 3 DIGITAL MODULATED SIGNALS Date:

AIM

To obtain the spectrum of the AM and FSK modulated signal and to simulate the
using MATLAB

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPEMENTS/COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Spectrum analyzer 1GHz 1

2 AM Circuit 1

3 FM Circuit 1

4 FSK Circuit 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

AMPLITUDE MODULATOR

+12V

R1 RC
33K 10K C2

C1 1n

1n 2N2222

RL
Carrier 10K
Signal 15K
10K
Message
Signal

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PIN DETAIL OF XR2206

FREQUENCY MODULATOR

1 14

2
4.7K FM O/P
150ohm
3
10uF 13
47K

4.7K XR2206 12

+15V 4

0.01uF

Message 6
Input 10
1uF

50K 7
22uF
100K R4

10K

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 FSK MODULATOR

THEORY:

In order that a steady radio signal or "radio carrier" can carry information it must be changed
or modulated in one way so that the information can be conveyed from one place to another.
There are a number of ways in which a carrier can be modulated to carry a signal - often an
audio signal and the most obvious way is to vary its amplitude.
Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude Modulation has been in use since the very earliest days
of radio technology. The first recorded instance of its use was in 1901 when a signal was
transmitted by a Canadian engineer named Reginald Fessenden. To achieve this, he used a
continuous spark transmission and placed a carbon microphone in the antenna lead. The
sound waves impacting on the microphone varied its resistance and in turn this varied the
intensity of the transmission. Although very crude, signals were audible over a distance of a
few hundred metres. The quality of the audio was not good particularly as a result of the
continuous rasping sound caused by the spark used for the transmission.
Later, continuous sine wave signals could be generated and the audio quality was greatly
improved. As a result, amplitude modulation, AM became the standard for voice
transmissions.

Amplitude modulation applications

Amplitude modulation is used in a variety of applications. Even though it is not as widely
used as it was in previous years in its basic format it can nevertheless still be found.

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  Broadcast transmissions
 Air band radio
 Single sideband
 Quadrature amplitude modulation

Amplitude modulation basics

When an amplitude modulated signal is created, the amplitude of the signal is varied in line
with the variations in intensity of the sound wave. In this way the overall amplitude or
envelope of the carrier is modulated to carry the audio signal. Here the envelope of the carrier
can be seen to change in line with the modulating signal.Amplitude modulation, AM is the
most straightforward way of modulating a signal. Demodulation, or the process where the
radio frequency signal is converted into an audio frequency signal is also very simple. An
amplitude modulation signal only requires a simple diode detector circuit. The circuit that is
commonly used has a diode that rectifies the signal, only allowing the one half of the
alternating radio frequency waveform through. A capacitor is used to remove the radio
frequency parts of the signal, leaving the audio waveform. This can be fed into an amplifier
after which it can be used to drive a loudspeaker. As the circuit used for demodulating AM is
very cheap, it enables the cost of radio receivers for AM to be kept low.

Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation advantages & disadvantages

Like any other system of modulation, amplitude modulation has several advantages and
disadvantages. These mean that it is used in particular circumstances where its advantages
can be used to good effect.In view of its characteristics advantages and disadvantages,
amplitude modulation is being used less frequently. However it is still in widespread use for
broadcasting on the long, medium and short wave bands as well as for a number of mobile or
portable communications systems including some aircraft communications.

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 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 It is simple to implement  An amplitude modulation signal is not efficient in

terms of its power usage
 It can be demodulated using a
circuit consisting of very few  It is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth,
components requiring a bandwidth equal to twice that of the
highest audio frequency
 AM receivers are very cheap as
no specialised components are  An amplitude modulation signal is prone to high
needed. levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based
and obviously AM detectors are sensitive to it.

Modulating and demodulating AM signals

Two key elements of any AM system are the circuits where the signal is modulated and
demodulated.Modulating an AM signal can be achieved in a number of ways. Essentially the
simplest is to pass the RF carrier and the modulating signal into a mixer. The resulting output
will be the required amplitude modulated signal.Demodulation of AM can similarly be
undertaken in a number of ways. The simplest is the simple diode detector.

FSK:
It is a digital modulation technique which shifts the frequency of the carrier with
respect to binary data signal. FSK stands for Frequency Shift Keying. The FSK modulation
technique uses two different carrier frequencies to represent binary 1 and binary 0.

As shown in the figure, carrier frequency f1 represents binary data one and carrier frequency
f2 represents binary data zero. Here amplitude and phase of the carrier remain constant while
carrier frequency is changed.
17
Demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine which of two possible frequencies is
present at a given time.

Following are the typical applications of FSK modulation.

• It is used on voice grade lines for data rates upto 1200 bps.
• It is used for high frequency radio transmission from 3 to 30 MHz.
• It is also used in coaxial cable based LAN (Local Area Network) at higher frequencies.

Benefits or advantages of FSK

➨It has lower probability of error (Pe).
➨It provides high SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio).
➨It has higher immunity to noise due to constant envelope. Hence it is robust against
variation in attenuation through channel.
➨FSK transmitter and FSK receiver implementations are simple for low data rate
application.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of FSK

➨It uses larger bandwidth compare to other modulation techniques such as ASK and PSK.
Hence it is not bandwidth efficient.
➨The BER (Bit Error Rate) performance in AWGN channel is worse compare to PSK
modulation.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the modulator circuit as show in the figure.
2. Set the message signal of amplitude and frequency.
3. Set the carrier signal of amplitude and frequency.
4. Observe the modulated waveform (AM, FM and FSK)
5. The modulated signal output given as the input of the spectrum analyzer.
6. Finally we observe the spectrum of various modulated signals.

TABULATION:
FM:

FREQ. SHIFT CASES FREQUENCY SIGNAL POWER (DB)

fc

fc+fm

fc-fm

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FM:
FREQ. SHIFT CASES FREQUENCY SIGNAL POWER (DB)
fc
fc+fm
fc+2fm
fc-fm
fc-2fm

FSK:
FREQ. SHIFT CASES FREQUENCY SIGNAL POWER (DB)
fc
fc-Δf
fc+Δf

MATLAB SIMULATION:
SPECTRUM OF FREQUENCY MODULATION

Fs=100e3;
dt=1/Fs;
T=1;
t=0:dt:T/2;
t=(0:Fs-1)/Fs;
df=1/T;
Fmax=1/2/dt;
f=-Fmax:df:Fmax-1;
fc=10e3; %Carrier
fm=200; %Information-Time Domain %in HZ
Am=1; %in volts
Kp=3000;
ym=Am*sin(2*pi*fm.*t);
deltaF=Kp*Am;
%Modulation
beta=deltaF/(fm);
y=4*cos(2*pi*fc.*t+beta*sin(2*pi*fm.*t));
%Frequency Domain
Y=fftshift(fft(y))/length(y);
%Plots-Time Domain
figure(1);
subplot(211),plot(t,cos(2*pi*fm.*t)),axis([0.21 0.221 -1.5
1.5]),grid on;
subplot(212),plot(t,y),axis([0.21 0.221 -5 5]),grid on;
%Plots-Frequency Domain
figure(2);
plot((abs(Y)))
grid on;

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SPECTRUM OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE

SPECTRUM OF FREQUENCY MODULATED WAVE

Viva:
1. Advantages of FM over AM
2. What is meant by digital modulation?
3. What are the different types of digital modulation?
4. What is meant by amplitude shift keying?
5. Why is ASK also called as On Off keying?
6. Compare analog modulation system with digital modulation system.
7. What do you mean by two tone FSK.
8. What is meant by phase shift keying?
9. What are BPSK and QPSK?

RESULT
Thus the spectrum analysis of various (analog/digital) modulated signals was done by
spectrum analyzer and also simulations were done.

20
 DESIGN OF FILTERS USING VECTOR
Ex.No. 4 NETWORK ANALYSER Date:

AIM

To design and analyze the low pass, high pass and band passfilters using vector
network analyzer.

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENTS QUANTITY

VNA kit(with
1 1
calibration)
2 1
RS232
3 1
PC
4
Calibration kit

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

LOW PASS FILTER

L1 L2

HIGH PASS FILTER

C1 C2

2C 2C

21
 BAND PASS FILTER BAND STOP FILTER

DESIGN FORMULA:

LPF:

𝑍0 1 1
𝐿= , 𝐶= , 𝑓𝑐 =
𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝜋𝑍0 𝑓𝑐 𝜋 𝐿𝐶

HPF:

𝑍0 1 1
𝐿= , 𝐶= , 𝑓𝑐 =
4𝜋𝑓𝑐 4𝜋𝑍0 𝑓𝑐 4𝜋 𝐿𝐶

BPF:

𝑍0 𝑍0 (𝑓2 − 𝑓1 ) 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 1
𝐿1 = , 𝐿2 = , 𝐶1 = , 𝐶2 =
𝜋(𝑓2 − 𝑓1 ) 4𝜋𝑓1 𝑓2 4𝜋𝑍0 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝜋𝑍0 (𝑓2 − 𝑓1 )

BSF:

𝑍0 (𝑓2 − 𝑓1 ) 1 1 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
𝐿1 = , 𝐿2 = , 𝐶1 = , 𝐶2 =
𝜋𝑓1 𝑓2 4𝜋(𝑓2 − 𝑓1 ) 4𝜋𝑍0 (𝑓2 − 𝑓1 ) 𝜋𝑍0 𝑓1 𝑓2

Where

𝑍0 = Characteristic Impedence in ohms

L = Inductance in henry

C= Capacitance in farads

fc = Cuttoff frequency in hertz

THEORY
A vector network analyser is used to measure the performance of circuits or networks such as
amplifiers, filters, attenuators, cables and antennas. It does this by applying a test signal to the
network to be tested, measuring the reflected and transmitted signals and comparing them to
the reference signal. The vector network analyser measures both the magnitude and phase of
these signals.

22
 The VNA consists of a tuneable RF source the output of which is split into two paths.
One signal is used as the reference and is measured by the R (Reference) receiver, the other is
used for the test stimulus for the DUT (Device Under Test). In the forward mode, the test
signal is passed through a directional coupler or directional bridge before being applied to the
DUT. The directional output of the coupler, which selects only signals reflected from the
input of the DUT, is connected to receiver A where the signal’s magnitude and phase are
measured. The rest of the signal, the portion that is not reflected from the input, passes
through the DUT to receiver B where its magnitude and phase are measured. The
measurements at receivers A and B are referenced to the measurement made by receiver R so
that any variations due to the source are removed. The reference receiver R also provides a
reference for the measurement of phase.
In the reverse mode, the test signal is applied to the output of the DUT, and receiver B
is used to measure the reflection from the output port of the DUT whilst receiver A is
measures the reverse transmission through the DUT.

Simplified Vector Network Analyser block diagram

Vector network analysers have the capability to measure phase as well as magnitude.
This is important for fully characterising a device or network either for verifying the
performance or for generating models for design and simulation. Knowledge of the phase of
the reflection coefficient is particularly important for matching systems for maximum power
transfer. For complex impedances the maximum power is transferred when the load
impedance is the complex conjugate of the source impedance.

Measurement of phase in resonators and other components is important in designing

oscillators. In feedback oscillators, oscillation occurs when the phase shift round the loop is a
o
multiple of 360 and the gain is unity. It is important that these loop conditions are met as
close as possible to the centre frequency of the resonant element to ensure stable oscillation
and good phase noise performance.
The ability to measure phase is also important for determining phase distortion in a
network. Phase distortion can be important in both analogue and digital systems. In digital
transmission systems, where the constellation depends on both amplitude and phase, any
distortion of phase can have serious effects on the errors detected.

23
S-parameters
The basic measurements made by the Vector Network Analyser are S (Scattering)
parameters. Other parameters such as H, Y and Z parameters may all be deduced from the S-
parameters if required. The reason for measuring S-parameters is that they are made under
conditions that are easy to produce at RF. Other parameters require the measurement of
currents and voltages, which is difficult at high frequencies. They may also require open
circuits or short circuits that can be difficult to achieve at high frequencies, and may also be
damaging to the device under test or may cause oscillation.
Forward S-parameters are determined by measuring the magnitude and phase of the
incident, reflected and transmitted signals with the output terminated with a load that is equal
to the characteristic impedance of the test system

Calibration and Error Correction:

Before accurate measurements can be made the network analyser needs to be
calibrated. In the calibration process well-defined standards are measured and the results of
these measurements are used to correct for imperfections in the hardware. The most common
calibration method SOLT (Short, Open, Load, Through), uses four known standards, a short
circuit, an open circuit, a load of the same value as the system impedance, and a through line.
These standards are usually contained in a calibration kit and their characteristics are stored
in the analyser in a Cal Kit definition file. For analysers that have a full S-parameter test set
(such as the LA19-13-02), 12 systematic error terms are measured and can be corrected.

24
Reflection parameters
The input reflection coefficient Γ, can be obtained directly from S .
11
The complex reflection coefficient Γ is given by

ρ is the magnitude of the reflection coefficient i.e. the magnitude of S .

11

Sometimes ρis expressed in logarithmic term as Return Loss

VSWR can also be derived

Transmission parameters
Transmission coefficient T, is defined as the transmitted voltage divided by the incident
voltage. This is the same as S .
21

If T is less than 1 there is loss in the DUT which is usually referred to as Insertion Loss and is
usually expressed in decibels. A negative sign is included in the equation so that the insertion
loss is quoted as a positive value:

If T is greater than 1 the DUT has gain which is also normally expressed in decibels:

25
PROCEDURE
Calibration kit window
1. The calibration kit parameters can be inspected using the window found under the
‘Tools’ menu.
2. In calibration kit parameters port 1 and port 2 with non-insertable DUT calibration
3. Click to load existing kits.
4. After kits are loaded click to apply.
5. Use editor to create or edit calibration kits.

Calibration kit Editor

In order to add matched load or through adaptor data to a calibration kit, follow the
steps below:
1. Load kit using the kit editor
2. Check the ‘load date available’ box on the kit editor parameters window.
3. If existing kit already has load or through data, then un-check and re-check the
appropriate box. If this is not done the existing data will be kept and copied to the
new kit.
4. If needed, manually enter the rest of the kit parameters. Ensure the correct offset
is entered.
5. Click the ‘save kit’ button
6. When prompted, select the data file containing the matched load and or the
through adaptor data in the format.
7. Save the kit for future use by clicking the ‘save kit’ button in figure below.

Viva:

1. Define return loss

2. What is VSWR?
3. What is S-parameter?
4. State the properties of S-parameter.
5. What is insertion loss?
6. What is the need for VNA?

RESULT
Thus the response of various filters was obtained by using vector network analyzer
and also simulations were done.

26
Ex.No. 5 GMSK MODULATOR Date:

AIM

To construct a GMSK modulator and to observe its waveform.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

Sl No Component Specification Quantity

1 Sine wave generator IC XR2206 1

2 Opamp IC741 1

3 IInd order LPF 1

4 IVth order LPF 1

5 Function Generator 1

6 CRO 1

7 Spectrum Analyser 1

THEORY

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying or Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK,
the form of modulation with no phase discontinuities used to provide data transmission with
efficient spectrum usage.
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian filtered Minimum
Shift Keying, GMSK, is a form of modulation used in a variety of digital radio
communications systems. It has advantages of being able to carry digital modulation while
still using the spectrum efficiently. One of the problems with other forms of phase shift
keying is that the sidebands extend outwards from the main carrier and these can cause
interference to other radio communications systems using nearby channels.In view of the
efficient use of the spectrum in this way, GMSK modulation has been used in a number of
radio communications applications. Possibly the most widely used is the GSM cellular
technology which is used worldwide and has well over 3 billion subscribers.

GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of continuous-phase

frequency-shift keying. One of the problems with standard forms of PSK is that sidebands
extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its derivative GMSK can be
used.MSK and also GMSK modulation are what is known as a continuous phase scheme.
Here there are no phase discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier
zero crossing points. This arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that the frequency

27
difference between the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to half the data rate.
This can be expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.

Signal using MSK modulation

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying or Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK,
the form of modulation with no phase discontinuities used to provide data transmission with
efficient spectrum usage. Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian
filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is a form of modulation used in a variety of digital
radio communications systems. It has advantages of being able to carry digital modulation
while still using the spectrum efficiently. One of the problems with other forms of phase shift
keying is that the sidebands extend outwards from the main carrier and these can cause
interference to other radio communications systems using nearby channels.
In view of the efficient use of the spectrum in this way, GMSK modulation has been used
in a number of radio communications applications. Possibly the most widely used is the GSM
cellular technology which is used worldwide and has well over 3 billion subscribers. GMSK
modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of continuous-phase frequency-shift
keying. One of the problems with standard forms of PSK is that sidebands extend out from
the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its derivative GMSK can be used. MSK and also
GMSK modulation are what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are no phase
discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points. This
arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that the frequency difference between the
logical one and logical zero states is always equal to half the data rate. This can be expressed
in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.

Signal using MSK modulation

A plot of the spectrum of an MSK signal shows sidebands extending well beyond a
bandwidth equal to the data rate. This can be reduced by passing the modulating signal
through a low pass filter prior to applying it to the carrier. The requirements for the filter are
that it should have a sharp cut-off, narrow bandwidth and its impulse response should show
no overshoot. The ideal filter is known as a Gaussian filter which has a Gaussian shaped
response to an impulse and no ringing. In this way the basic MSK signal is converted to
GMSK modulation.

28
 Spectral density of MSK and GMSK signals
GMSK modulated wave is obtained by filtering the modulating signal using a Gaussian
filter and then apply this to a frequency modulator where the modulation index is set to 0.5.
This method is very simple and straightforward but it has the drawback that the modulation
index must exactly equal 0.5. In practice this analogue method is not suitable because
component tolerances drift and cannot be set exactly.

There are several advantages to the use of GMSK modulation for a radio communications
system. One is obviously the improved spectral efficiency when compared to other phase
shift keyed modes.A further advantage of GMSK is that it can be amplified by a non-linear
amplifier and remain undistorted This is because there are no elements of the signal that are
carried as amplitude variations. This advantage is of particular importance when using small
portable transmitters, such as those required by cellular technology. Non-linear amplifiers are
more efficient in terms of the DC power input from the power rails that they convert into a
radio frequency signal. This means that the power consumption for a given output is much
less, and this results in lower levels of battery consumption; a very important factor for cell
phones. A further advantage of GMSK modulation again arises from the fact that none of the
information is carried as amplitude variations. This means that is immune to amplitude
variations and therefore more resilient to noise, than some other forms of modulation,
because most noise is mainly amplitude based.

29
30
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram,
2. Connect 2nd , 4th order LPF filters to the Timing generator IC ,
3. Output is obtained from the 2nd pin of IC,
4. Plot the output waveform.

TABLE:
Signal Amplitude (V) Time period (ms)

Input Signal

Carrier Signal

Output Signal

MODEL GRAPH

VIVA:

1. What is Gaussian filter?

2. Compare GMSK with MSK.
3. Why MSK is called as CPFSK?
4. Explain the generation of MSK from FSK.
5. What are the advantages of GMSK?

Result:

Thus the GMSK modulator is constructed and the waveforms are traced.

31
 STUDY OF DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD
Ex.No. 6 SPECTRUM Date:

AIM:

To design a PN sequence generator and use it to construct a DSSS system and study
the waveforms at various stages.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

SNO COMPONENTS SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1 D flip flop IC 7474 2
2 XOR IC 7486 1
3 Digital Trainer Kit - 1
6 Bread board - 1
7 Connecting wires - required

Circuit diagram:

32
THEORY

Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a

"noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values; at a
frequency much higher than that of the original signal.
The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However,
this noise-like signal is used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by
multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 × 1 = 1, and −1 × −1 = 1).
This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the
transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver already knows the
transmitter is using.
The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process
gain. This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per
bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on
attainable processing gain.
While for useful process gain the transmitted DSSS signal must occupy much wider
bandwidth than simple amplitude modulation of the original signal alone would require, its
frequency spectrum can be somewhat restricted for spectrum economy by a conventional
analogbandpass filter to give a roughly bell-shaped envelope centered on the carrier
frequency. In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum which pseudo-randomly re-tunes
the carrier, instead of adding pseudo-random noise to the data, requires a uniform frequency
response since any bandwidth shaping would cause amplitude modulation of the signal by the
hopping code.
If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN
sequence (or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process has reduced processing gain for
that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of
DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of
the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.
Advantages:

 Resistance to unintended or intended jamming

 Sharing of a single channel among multiple users
 Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception
 Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver
 DSSS is used in IEEE 802.11b and Zigbee

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. All the flip flop are closed and the first flip flop is set.
3. Clock is given continuously and transistor modes are clocked.
4. Data signal is given at 4th pin of EXOR gate.
5. At the 6th pin of EXOR gate the coded data is obtained and at the 8th pin the data can be
obtained.
6. The waveforms are observed on CRO.

33
TRUTH TABLE:

Clock FFA FFB FFC PN INPUT SPREADED DESPREADED

pulse SEQUENCE DATA DATE DATA

34
Model Graph

Viva:

1. What is the need for spread spectrum?

2. What are the advantages of spread spectrum modulation?
3. Differentiate DSSS from FHSS
4. Define symbol rate, hop rate.
5. Compare Slow FH with Fast FH

Result:

Thus the binary data sequence is transmitted and received using the principle of
spread spectrum.

35
 SYSTEM LINK BUDGET DESIGN USING
Ex.No. 7 MATLAB Date:

AIM

To design the links for the following

1. Fibre optic communication system

2. Satellite communication system

SOFTWARE USED

MATLAB

FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Formula Used

Loss=10 log (Pout/Pin)

PT=PS-PR
PT=2lc+αfL+ system margin
PT=total optical power loss between the light source and photo detector
PS= optical power emerging from the fly load
PR=receiver sensitivity
lc= connector loss
αf= attenuation loss (db/km)
L=transmission distance
System margin= 6 db

Theory

Link budgets are generally calculated between a light source and a light detector, therefore
we look at a link budget for a repeater less system, such as an LED or ILD and a light
detector such as an APD connected by optical fibre and connectors. Therefore the link budget
consist of light power source a light detector and various cable and connector losses. The
various losses are,

1. Cable losses: depend on cable length, material and material purity.

2. Connector losses: if the connection between two sections of cable is not perfect
light energy can escape resulting in reduction in optical power.

36
 3. Splicing loss: if more than one continuous section of cable is required cable
section can be fused together resulting in imperfections and thereby losses.

PROCEDURE
1. The transmitted powers, receiver sensitivity, coupling loss, attenuation loss,
system margin are given as input.
2. The output power loss, received power are calculated.
3. Output power, system margin are displayed.

OPTICAL LINK BUDGET

clc;
clear all;
close all;
disp('Optical Link Power Budget');
Po=input('Enter LED output power in mW:');
Lf=input('Enter the optical cable loss in dB:');
N=input('Enter the number of optical cable sections:');
L=input('Enter the length of each optical fiber section in Km:');
Lsf=input('Enter the light source to fiber interface loss in dB:');
Lfl=input('Enter the fiber to light detector loss in dB:');
LC=input('Enter the loss per connector in dB:');
%%
N_con=N-1; % Number connectors
Pout=10*log10(Po);
cab_len=N*L;
cab_loss=cab_len*Lf;
con_loss=3*LC;
tot_loss=cab_loss+con_loss+Lsc+Lcl;
Pr=Pout-tot_loss;
Pr_mW=0.001*10^(Pr/10);
sprintf('The received power is %d mW',Pr_mW)
sprintf('The received power is %d dBm',Pr)

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Formula
4𝜋𝑓𝑢 𝑑 𝑢
(
C/N)u=EIRPsat-20log⁡ ) +(𝐺/𝑇)𝑢 -10 log K-10 log B-Boi-loss (db)
𝑐
4𝜋𝑓 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(
C/N)d=EIRPsat-20log⁡ ) +(𝐺/𝑇)𝑑 -10 log K-10 log B-Boi-loss (db)
𝑐

(C/N)= carrier to noise ratio

37
 K=1.38*10-23-boltzman constant
Boi, Boo=TWTA input and output back off
EIRPsat=satellite saturation EIRP

PROCEDURE
1. The KU band satellite parameters such as receiver system noise temperature,
transponder BW, total output power, antenna gain are given as input.
2. Transmitting KU band, earth station parameters such as antenna diameter, aperture
diameter, uplink frequencies, and losses are given as input.
3. Receiving earth station parameter such as down link, frequency carrier if BW, noise
temperature are inputs.
4. Now KU band downlink is done and the respective downlink power budget is
calculated.

Satellite Link Budget:

clc;
clear all;
close all;
disp('Input Earth Station Parameters');
pt=input('Enter the earth station transmitter output power at dB:');
lbo=input('Enter the earth station back off loss:');
lbf=input('Enter the earth station branching and feeder loss:');
gt=input('Enter the earth station transmit antenna gain:');
lup=input('Enter the additional uplink atmospheric loss:');
lp=input('Enter the free space loss:');
GT=input('Enter the satellite receiver G/T ratio:');
rb=input('Enter the bit rate:');
B=input('Enter Bandwidth:');
disp('Input Satellite Parameter')
pt_sat=input('Enter the satellite transmitter output power at dB:');
lbo_sat=input('Enter the satellite back off loss:');
fb_sat=input('Enter the satellite branching and feeder losses:');
gt_sat=input('Enter the satellite transmit antenna gain:');
dl_sat=input('Enter the additional downlink atmospheric loss:');
lp_sat=input('Enter the free space loss:');
GT_sat=input('Enter the earth station receive antenna gain:');
nt=input('Enter the earth station equivalent noise temperature:');
GTr_sat=input('Enter the earth station receiver G/T ratio:');
rb_sat=input('Enter the bit rate:');
%% UPLINK BUDGET
EIRP_ES=pt+gt-lbo-lbf;
% carrier power density at the satellite antenna
c1=EIRP_ES-lp-lup;
CNo=c1+GT+228.601;
EbNo_u=CNo-(10*log10(rb));
CN_u=EbNo_u-(10*log10((B/rb)));

38
%% Downlink Budget
EIRP_sat=pt_sat+gt_sat-lbo_sat-fb_sat;
C1_sat=EIRP_sat-lp_sat-dl_sat;
CNo_sat=C1_sat+GTr_sat+228.601;
EbNo_d=CNo_sat-(10*log10(rb));
CN_d=EbNo_d-(10*log10((B/rb)));
%% Overall EBNO
EbNo_un=10^(EbNo_u/10);
EbNo_dn=10^(EbNo_d/10);
EbNo=(EbNo_un*EbNo_dn)/(EbNo_un+EbNo_dn);
EbNo=10*(log10(EbNo));
sprintf('Uplink Eb/No=%ddB',EbNo_u)
sprintf('Downlink Eb/No=%ddB',EbNo_d)
sprintf('Overall EbNo=%ddB',EbNo)

VIVA:
What are the calculations involved in link budget?
What are the factors that can be predicted using link budget design?
What is fading margin?
Define bit error to noise ratio?
Which factor adds phase noise to the signal?
What is EIRP?
What are the uplink and downlink frequencies in satellite communication?
Define antenna gain?
What is the relation between frequency and attenuation?

RESULT:
Thus the Microwave communication system, fibre optic communication system and
Satellite communication systems were designed using MATLAB.

39
 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF DIGITAL
Ex.No.8 MODULATION SCHEMES IN AWGN CHANNEL Date:

AIM

To write MATLAB programs to simulate the digital modulation schemes BPSK,

QPSK and 8 - PSK and study their BER performance in AWGN channels.

SOFTWARE USED

MATLAB

PROGRAM

clc;
clearall;
closeall;
M=2;
N=10^5;
data=randint(1,N,M);
mod_op=pskmod(data,M);
ber=[];
for snr=0:0.5:20
ch_op=awgn(mod_op,snr);
demod=pskdemod(ch_op,M);
b=symerr(data,demod);
ber=[ber b];
end
snr=0:0.5:20;
semilogy(snr,ber,'r*-','LineWidth',2);
holdon;
M=4;
N=10^5;
data=randint(1,N,M);
mod_op=pskmod(data,M);

40
ber=[];
for snr=0:0.5:20
ch_op=awgn(mod_op,snr);
demod=pskdemod(ch_op,M);
b=symerr(data,demod);
ber=[ber b];
end
snr=0:0.5:20;
semilogy(snr,ber,'mo-','LineWidth',2);
holdon;
M=8;
N=10^5;
data=randint(1,N,M);
mod_op=pskmod(data,M);
ber=[];
for snr=0:0.5:20
ch_op=awgn(mod_op,snr);
demod=pskdemod(ch_op,M);
b=symerr(data,demod);
ber=[ber b];
end
snr=0:0.5:20;
semilogy(snr,ber,'o-','LineWidth',2);
title('BER comparison of PSK Schemes');
xlabel('SNR in dB');
ylabel('Bit Error Rate');
gridon;
legend('BPSK','QPSK','8-PSK');

41
Output

5
BER comparison of PSK Schemes
10
BPSK
QPSK
8-PSK
4
10

3
10
Bit Error Rate

2
10

1
10

0
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
SNR in dB

VIVA:
1. Define BPSK?
2. Differentiate QPSK and PSK?
3. What are the significance of Additive White Gaussian Noise Channel?
4. What is the bandwidth of BPSK?
5. What is the phase difference between the two possible transmitted signals in BPSK?
6. Express the BPSK signal mathematically.
7. What type of receiver is used for the BPSK detection ? Synchronous or
asynchronous?
8. What is the role of bit synchronizer in the BPSK receiver ?
9. What is the disadvantage of the BPSK receiver ?
10. Express QPSK mathematically .

RESULT

Thus the digital modulation schemes BPSK, QPSK and 8 – PSK were simulated and
their performance characteristics were studied under AWGN channel.

42
 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF DIGITAL
MODULATION SCHEMES IN RAYLEIGH
Ex.No.9 Date:
FADING CHANNEL

AIM

To write MATLAB programs to simulate the BPSK modulation scheme and study its BER
performance in Rayleigh fading channel.

PROGRAM:

clc;
clearall;
closeall;
N=10^6; %Number of BPSK symbols to transmit
d=rand(1,N)>0.5; %binary data
x=2*d-1; %BPSK symbols 0->-1, 1->1
EbN0dB=-5:2:20; %Range of Eb/N0 values
simBER_rayleigh=zeros(1,length(EbN0dB));
fori=1:length(EbN0dB),
noise=1/sqrt(2)*(randn(1,N)+1i*randn(1,N)); %AWGN noise with mean=0 var=1
h=1/sqrt(2)*(randn(1,N)+1i*randn(1,N)); %Rayleigh Flat Fading factor- single tap
n = noise*10^(-EbN0dB(i)/20); %Scaling the noise for required Eb/N0
y_rayleigh=h.*x+n; %received signal through Rayleigh channel
%Coherent Receiver for Rayleigh Channel
y_rayleigh_cap=y_rayleigh./h; %Assuming that h is known at the signal accurately
r_rayleigh=real(y_rayleigh_cap)>0; %received symbols = 1 is real part > 0 or else it is 0
simBER_rayleigh(i)=sum(xor(d,r_rayleigh));
end
simBER_rayleigh=simBER_rayleigh/N;
%Theoretical BER;
EbN0=10.^(EbN0dB/10); %Eb/N0 in Linear Scale
theoretical_rayleigh=0.5*(1-sqrt(EbN0./(1+EbN0)));
semilogy(EbN0dB,simBER_rayleigh,'g*-','LineWidth',2);hold on;
semilogy(EbN0dB,theoretical_rayleigh,'ko','LineWidth',2); hold on
axis([-5 20 10^-5 1.2]);
legend('Simulated Rayleigh','Theoretical Rayleigh');
title('Eb/N0 Vs BER for BPSK over Rayleigh Channel');
xlabel('Eb/N0(dB)');
ylabel('Bit Error Rate or Symbol Error Rate');

43
Output:

Eb/N0 Vs BER for BPSK over Rayleigh Channel

0
10
Simulated Rayleigh
Theoretical Rayleigh
-1
10
Bit Error Rate or Symbol Error Rate

-2
10

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10
-5 0 5 10 15 20
Eb/N0(dB)

VIVA:
1. How many phases are transmitted in QPSK?
2. What is the phase difference between the adjacent messages in QPSK ?
3. What is the maximum phase change in QPSK?
4. What is the main advantage of M-ary PSK ?
5. Compare error probability of M-ary PSK and QPSK .
6. What is the bandwidth of M-ary PSK ?
7. What is the relation between M and N ?
8. What is the bandwidth of a 16-ary PSK system ?
9. Is the noise immunity of a 16 QAM is better than 16-ary PSK ? Justify?
10. Compare 16-QAM with QPSK on the basis of error rates .

RESULT

Thus the BER performance characteristics of BPSK modulation scheme under

Rayleigh fading channel is studied.

44
 MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION SYSYTEM
Ex.No.10 DESIGN USING MATLAB Date:

AIM

To design the Microwave communication system

SOFTWARE USED

MATLAB

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Formula used

Gs=Pt-Cmin(dB)

Where,

Gs= system gain

Pt=transmitted output power (dbm)

Cmin=minimum receiver input power for a given quality objective (dbm)

Gs ≥ Fm+Lp+Lf+Lb-At-Ar

Theory

System gain is the difference between the nominal output power of a

transmitter and the minimum input power to a receiver (Cmin) necessary to achieve
satisfactory performance. System gain must be greater than or equal to the sum of all gains
and losses in carried by a signal as it propagates from a transmitter to a receiver. In essence,
system gain represents the net loss of a radio system, which is used to predict the reliability of
a system for a given set of system parameter. The system gain is actually a loss, as the losses
signal experiences as it propagates from the transmitter to a receiver are much higher the
gains. Mathematically system gain in its simplest form is,

Gs=Pt-Cmin(dB)

Where,

Gs= system gain

Pt=transmitted output power (dbm)

Cmin=minimum receiver input power for a given quality objective (dbm)

45
 Gs ≥ Fm+Lp+Lf+Lb-At-Ar

At= transmitted antenna gain (db) relative to isotropic radiation

Ar = receiver antenna gain (db) relative to isotropic radiation

Lp= free space path loss between antenna (db)

Lf= wave guide feeder loss (db) between the distributed network and its
respective antenna

Lb= total coupling or branching loss (db)

Fm =fade margin for given reliability

Lp= (4Πd/λ) 2= (4Πd f/c) 2

D=distance in meters

F=frequency

λ =wavelength

c=3*108 m/s

Lp (db)=20 log 4 Π /c+20 log f+20 log d

Fm= 30 log d+10 log (6AB f)-10 log (1-R)-70

D=distance in km

F=frequency (Ghz)

R=reliability expressed as a decimal (i.e 99.99%=0.999 reliability)

A=roughness factor

A=4 (water or a very smooth terrain)

A=1(average terrain)

A=0.25(over a very rough, mountainous terrain)

B= factor to convert a worst month probability to annual probability

B=1 (annual availability to a worst month basic)

B=0.5 (hot humid area)

B=0.25 (average inland areas)

B=0.125 (very dry or mountainous areas)

46
PROCEDURE

1.The carrier frequency, the distance between stations and reliability are taken as

input.

2.The roughness factor, transmission factor losses, receiver feedback losses,

branching losses are obtained.

3.Fade margin, free space loss, system gain are computed using appropriate formula.

MICROWAVE LINK BUDGET

clc;

clear all;

close all;

disp('Transmit Station Parametres');

Pt=input('Enter transmitter output power in dBm:');

Lb=input('Enter the branching loss in dB:');

Lf=input('Enter the transmission line loss in dB:');

At=input('Enter the transmit antenna gain in dB:');

Lp=input('Enter free space path loss in dB:');

FM=input('Enter the fade margin:');

disp('Receive Station Parametres');

Ar=input('Enter receive antenna gain in dB:');

Lf_r=input('Enter transmission line loss in dB:');

Lb_r=input('Enter branching loss in dB:');

%system gain

Gs=FM+Lp+Lf+Lf_r+Lb+Lb_r-At-Ar;

47
 % received signal level

Pr=Pt-Gs;

Pr_mW=0.001*10^(Pr/10);

sprintf('The received power is %d mW',Pr_mW)

sprintf('The received power is %d dBm',Pr)

RESULT:

Thus, the Microwave communication system was designed using MATLAB.

48