Class: 4th Semester

Sub: Biology for Engineers (BBOC407)

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CELL: Introduction

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• Foundational knowledge in biological sciences, fostering a
holistic understanding of life sciences. Additionally, insights
into stem cells and biomolecules like enzymes, vitamins, and
hormones can be valuable, offering interdisciplinary
perspectives and potential applications in areas such as
bioinformatics, computational biology, and medical
technology, enhancing the student's ability to integrate
biological concepts into computer science advancements.
• Cells - Fundamental units of life, representing the smallest
structural and functional entities of living organisms.
• Life on Earth originates from the remarkable complexity and
organization of cells.
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The process of life formation can be simplified into several key
steps:
1. Cell Formation:  Life begins with the creation of cells, which
are the fundamental units of life.  Cells can be categorized as
prokaryotic (lacking a true nucleus) or eukaryotic (having a true
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles). Prokaryotic - bacteria,
have a simpler structure, while eukaryotic - plants, animals, and
fungi, exhibit greater complexity.
2. Cell Division:  Cells possess the ability to divide through
processes like mitosis and meiosis.  This division is essential
for the growth, development, and maintenance of living
organisms.
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3. Multicellularity:  Over time, cells evolve and organize into
multicellular structures.  Multicellularity leads to the formation
of specialized cell types with distinct functions, giving rise to
tissues, organs, and organ systems.
4. Differentiation:  Cells within multicellular organisms undergo
differentiation, acquiring specific structures and functions suited
to their roles.  This specialization enables cells to perform
specific tasks within the organism.
5. Organism Formation:  The collaboration of specialized cells,
tissues, and organs results in the formation of complete organisms.
 Various types of organisms, ranging from simple to complex,
emerge based on the organization and coordination of cells.
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6. Reproduction:  Organisms reproduce to pass on their genetic
information to the next generation.  Reproduction can occur
through various mechanisms, including sexual and asexual
reproduction.
7. Adaptation and Evolution:  Over generations, living organisms
undergo adaptation and evolution.  Genetic material within cells
can change through mutations and natural selection, leading to the
development of diverse species.
8. Ecological Interactions:  Organisms interact with their
environment and with each other in complex ecosystems.  These
interactions contribute to the balance of life and the sustainability
of ecosystems.
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CELL: SHAPES & SIZES

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ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

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 Structure of a cell
i. The Cell (Plasma) Membrane—Protective Coat
✔Outer lining of a cell.
✔Separates and protects from its surrounding
environment.
✔Made mostly from a double layer of proteins and
lipids.
✔Channels and pump like structures are embedded
within membrane which help for moving different
molecules into and out of the cell.

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 ii. Cytoskeleton—A Cell's Scaffold
✔Important, complex and dynamic cell component.
✔Responsible for organizing and maintaining the cell's shape along with organelles.
✔Proteins associated with the cytoskeleton, each controlling a cell’s structure by directing,
bundling and aligning filaments.

Cytoskeleton picture

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 iii. The Cytoplasm—A Cell's Inner Space
✔A large fluid-filled space inside the cell is cytoplasm sometimes called the cytosol.
✔Home of the cytoskeleton.
✔Contains many salts, dissolved nutrients, helps break down waste products & moves material around
the cell.
✔Excellent conductor of electricity, creating the perfect environment for the mechanics of the cell.
✔Changes its shape as nucleus often flows with the cytoplasm.
✔Residence for cell organelles.
✔ In prokaryotes, this space is relatively free of compartments.
✔In eukaryotes, the cytosol is the "soup" within which all of the cell's organelles reside.

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Nucleus (in Eukaryotic Cells): Houses genetic material (DNA) and controls cell
activities.
Organelles: Specialized structures with specific functions, e.g., mitochondria
for energy production.

Schematic of A Prokaryotic Cell Schematic Image of A Eukaryotic Cell

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Functions of a Cell

Cellular Respiration: Mitochondria generate energy (ATP)

through cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis (in Plant Cells): Chloroplasts convert sunlight
into energy in the form of glucose.
DNA Replication and Cell Division: Nucleus controls
replication and division, crucial for growth and repair.
Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes synthesize proteins using genetic
information.

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 Stem Cells and their Application
• Stem cells are unique cells with the remarkable ability to
develop into various specialized cell types in the body. They
play a crucial role in growth, tissue repair, and maintaining the
body's overall health.
Types of Stem Cells
• Embryonic Stem Cells: Derived from embryos, these cells have
the potential to become any cell type in the body.
• Adult or Somatic Stem Cells: Found in various tissues, they
specialize in generating cells specific to their tissue of origin.
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 Applications
• Regenerative Medicine
– Tissue Repair: Regenerate damaged or diseased tissues,
aiding in organ repair.
– Orthopedic Treatments: Applied in bone and joint disorders
for enhanced healing.
• Treatment of Diseases
– Blood Disorders: Treating conditions like leukemia and
anemia.
– Neurological Disorders: Research explores their potential for
treating conditions like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
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• Drug Development and Testing
– Valuable model for testing new drugs, predicting their
effects on human cells.
• Understanding Disease Mechanisms
– Studying stem cells provides insights into the development
and progression of diseases.
• Cell-Based Therapies
– Foundation for developing cell-based therapies, addressing
various medical conditions.
• Personalized Medicine
– Tailoring treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup,
utilizing stem cells for personalized therapies. 17
 Challenges
• Controlling Cell Differentiation: Ensuring precise control over
the differentiation of stem cells into specific cell types is a
significant scientific challenge.
• Genetic Stability: Maintaining the genetic stability of stem cells
during their cultivation and manipulation is essential. Unwanted
genetic mutations or abnormalities can pose risks when the cells
are used for therapeutic purposes.
• Tumor Formation: There is a concern about the potential for
stem cells to form tumors, particularly in the case of embryonic
stem cells.
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• Immunological Rejection: When using stem cells for
transplantation, there is a risk of the recipient's immune system
recognizing the cells as foreign and mounting an immune
response. This necessitates strategies to address
immunological compatibility and reduce the risk of rejection.

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 Ethical Considerations
• Source of Stem Cells:
– Concern: Using embryonic stem cells raises ethical questions
because it involves destroying embryos.
– Debate: People discuss the ethical aspects related to the sanctity
of human life.
– Challenge: Balancing scientific progress with ethical principles
is an ongoing challenge.
• Informed Consent:
– Importance: Informed and voluntary consent.
– Communication: Transparently communicating risks, benefits,
and the experimental nature of treatments. 20
• Global Regulations:
– Issue: Stem cell research lacks consistent global regulations.
– Variation: Oversight and ethical standards vary across
regions.
– Need: Creating universal guidelines is vital for responsible
and ethical practices.
• Commercialization and Access:
– Concern: Making stem cell therapies a business may raise
worries about affordability and access.
– Ethical Focus: Ensuring fair access without worsening
social and economic gaps is an ethical consideration.
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 Introduction to Biomolecules:
• Essential molecules that make up the building blocks of life.
• Role in the structure and functioning of living organisms.
Importance of Biomolecules:
• Carbohydrates: Fueling various cellular processes, supporting
growth, and facilitating quick energy release.
• Nucleic Acids: Fundamental for inheritance, genetic diversity,
and the synthesis of proteins essential for life processes.
• Proteins: Regulation of biological processes, cellular structure,
and the catalysis of biochemical reactions.
• Lipids: Maintaining cell integrity, providing a protective
barrier, and serving as reserve energy sources. 22
 Carbohydr
ates compounds that play a crucial role in biology.
✔Organic
✔Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O)
atoms.
✔General formula is Cn(H2O)n.

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Classification

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Classification cont.

• Simplest form • Condensation of two • Long chains of

• Easily soluble in water monosaccharides monosaccharides linked
and serve as the • Found in sugar and are together.
primary source of broken down into • Serve as storage molecules
energy for the body monosaccharides for energy, such as
during digestion. glycogen in animals and
starch in plants
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Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates
Food and Beverage: Sweeteners,
thickeners, stabilizers, sports drinks &
energy bars.
Pharmaceuticals: To improve the
stability, solubility, and
bioavailability of drugs.
Cosmetics: moisturizers, shampoos &
conditioners.
Biotechnology: Production of
biodegradable plastics, biofuels &
other renewable energy sources.
Research: Fields of immunology,
virology & cellular biology.
Ligands in protein-carbohydrate
interactions
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1.2 Nucleic Acids
Biopolymers that play a crucial role in the storage and transfer of genetic information in all
living organisms.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) & Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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 1.3 Proteins
Large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building
blocks called amino acids.
Vital role in the structure, function and regulation of cells, tissues
and organs.
Functions of Proteins
1) Catalyzing chemical reactions
Amylase, Lipase, Catalase, Trypsin, ATP synthase.
2) Transporting molecules
Hemoglobin, Albumin, Transferrin, Apolipoproteins, Ferritin, Glut transporters.
3)Providing mechanical support
Collagen, Elastin, Keratin, Actin and Myosin, Tubulin, Laminin.
4) Regulating cell behavior
Receptor proteins, Enzymes, Cytoskeleton proteins, Transcription factors, Adhesion proteins, Ion
channels.

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 Lipids
• Organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and some
hormones

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Properties and Functions of Carbohydrates
Properties
• Chemical Composition:
– Composition: Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of
1:2:1.
– Monomers: Basic building blocks of carbohydrates are monosaccharides,
such as glucose and fructose.
• Solubility:
– Water Solubility: Most carbohydrates are soluble in water due to their
hydrophilic nature.
• Classification:
– Simple and Complex: Classified into simple sugars (monosaccharides and
disaccharides) and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides).
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Functions
• Energy Source:
– Primary Role: Primary source of energy for living organisms.
– Conversion: Monosaccharides are converted into ATP, the energy
currency of cells.
• Energy Storage:
– Glycogen (in Animals): Excess glucose is stored in the form of glycogen
in animals, primarily in the liver and muscles.
– Starch (in Plants): Plants store surplus glucose as starch in various plant
tissues.
• Structural Support:
– Cellulose (in Plants): Contribute to the structural support of plant cell
walls through the formation of cellulose.
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• Transport of Energy:
– Sucrose: Sucrose facilitate the transport of energy in the form
of sugars within plants.
• Quick Energy Release:
– Glucose: Rapid breakdown of glucose provides quick energy
for cellular processes.
• Metabolic Regulation:
– Blood Sugar Regulation: Regulating blood sugar levels,
ensuring a steady energy supply.

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Properties of Nucleic Acids
• Polymer Structure: Nucleic acids are polymers composed of nucleotide
monomers linked together.
• Nucleotide Composition: Each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
• Sequence Specificity: Sequence of nitrogenous bases along the nucleic
acid chain is specific and carries genetic information.
• Double Helix (DNA): DNA has a double-helix structure, where two
strands wind around each other.
• Single-Stranded (RNA): RNA is usually single-stranded, with various
types like mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
• Genetic Code: Nucleic acids encode the genetic information that
determines the traits and characteristics of living organisms.
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• Complementary Base Pairing: In DNA, adenine pairs with
thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming
complementary base pairs.
• Role in Protein Synthesis: Nucleic acids facilitate protein
synthesis by carrying and translating genetic instructions.
• Essential for Heredity: Nucleic acids are vital for the
inheritance of genetic traits from one generation to the next.
• Cellular Regulation: Participate in regulating cellular
processes, gene expression, and various metabolic activities.

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Functions of Nucleic Acids
• Genetic Information Storage: Nucleic acids, particularly DNA, store and
carry genetic information that dictates the hereditary characteristics of
living organisms.
• Protein Synthesis: Nucleic acids, through the process of transcription and
translation, play a crucial role in the synthesis of proteins, the building
blocks of cells.
• Cellular Regulation: They participate in the regulation of various cellular
processes, controlling gene expression and influencing the overall
functioning of cells.
• Hereditary Transmission: Responsible for transmitting hereditary traits
from parents to offspring, ensuring the continuity of genetic information.
• Transfer of Genetic Code: RNA, a type of nucleic acid, carries the genetic
code from DNA to the ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs.
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• Enzymatic Activities: Some nucleic acids, like ribosomes, exhibit
enzymatic activities, participating in biochemical reactions within cells.
• Energy Transfer: Nucleic acids contribute to the transfer and storage of
energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule crucial for
cellular energy currency.
• Cellular Signaling: Certain nucleic acids are involved in cellular signaling
pathways, influencing responses to external stimuli and environmental
changes.
• Maintenance of Cell Structure: Contribute to the maintenance and
integrity of cell structures, influencing cell division and growth.
• Synthesis of Biomolecules: Synthesis of various biomolecules,
contributing to the overall structure and function of living organisms.

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Properties of Proteins
• Structure:
– Proteins exhibit a complex three-dimensional structure determined by
their amino acid sequence.
– They have primary, secondary (alpha helix, beta sheet), tertiary, and
quaternary structural levels.
• Composition:
– Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
– The specific arrangement of amino acids dictates the protein's structure
and function.
• Solubility:
– Proteins can vary in solubility, with some being soluble in water
(hydrophilic) and others in lipids (hydrophobic).
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• Denaturation:
– Can undergo denaturation due to factors like heat, pH changes, or
chemicals, resulting in loss of structure and function.
• Specificity:
– Exhibit specificity in their interactions, with each type designed for a
particular function or molecular interaction.
• Biological Functions:
– Serve diverse biological roles, including enzymes for catalysis,
antibodies for immune response, and structural proteins for support.
• Flexibility:
– Proteins can change their conformation to adapt to different
biological environments and perform their functions.
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• Binding and Recognition:
– Proteins can bind to other molecules, facilitating cellular processes
such as signaling and transport.
• Catalytic Activity:
– Many proteins act as enzymes, accelerating biochemical reactions
within cells.
• Diversity:
– The diversity of proteins allows them to carry out a wide range of
functions critical to cellular life.

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 Functions of Proteins with Examples
• Enzymatic Activity:
– Example: Catalase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
• Structural Support:
– Example: Collagen provides structural support to connective tissues in
skin, bones, and tendons.
• Transportation:
– Example: Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues and
carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
• Defense and Immunity:
– Example: Antibodies defend against pathogens by recognizing
and neutralizing foreign substances.
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• Cell Signaling:
– Example: Insulin is a signaling protein that regulates glucose uptake by cells.
• Motion and Contraction:
– Example: Actin and myosin are proteins involved in muscle contraction and
cell movement.
• Hormonal Regulation:
– Example: Insulin and glucagon are hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.
• Storage of Molecules:
– Example: Ferritin stores iron in a soluble and non-toxic form in cells.
• Catalysis of Metabolic Reactions:
– Example: Lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of lipids during
digestion.

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• Regulation of Gene Expression:
– Example: Transcription factors regulate the expression of genes during
protein synthesis.
• Sensory Response:
– Example: Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive protein involved in vision.
• Blood Clotting:
– Example: Fibrinogen is a protein involved in the blood clotting cascade.
• Buffering and pH Regulation:
– Example: Hemoglobin helps maintain the pH balance in red blood cells.
• Energy Source:
– Example: In starvation, proteins can be broken down into amino acids
for energy production.

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 What are Enzymes?
• Chemicals found in living organisms that serve as catalysts.
They aid in controlling the pace of a chemical reaction while
remaining unaffected by the process.
• Complex nitrogenous organic molecules that are created by
living plants and animals. They are generated when amide or
peptide bonds connect a long chain of one or more amino
acids.
• Enzymes are categorized into distinct categories based on their
structure and characteristics. Enzymes function in a certain
way (Lock-and-Key mechanism and Enzyme Fit Hypothesis).
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Examples:
• Lipases: Aid in the digestion of lipids in the intestine.
• Amylase –Conversion of carbohydrates to sugars.
• Maltase –Salivary enzyme that converts the sugar maltose to
glucose.
• Trypsin – It is a protein-degrading enzyme found in the small
intestine that breaks down proteins into amino acids.
• Lactase –Located in the small intestine, this enzyme converts
lactose, the sugar present in milk, into glucose and galactose.

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Properties
• Enzymes are complex macromolecules with a high molecular
weight, and they are specific in action.
• Work best at certain pH levels and temperatures, and enzymatic
activity decreases with increasing temperature.

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Function of Enzymes
• Helps in the metabolism and breakdown of major food
molecules such as protein, carbs, and lipids into little particles
that the body may utilize as fuel.
• Enzymes have inorganic and vitamin components that aid in
their activity. They work as a prosthetics team. Hormones, on
the other hand, do not have such prosthetic groups.
• Speed up metabolic and physiological processes. They also help
with metabolic functions including digestion. Because enzymes
function is dependent on the presence of a substrate, their
primary job is to attack it.
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What is a hormone?
• Organic substances generated in animal bodies that operate as chemical
messengers to regulate various activities and behaviour.
• In 1905, the name “hormone” was derived from the Greek word “hormon,”
which means “to move or set in motion.”
• They are signalling molecules that deliver messages to cells to perform
their functions.
• Released by Endocrine glands, which are also known as ductless glands
since they are secreted directly into the circulation rather than through
ducts.
• The pituitary gland, thymus, pineal gland, thyroid, pancreas, testes, and
ovaries are the primary endocrine glands in the body.
• Even minute amounts of hormones released by these glands can cause
profound and obvious changes in the human body.
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Examples:
• Insulin: Fat-storage hormone, is secreted by pancreas and controls
several metabolic processes.
• Testosterone: It is a type of sexual hormone that is produced in both
the male testicles and the female ovaries.
• Cortisol: The stress hormone is called cortisol. It’s a natural warning
system that lets you know when you’re in danger. While high
cortisol levels might be beneficial when you need to be alert to
impending danger, they can also cause anxiety, weight gain,
headaches, heart difficulties, irritability, brain fog, and sleep
disruptions.

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Properties
• 1. Hormones are secreted from their source (an endocrine gland) directly
into the blood.
2. They regulate the physiological processes by chemical means. They
affect the enzyme systems of the body.
3. They act on target organs or cells usually away from the source.
4. Hormones produced in one species usually show similar influence in
other species.
5. They are produced in very small quantities and are biologically very
active.
6. Chemically, some hormones are peptides, amines or steroids.
7. Their excess (hypersecretion) or deficiency (hyposecretion), both may
lead to serious consequences.
8. Hormones are not stored in the body and are excreted from the body.
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Functions of Hormone
• Utilized to communicate with one another. To start, the level of hormones
released is regulated between two endocrine glands. The function of the
endocrine gland is to release a hormone that communicates with the target
organ.
• Because the function is based mostly on positive and negative feedback, the
major duty is to attack cells or tissues. They help in the control of
morphogenesis, such as sexually dimorphic features.
• Involved in sexual growth and function, as well as the regulation of heat
and energy in the body, the growth and development of organs and tissues,
and the internal balance of water and ion concentration.

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Vitamins
• Organic molecules that serve as an essential nutrient for most living
organisms for the smooth functioning of their metabolism.
• Vitamins are the compounds that people need in less quantities.
• Our body does not produce vitamins on its own. Vitamins are to be
obtained from the food we eat.
• Vitamins are essential because they prevent various health issues. If the
body lacks any vitamin, it may develop a deficiency and a related disease.
• Vitamin requirements vary with different organisms. For example, dogs can
produce their vitamin C they need, but humans need to acquire that from
their diet.

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Fat-soluble vitamins
• Some of the vitamins are soluble in fat. Vitamin A, K, E and D.
The body will store the fat-soluble vitamins in the liver and other
fatty tissues. The body will absorb the fat-soluble vitamins in the
intestines.
Water-soluble vitamins
• These types of vitamins dissolve in the water. They don’t stay in
the body as long as fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamins like vitamin C
and B are water-soluble vitamins.

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Functions
• Help the body maintain good health
• Regulating the tissues and help in repairing cells
• Fight against ageing
• Formation of new cells
• Keeping bones, teeth and nails healthy.
• Help the muscles and ligaments function smoothly.

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