STOICHIOMETRY

CHM 111
3 Units
Instructor: DR Etchie A. T.
E-mail: [email protected]

1
 Outline
2
 What is stoichiometry?
 The law of conservation of energy
 Mole concept
 Avogadro’s number
 Chemical formula
 Percentage elemental composition of chemical formulas
 Calculating Empirical Formula from Percentage
Composition
 Chemical Equations
 Stoichiometric Calculations
 What is stoichiometry
3
 Stoichiometry is the theory of the proportions in
which chemical species combine with one
another, i.e. the calculation of the quantities of
reactants or products involved in a chemical
reaction.

 The importance of stoichiometry can be

appreciated by visualizing industrial operations
that process hundreds or thousands of tons of
chemicals per day.
4

 Stoichiometry is the mathematics of

balanced chemical reactions.
 It is by using stoichiometry that chemical
engineers can determine how much of each of
the chemicals they need to yield a given amount
of products.
 The use of the mole in chemical reactions allows us
to relate substances that have nothing else in
common.
5
Example of processes based on stoichiometry
 In tooth paste industry: addition of stannous fluoride, SnF 2 , to
tooth paste to prevent the tooth decay;
 Soft drink industry uses aspartame, a sugar substitute, in soft
drinks;
 Synthesis of aspirin in pharmaceutical industry;
 Production of the bleaching agent, calcium hypochlorite, from
sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and chlorine in detergent
industry;
 Manufacture of polyethylene (which is found in some milk
cartons) in polymer industry;
 Removal of dangerous mercury compounds from industrial
waste in environmental chemistry.
 The list could go on. Each one of these products requires
stoichiometry
6

 Accurate estimates are required to

prevent/minimize waste and maximize
profits.

 Stoichiometric calculations are based

upon the law of conservation of mass.
7 The law of conservation of
mass

 States that:

 The total mass of reactants in a chemical

reaction equals the total mass of
products; matter is neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions.
8 Mole concept
 The key to doing stoichiometric calculations is
based on the mole concept.

 Mole concept states that:

The relative masses (or number of moles,
number of atoms, or molecules) of the
participants in a designated chemical
reaction remain the same, regardless of the
overall quantities of reaction participants.

 The mole describes the most fundamental

characteristics of matter – the “quantity”.
9
 A mole is defined as the quantity of substance
that contains the same number of specified
entities as there are atoms of C in exactly 12 g of
carbon-12.

 The mole is based upon the number of particles or

entities in a substance. These may be:
molecules of an element or compound
atoms of an element
atoms of a specified element in a
particular mass of a compound
ions in a compound.
10

 In expressing moles, it is essential to state clearly

the entity being described, such as atoms: Si,
molecules: F2, molecules: H2O, or ions: Na+.

 A mole of an entity contains Avogadro’s

number, 6.02 x 1023, of that entity.
11
 The mass of a mole (molar mass) of an element,
compound, or portion of a compound (such as
the SO42- ion in Na2SO4) is the mass in grams and it
equal numerically to the atomic mass, molecular
mass, or formula mass.

 For example, given 23.0, 32.1, and 16.0 g for the

atomic masses of Na, S, and O, respectively, the
following can be stated:
12

(a) a mole of Na atoms has a mass of 23.0 g,

(b) a mole of Na2SO4 has a mass of 2 x 23.0 + 32.1 + 4 x
16.0 = 142.1 g,
(c) a mole of SO42- ions has a mass of 32.1 + 4 x 16.0 =
96.1 g.

Number of moles of substance =

13

 It is easier to specify the quantity of a

substance equivalent to its number of moles,

For examples:

 For a mole of argon:

Argan always exists as individual Ar atom, with
atomic mass of Ar is 40.0.
We can therefore say that exactly one mole of
Ar is 40.0 grams of argon.
14

 For a mole of molecular elemental hydrogen,

H2: the atomic mass of H is 1.0, the molecular
mass of H2 is, therefore, 2.0, and a mole of H2
is 2.0 g of H2.

 For a mole of methane, CH4; the atomic mass

of H is 1.0 and that of C is 12.0, so the
molecular mass of CH4 is 16.0. Therefore a
mole of methane has a mass of 16.0 g.
15

 Avogadro’s number is the number of specified

entities in a mole of substance.
 Avogadro’s number = 6.02 × 1023.

 The “specified entities” may consist of atoms or

molecules or they may be groups of ions making
up the smallest possible unit of an ionic
compound, such as two Na+ ions and one S2- ion
in Na2S
16

 (It is not really correct to refer to Na2S as a

molecule because the compound consists of ions
arranged in a crystalline structure such that there
are 2 Na+ ions for each S2- ion).

 A general term that covers all these possibilities is

the formula unit.
 The average mass of a formula unit is called the
formula mass.
 Chemical Formulas
17

 A chemical compound is a substance that

consists of atoms of two or more different
elements bonded together.

 In the chemical formula for water (H2O),

the letters H and O are the chemical
symbols of the two elements in the
compound and
the subscript 2 indicates that there are 2 H
atoms per O atom.
18

 The absence of a subscript after the O

denotes the presence of just one O atom
in the molecule.

 Each of the chemical bonds holding a

hydrogen atom to the oxygen atom in the
water molecule is composed of two
electrons shared between the hydrogen
and oxygen atoms.
19

 To best illustrate all of the information

contained in a chemical formula, consider
an example of calcium phosphate,
Ca3(PO4)2.

 This compound is composed of Ca2+ ions,

each of which has a +2 charge, and
phosphate ions, PO43-, each with a -3
charge.
20

 The 4 oxygen atoms and the phosphorus atom

in the phosphate ion are held together with
covalent bonds.

 The calcium and phosphate ions are bonded

together ionically in a lattice composed of
these two kinds of ions.

 Therefore, both ionic and covalent bonds are

involved in calcium phosphate.
 Percentage elemental composition
21
from chemical formulas

 A chemical formula could be represented by its

empirical formula or by its molecular formula.
 The empirical formula gives the lowest whole number
values of atoms in the formula.
 This may not be the same as the molecular formulas
of substances that exist as molecules.
 Molecular formulas show the total number of each
kind of atom in a molecule.
22

 For example, the empirical formula of

benzene, one of the hydrocarbons with good
engine performance properties in gasoline, is
CH.

 However, each molecule of benzene contains

6 C atoms and 6 H atoms, so the molecular
formula is C6H6, illustrating the true number of
each of the two kinds of atoms in the
molecule.
23
 The percentage elemental composition of a
chemical compound is readily calculated from
either its empirical formula or molecular formula.

One way to calculate the percentage composition of

a compound is to:
 consider a mole of the compound and
figure out the number of grams of each
element in 1 mole of the compound,
then calculate the percentages.
24

 Example 1: What is the percentage elemental

composition of glucose (blood sugar),
molecular formula: C6H12O6?
 Answer: The subscripts indicate that each mole of
25
glucose contains 6 mol C, 12 mol H, and 6 mol O.
The mass of each element in a mole of glucose
and the mass of a mole of glucose are given by
the following:

.
For C: 6 mol × = 72.06 g

.
For H: 12 mol × = 12.12 g ·

.
For O: 6 mol × = 96.00 g
26
Molar mass of glucose = 180.18 g (per mol)

The percentage of each element in glucose is

given as follows:
.
Percent C: × 100 = 40.0%
.

.
Percent H: × 100 = 6.7%
.

.
Percent O: × 100 = 53.3%
.
27 Example 2: What is the percentage elemental
composition of calcium oxalate, CaC2O4?

Answer: Exactly 1 mole of CaC2O4 contains 1 mol

Ca, 2 mol C and 4 mol O. Therefore,

.
For Ca: 1 mol × = 40.08 g

.
For C: 2 mol × = 24.02 g

.
For O: 4 mol × = 64.00 g
28

Molar mass CaC2O4 = 128.10 g (per mol)

.
Percent Ca: × 100 = 31.29%
.

.
Percent C: × 100 = 18.75%
.

.
Percent O: × 100 = 49.96%
.
29
Calculating Empirical Formula
from Percentage Composition

 Example 1: Suppose that the only two elements

in a compound are phosphorus and oxygen
and that it is 43.64% P and 56.36% O by mass.

 Answer: The following steps can be used to find

the empirical formula of the compound:
 From the percentages, it follows that for each
100 grams of compound there are 43.64 g of P
and 56.36 g of O.
30

The number of moles of each of these elements in

exactly 100 g of the compound is calculated
from the number of grams of each per mole of
compound as follows:

1
43.64 × = 1.409
30.97

1
56.36 × = 3.523
16.00
31
 Calculate the relative number of moles of O per
mole of P.

. .
 =
. .

 Calculate the ratio of moles of O to moles of P in

terms of whole numbers.
 The denominator of the ratio (2.500 mol O/1.000
mol P) is already a whole number, and the
numerator can be converted to a whole
number (5) if it is multiplied by 2.
32

Therefore, both the numerator and the

denominator are multiplied by 2 to get the
whole number ratio,

2.500 2 5.000
× =
1.000 2 2.000

Knowing the ratio of moles, write the

empirical formula of the compound, as P2O5
  The empirical formula does not necessarily give the
33
actual number of atoms per molecule;
 it gives the smallest whole number ratio for the
number of each kind of atom in the molecule.

 The molecular formula of this compound is P4O10,

indicating that a molecule of it contains twice the
number of each kind of atom indicated by the
empirical formula.

 The correct name of the compound is

tetraphosphorus decoxide.
 It is made commercially by burning elemental
phosphorus in dry air.
34
Example 2: Consider that a compound used as
inert filler in laundry detergent was found by
chemical analysis to be 32.59% Na, 22.74% S, and
44.67% O. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?

Answer:
According to the percentages given, there are
32.59 g of Na, 22.74 g of S and 44.67 g of O in
100.0 g of the compound. Using the appropriate
atomic masses gives the following number of
moles of each element in 100 g of the
compound:
35

1
32.59 × = 1.418
22.99

1
22.74 × = 0.7093
32.06

1
44.67 × = 2.792
16.00
 Of the three elements present, the element with
36 the least number of moles is sulphur.
Therefore, the ratios of the number of moles of
each of the other elements relative to a mole S is
calculated:

1.418 1.999
=
0.7093 1.000

2.792 3.936
=
0.7093 1.000
37

 Examination of the results above shows that,

rounding 1.999 to 2 and 3.936 to 4, there are 2
moles of Na and 4 moles of O per mole of S,
leading to the empirical formula, Na2SO4. This
compound is called sodium sulfate.
 Tutorial questions on calculating empirical
38
formula
 A compound was analyzed and found to contain 13.5 g
Ca, 10.8 g O, and 0.675 g H. What is the empirical
formula of the compound?
 What is the empirical formula of a compound containing
60.0% sulfur and 40.0% oxygen by mass?
 A compound is found to contain 23.3% magnesium,
30.7% sulfur and 46.0% oxygen. What is the empirical
formula of this compound?
 What is the empirical formula for a compound
containing 38.8% carbon, 16.2% hydrogen and 45.1%
nitrogen?
 What is the empirical formula for a compound
containing 26.57% potassium, 35.36% chromium, and
38.07% oxygen?
39 Chemical Equations

 A chemical equation is a means of expressing

what happens when a chemical reaction occurs.

 A chemical reaction is a process involving the

breaking and/or formation of chemical bonds and
a change in the chemical composition of the
materials participating in the reaction.

 A chemical equation tells what reacts, what is

produced, and the relative quantities of each.
40 The information provided can best be understood
by examining a typical chemical equation.

 For example, consider the burning of propane, a

gas extracted from petroleum that is widely used
for heating, cooking, grain drying, and other
applications in which a clean-burning fuel is
needed in areas where piped natural gas is not
available.
41

 When propane burns in a camp stove, it

reacts with oxygen in the air. The chemical
equation for this reaction and the information
in it are the following:

+ 5 →3 + 4
 Propane reacts with oxygen to give carbon
dioxide and water.
42

 There are two reactants on the left side of the

equation—propane, chemical formula C3H8 and
oxygen, chemical formula O2.

 There are two products on the right side of the

equation – carbon dioxide, chemical formula CO2,
and water, chemical formula H2O.
43

 For the smallest possible unit of this

reaction,
 1 propane molecule reacts with 5 oxygen
(O) molecules to produce 3 carbon
dioxide molecules and 4 water molecules,
as shown by the respective numbers
preceding the chemical formulas (there is
understood to be a 1 in front of the C3H8).
44  There are 3 C atoms altogether on the left side of
the equation, all contained in the C3H8
molecule, and 3 C atoms on the right side
contained in 3 molecules of CO2.

 There are 8 H atoms among the reactants, all in

the C3H8 molecule, and 8 H atoms among the 4
molecules of H2O in the product.

 There are 10 O atoms in the 5 O molecules on

the left side of the equation and 10 O atoms on
the right side. The 10 O atoms in the products are
present in 3 CO2 molecules and 4 H2O molecules.
 Like mathematical equations, the left side of a
45 chemical equation must be equivalent to the
right side.

A correctly written chemical equation has

equal numbers of each kind of atom on both
sides of the equation.

 As was just seen, the chemical equation

being discussed has 3 carbon atoms, 8
hydrogen atoms and 10 oxygen atoms on
both the left and right sides of the equation.
Therefore, the equation is balanced.


  Balancing a chemical equation is a very
46 important operation called stoichiometric
calculations.

 The stoichiometric equation of a chemical

reaction is a statement of the relative
number of molecules or moles of reactants
and products that participate in the reaction.

 A valid stoichiometric equation must be

balanced; that is, the number of atoms of
each atomic species must be the same on
both sides of the equation, since atoms can
neither be created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions.
47
 Balancing a chemical equation is accomplished
by placing the correct number in front of each
formula in the chemical equation. However, the
following must be remembered:

 Only the numbers in front of the chemical

formulas may be changed to balance a
chemical equation.
 The chemical formulas, themselves, (subscript
numbers) may not be changed in balancing the
equation.
48  As an example of how to balance a chemical
equation:

Consider the reaction of hydrogen sulfide gas

(H2S) with sulfur dioxide (SO2) to yield elemental
sulfur (S) and water (H2O).

This reaction is the basis of the Claus process by

which commercially valuable elemental sulfur is
recovered from pollutant sulfur dioxide and from
toxic hydrogen sulfide in “sour” natural gas.
49

 The steps used in balancing the equation

are the following:

 Write the correct formulas of the reactants

and products on either side of the
equation. These must remain the same
throughout the balancing process.

+ → +
50

 Choose an element to balance initially,

preferably one that is contained in only one
reactant and one product. In this case,
oxygen may be chosen.

 The 2 oxygen atoms in the SO molecule on the

left may be balanced by placing a 2 in front of
the H2O product.

+ → + 2
51
 Choose another element in one of the formulas
involved in the preceding operation and balance
it on both sides of the equation. In this case, the H
in H2O can be balanced by placing a 2 in front of
H2S.

+ 2 → + 2

 Proceed to the remaining element. So far, sulphur

has not yet been considered.
 There are 3 sulfur atoms on the left, contained in 1
SO2 molecule and 2 H2S molecules.
52
 However, sulphur can be balanced by
placing a 3 in front of the S product.

+ 2 →3 + 2

 Add up the numbers of each kind of element

on both sides of the equation to see if they
balance. In this case, it is seen that there are
3 S atoms, 4 H atoms, and 2 O atoms on both
sides, so that the equation is, in fact,
balanced.
53

Example 2:
 Aluminum phosphide (AlP) was combusted
in a moist atmosphere to give aluminum
oxide, (Al2O3) and phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
The unbalanced equation for this reaction is:

+ + → +
54
Answer:
 Balance Al:
2 + + → +
 Balance P:
2 + + → + 2
 Balance H:
2 + + 3 → + 2
 Balance O:
2 + 4 + 3 → + 2
55

 Check each element for balance:

Reactants Products
2 Al in 2 AlP 2 Al in 1 Al2O3
11 O in 4O2 and 3H2O 11 O in 1 Al2O3 and 2 H3PO4
6 H in 3 H2O 6 H in 2 H3PO4
56  Summary of Steps in Balancing an Equation
 Keep in mind that there is a limit to the
usefulness of following a set of rules for this
procedure.
 Ultimately, it is a matter of experience and
good judgment.
 In general, the best sequence of steps to take
are the following:

• Express the equation in words representing

the compounds, elements, and (where
present) the ions participating in the
reaction.
57 • Write down the correct formulas of all the
reactants and all the products.

• Examine the unbalanced equation for groups of

atoms, such as those in the SO4 ion, that go
through the reaction intact.

• Balancing is simplified by considering these

atoms as a group.

 Examine the unbalanced equation for diatomic

molecules, such as O2, whose presence may
require doubling the numbers in front of the other
reaction participants.
58  Choose an element, preferably one that is found
in only one reactant and one product, and
balance that element by placing the appropriate
numbers in front of both the reactants and
products involved.

 Balance another element that appears in one of

the species balanced in the preceding step.

 Continue the balancing process, one element at

a time, until all the elements have been
balanced.
59

 Ensure that the same number of atoms of each

element appears on both sides of the equation

 Ensure that charges from charged species in the

equation also balance on the left and right.
60
 Question?
Balance the equation of reaction between Lead (IV)
hydroxide and sulfuric acid.

 First, balance the sulphate ion, by putting 2 before

sulphuric acid on the reactant side
 Balance O and H atoms by putting 4 before water
on the product side
 A balance d equation is:
61

Question?
 Consider the equation for the rusting of iron
in air
Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
 Balance the oxygen the oxide formed by
adding 3 before O on the reactant side
and 2 before the product
 Then balance iron by adding 4 before the
iron on the reactant side
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
62

 Question?
Balance the following equation

Balance perchlorate ion by putting 3 before

perchloric acid
Balance the H and O by putting 3 before
water molecule at reactant side
A balanced equation is …….
63

 Questions
 Write the balanced chemical equations of each
reaction:

a. Calcium carbide (CaC2) reacts with water to

form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and acetylene
gas (C2H2).

b. When potassium chlorate (KClO3) is heated, it

decomposes to form KCl and oxygen gas (O2).
 Stoichiometric Calculations
64
The Mole Ratio Method
 In a chemical reaction, there is a definite ratio
between the number of moles of a particular
reactant or product and the number of moles of
any other reactant or product.

 These ratios are readily seen by simply

examining the coefficients in front of the
reaction species in the chemical equation.

 Normally, a stoichiometric calculation is made

to relate the quantities of only two of the
reaction participants.
65

 The objective may be to figure out how much of

one reactant will react with a given quantity of
another reactant.

 Or, a particular quantity of a product may be

desired, so that it is necessary to calculate the
quantity of a specific reactant needed to give the
amount of product.
66  To perform stoichiometric calculations involving
only two reaction participants,
it is necessary only to know the relative number
of moles of each and their molar masses.

 The most straightforward type of stoichiometric

calculation is the mole ratio method.

 The mole ratio method is a means of performing

stoichiometric calculations based upon the
constant ratios of the numbers of moles of various
reactants and products regardless of the overall
quantity of reaction taking place.
67
( )
. = 1
( )

( )
. = 2
( )

. ( , , )
. = 3
68

. = × ( ) 4

( )
= 5
( )
69

 Example 1:
Hydrogen gas (H2) reacts with carbon monoxide
gas (CO) to produce methane (CH4), a
methanation reaction used in the petroleum and
synthetic fuels industry for the manufacture of
non-polluting synthetic natural gas. Calculate
the mass of H2 required to produce 4.00 g of CH4.
70 Answer:
The balanced equation for the reaction is given
below:

3 + → +

The number of moles of CH4 produced is

calculated using Equation 1:

( )
. =
( )
4
= = .
16
71

But 1 mole of CH4 was produced from 3 moles of H2.

Therefore, 0.250 moles of CH4 would require 3 × 0. 250
moles of H2 = 0.75 moles of H2.
Equation 1 could be re-written as:

ℎ
= . ×
= 0.75 ×2 = .
  Example 2:
72  In a water treatment plant, calcium hydroxide
(slake lime), Ca(OH)2 and iron(III) sulphate, Fe(SO4)3,
were reacted to prepare gelatinous iron(III)
hydroxide, Fe(OH)3 for removal of suspended matter
(turbidity) from water. Suppose that a mass of 1000
g of Fe(SO4)3 is to be used to treat a tankful of
water. What mass of Ca(OH)2 is required to react
with the Fe(SO4)3?

Answer
The balanced equation for the reaction is:

( ) ( )+ 3 ( ) →2 + 3 ( )
73
Using equation 1:

. ( )

( ) ( ) 1000
= =
( ) ( ) 399.6

= . ( )

But 1 mole of Fe(SO4)3 requires 3 moles of Ca(OH)2.

Therefore, 2.5025 moles of Fe(SO4)3 would require 3 ×
2.5025 moles of Ca(OH)2 = 7.5075 moles of Ca(OH)2.
74

( )

= . ( ) × ( )

= 7.5075 × 74.1 = ( )

Question
 Calculate the number of moles of solute in a 1.25 L of
solution of 0.59 molarity.
 . = × =
1.25 × 0.59 = 0.74
 Question
75
 1.453 g of pure anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2C03
was weighed and dissolved in a 250cm3 standard
flask. The solution was made up to mark with distilled
water. Calculate the molarity of the solution.
Calculation
. = × ( ) (1)

( )
=
( )
(2)

 Molar mass of Na2C03 = 106 g/mol

 No. of moles of Na2CO3 in the solution
= mass/molar mass
= 1.453 g/106 g mol = 0.01371 moles
76
.
 =
volume = 250 cm3 /1000 =0.25
Molarity = 0.0548 M

Or
Using equation 2:

.
.
= = 0.0548
77

Question?
 Given the following reaction:
Na2S2O3 + AgBr → NaBr + Na3[Ag(S2O3)2]
 Write a balance chemical equation.
 How many moles of Na2S2O3 are needed to
react completely with 42.7 g of AgBr? (Atomic
masses; Na, 23; S, 32; O, 16; Br, 79.9: Ag, 107.9)
 What is the mass of NaBr that will be produced
from 42.7 g of AgBr?
  Answer
78
a) 2Na2S2O3 + AgBr → NaBr + Na3[Ag(S2O3)2]

b) No. of moles of AgBr = mass/molar mass

= 42.7 g/187.8 g/mol = 0.227 moles
From the equation 2Na2S2O3 : AgBr
Therefore 2 * 0.227 moles = 0.454 moles of Na2S2O3

c) From the equation, 1 mole of AgBr → 1 mole of NaBr

Therefore, 0.227 moles of AgBr will give 0.227 moles of
NaBr.
Mass of NaBr = mole * molar mass
= 0.227 moles * 102.9 g/mol = 23.4 g
79

Question?
 From the reaction: B2H6 + O2 → HBO2 + H2O

a. What mass of O2 will be needed to burn 36.1

g of B2H6?

b. How many moles of water are produced from

19.2 g of B2H6?
 (Atomic masses (g/mol): B, 10.8; O, 16; H, 1)
80

Tips
 Write a balance equation: First, balance the
atoms in the oxoborane ion (boron, hydrogen,
then oxygen)
Balanced equation = B2H6 + 3O2 → 2HBO2 + 2H2O
 Calculate no of moles of B2H6, from the equation,
B2H6: 3O2
i.e, 1:3. So moles of oxygen = 3* moles of B2H6
Then calculate mass of oxygen = moles * molar
mass (2*16 g/mol)
 Follow the procedure above