Dr. S. Idris, Dept.

of Microbiology, KASU

MODULE 4
• Sterilization and disinfection;
• Structure, ecology and reproduction of representative microbial genera.
Sterilization and Disinfection
Both sterilization and disinfection aim to control microbial growth. The concept of microbial
control refers to the reduction in number and/or activity of the total microbial flora. The
principal reasons of controlling microorganisms are:
1. to prevent transmission of diseases and infections;
2. to prevent contamination by or growth of undesirable microorganisms and
3. to prevent deterioration and spoilage of materials by microbial deteriogens
Sterilization and disinfection differ in their scope and effectiveness. they are critical processes
used to eliminate or reduce microorganisms to prevent infection and contamination. Both
processes are essential in healthcare, laboratories, and industries to prevent infections and
ensure safety.

Sterilization
This refers to the complete elimination or destruction of all forms of microbial life, including
the spores. Sterilization is considered the highest level of microbial control. And can be
achieved through physical methods e.g. Heat, filtration, radiation or chemical method. The
term sterilization is used in absolute sense and not in relative sense; meaning that a material
can either be sterile or not sterile, but cannot be almost sterile.
Physical Sterilization
1. Heat Sterilization
Heat sterilization can be achieved through various methods such as
i) Moist heat as in Autoclaving (the uses steam under pressure at 121°C at 15 psi for
15-20 minutes). It is applicable and effective for sterilizing surgical instruments,
media, and liquids.
ii) Dry Heat: This involves the use of high temperatures (160-180°C for 2-3 hours) as
in the case of hot air oven. This method is mostly applied for sterilization of
glassware, metal instruments, and powders and certain oils.
2. Filtration
This involves the use of membrane filters to sterilize heat-sensitive liquids like
antibiotics and vaccines.

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 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

3. Radiation:
This involves the use of Gamma radiation or UV radiation. The former is used for
sterilizing pharmaceuticals and disposable medical equipment while the later is
applicable for surface sterilization of some materials and products.

Chemical Sterilization
Chemical sterilization is a form of sterilization that involves the use of chemical to achieve
total destruction of all life forms. Typical example of chemicals used in chemical sterilization
include: Ethylene Oxide Gas (applicable for heat-sensitive items like plastics and electronics),
Hydrogen Peroxide Plasma (applicable for sterilizing medical devices), Glutaraldehyde
(Used for sterilizing endoscopes and surgical instruments).

Disinfection
This the act of reducing the number of pathogenic microorganisms to a level that is considered
safe. Disinfection does not necessarily eliminate all microorganisms, especially bacterial
spores. It can be achieved using chemical and physical means. The chemicals used to disinfect
materials are commonly called disinfectant.
1. Chemical Disinfectants
a). Alcohols such as ethanol, and isopropanol are used for skin disinfection. These
chemicals are adjudged effective against bacteria and viruses but not spores.
b). Chlorine Compounds (e.g., Bleach). These chemicals are used for surface
disinfection and are effective against bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
c). Phenolics Effective against bacteria and viruses. Used for environmental surfaces.
d). Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: these are mostly used for cleaning floors
and walls. They are effective against bacteria and some viruses.
e). Hydrogen Peroxide: this chemical is mostly used for wound disinfection. It is
effective against bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
f). Iodophors (e.g., Povidone-iodine): these are broad-spectrum disinfectants used for
skin and surgical site disinfection.
Physical Methods of Disinfection
1. Boiling: This involves the heating of liquid material to kills most vegetative bacteria and
viruses but not spores.
2. Pasteurization: This is the use of heat to reduce microbial load in food and beverages via
intermittent heating and cooling.
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 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

3. UV Light: applicable for surface disinfection in laboratories and hospitals.

Differences Between Sterilization and Disinfection
S/No. Parameters Sterilisation Disinfection
1 Purpose To destroy/eliminate all forms of to reduce microbes to a safe
life including the spores level
2 Time Consume more time It takes less time and is
required
3. Safety It requires careful handling of Generally safe if carried out
chemicals and equipment according to the instructions
4. Cost Relatively more expensive cheaper to accomplish
5. Level of High Moderate to high
effectiveness
6. Types of Physical barriers (filters) in Heat, radiation, chemicals, gas
agents used addition to heat, radiation,
chemicals, and gas

Structure, ecology and reproduction of representative microbial genera

Studies of the structure and ecology of microbes indicated that microbial genera display a wide
range of structures, ecological roles, and reproductive strategies. Each genus adapts to its
specific niche, contributing to global biogeochemical cycles and human health. An overview
of representative microbial genera is presented here cutting across all the different classes of
microbes.
1. Clostridium spp. (Bacteria - Firmicutes)
Structure: Gram-positive, rod-shaped, forms endospores, obligate
anaerobe.
Ecology: Found in soil and the gut of animals. Some species are
pathogenic (e.g., C. botulinum, C. tetani).
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission. Endospores
enable survival in harsh conditions.
2. Rhizobium spp. (Bacteria - Proteobacteria)
Structure: Gram-negative, rod-shaped, nitrogen-fixing.
Ecology: Forms symbiotic relationships with legume roots, fixing
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission
3. Escherichia coli (Bacteria - Proteobacteria)
Structure: Gram-negative, rod-shaped (bacillus), facultative anaerobe.
Ecology: Commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded
organisms, but some strains can be pathogenic.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission. The
organisms can exchange genetic material through conjugation,
transformation, or transduction.
4. Bacillus spp. (Bacteria - Firmicutes)
Structure: Gram-positive, rod-shaped, capable of forming endospores.

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 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

Ecology: Found in soil, water, and air. Some species are pathogenic
(e.g., B. anthracis), while others are beneficial (e.g., B. subtilis for
bioremediation).
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission. Endospores
allow survival in harsh conditions.
5. Streptomyces spp. (Bacteria - Actinobacteria)
Structure: Gram-positive, filamentous, forms branching hyphae and
spores.
Ecology: Soil-dwelling, plays a key role in decomposing organic
matter. Known for producing antibiotics (e.g., streptomycin).
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via sporulation. Spores are
formed at the tips of aerial hyphae.
6. Saccharomyces spp. (Fungi - Ascomycota)
Structure: Unicellular, oval-shaped yeast.
Ecology: Found on plant surfaces, soil, and in fermented foods. Used
in baking, brewing, and biotechnology.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via budding. Can also reproduce
sexually through ascospore formation.
7. Aspergillus spp. (Fungi - Ascomycota)
Structure: Filamentous, forms conidiophores with conidia (asexual
spores).
Ecology: Ubiquitous in soil and decaying organic matter. Some species
produce toxins (e.g., aflatoxins), while others are used industrially
(e.g., A. niger for citric acid production).
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via conidia. Sexual reproduction
occurs in some species through ascospore formation.
8. Methanococcus spp. (Archaea - Euryarchaeota)
Structure: Irregular cocci, methanogen, anaerobic.
Ecology: Found in anaerobic environments like marine sediments and
hydrothermal vents. Plays a role in methane production.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission.
9. Halobacterium spp. (Archaea - Euryarchaeota)
Structure: Rod-shaped, extreme halophile.
Ecology: Thrives in high-salt environments like salt flats and
hypersaline lakes.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission.
10. Trichomonas spp. (Protista - Parabasalia)
Structure: Unicellular, flagellated, lacks mitochondria.
Ecology: Parasitic, inhabits the urogenital tract of humans and animals
(e.g., T. vaginalis causes trichomoniasis).
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission.
11. Chlamydomonas spp. (Protista - Chlorophyta)
Structure: Unicellular, biflagellate, contains chloroplasts for
photosynthesis.
Ecology: Found in freshwater, soil, and marine environments.
Important primary producer.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via mitosis. Sexual reproduction
involves the formation of gametes.

12. Cyanobacteria (Bluegreen algae - Cyanobacteria)

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 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

Structure: Photosynthetic, can be unicellular, filamentous, or colonial.

Ecology: Found in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments.
Important for nitrogen fixation and oxygen production.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction via binary fission, fragmentation,
or akinete formation.

Ecology and Reproduction of Viruses

Viruses play critical ecological roles and exhibit diverse reproductive strategies that allow them
to thrive in a wide range of environments. Their ability to rapidly evolve and adapt makes them
both fascinating and challenging to study. Viruses are unique entities that straddle the line
between living and non-living. They are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning they require
a host cell to replicate and carry out their life processes. Here’s an overview of their ecology
and reproduction.

Ecology of Viruses
Viruses infect a wide range of hosts, including animals, plants, fungi, bacteria (bacteriophages),
and archaea. They often exhibit high host specificity, targeting specific cell types or species
due to the need for compatible host receptors. Viruses are ubiquitous and found in virtually
every environment, including extreme habitats like hot springs, deep-sea vents, and polar
regions. They are the most abundant biological entities on Earth, with an estimated 10³¹ viral
particles globally. They influence ecosystem dynamics by affecting host population sizes and
community structures. They can also drive co-evolutionary arms races between hosts and
pathogens. Many viruses cause diseases in their hosts (e.g., HIV, influenza, SARS-CoV-2).
However, some viruses provide benefits, such as bacteriophages being used in phage therapy
or endogenous retroviruses contributing to placental development in mammals.

Some of the Ecological Roles play by viruses include:

1. Population Control: Viruses regulate microbial populations, particularly in
aquatic ecosystems, by lysing bacteria and other microorganisms.
2. Nutrient Cycling: Viral lysis releases organic matter, contributing to nutrient
cycling in ecosystems.
3. Genetic Diversity: Viruses facilitate horizontal gene transfer (e.g., through
transduction in bacteria), increasing genetic diversity and driving evolution.
4. Symbiosis: Some viruses establish long-term relationships with hosts, such as
endogenous retroviruses integrated into host genomes.

Virus Reproduction
Viruses cannot reproduce independently and rely on host cellular machinery to replicate.
Their reproductive cycle typically involves the following steps:
1. Attachment (Adsorption): The virus attaches to specific receptors on the host cell
surface. This step determines host range and tissue tropism.
2. Entry: The virus enters the host cell through:
i. Membrane fusion (enveloped viruses).
ii. Endocytosis (non-enveloped viruses).
iii. Direct injection (e.g., bacteriophages injecting DNA into bacteria).

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 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

3. Uncoating: The viral capsid is removed, releasing the viral genetic material (DNA or
RNA) into the host cell.
4. Replication and Gene Expression: The viral genome is replicated, and viral proteins
are synthesized using the host’s ribosomes and enzymes. DNA viruses typically
replicate in the nucleus, while RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm.
5. Assembly: New viral particles are assembled from the synthesized components
(genome and proteins).
6. Release: New virions are released from the host cell through:
i. Lysis: The host cell bursts, releasing virions (common in non-
enveloped viruses).
ii. Budding: Virions acquire an envelope as they exit the cell (common in
enveloped viruses).

Reproductive Strategies

1. Lytic Cycle: The virus replicates rapidly, leading to host cell lysis and death. This is
characteristic of virulent viruses.
2. Lysogenic Cycle (in bacteriophages): The viral genome integrates into the host
genome (prophage) and replicates passively with the host cell. Under certain
conditions, it can enter the lytic cycle.
3. Chronic Infection: The virus is continuously produced without immediately killing
the host cell (e.g., hepatitis B virus).
4. Latent Infection: The viral genome remains dormant in the host cell and can
reactivate later (e.g., herpesviruses).

END.

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