Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Applicability of nanomaterials in water and waste-water treatment: A

state-of-the-art review and future perspectives
Mayur A. Makhesana a, *, Kaushik M. Patel a, Anesu Nyabadza b, c
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad 382481, India
b
I-Form Advanced Manufacturing Centre Research, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
c
Advanced Processing Technology Research Centre, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The effects and implications of water resource contamination on the earth are increasing the need for clean
Nanoparticles water. Future water distribution systems may be enhanced by nanotechnology, which could also offer effective
Waste-water treatment ways to treat, use, and recycle water. Numerous nanoparticles are evolving with developments in nanotech­
Metallic nanoparticles
nology for water filtration and waste-water treatment technologies because of their efficiency against synthetic
Adsorption
Photocatalysis
and natural contaminants. Due to their distinctive qualities, including their small size, high surface area, and
high reactivity, nanoparticles are being utilised in waste-water treatment more and more. The adsorption,
photocatalysis, and biofouling control of nanoparticles for waste-water treatment are discussed in this work. The
most popular technique for using nanoparticles to remove organic pollutants, heavy metals, and other con­
taminants from wastewater is adsorption. Another exciting nanoparticle usage is photocatalysis, which uses UV
light to break down organic contaminants. Disinfection, or technology based on antimicrobial nanoparticles, is
becoming more popular as a practical method of treating wastewater. The literature on nanoparticle waste-water
treatment applications is reviewed in this work, along with the possible advantages and difficulties of the
technology.

1. Introduction contaminated water (See Fig. 1).

Nanotechnology might improve the frameworks for the next gener­
The availability of clean, safe water is necessary for a robust econ­ ation of water delivery systems and provide efficient methods for
omy and the diverse development of civilization. Due to vast agricul­ treating, using, and recycling water. Due to their effectiveness against
tural activity, increasing industrialization, urbanization, and population synthetic and natural pollutants, numerous nanoparticles are devel­
increase, waste water has been produced, making the water not only oping with advances in nanotechnology for water filtration and waste-
tainted but also dirty or polluted [1,2]. The need for clean water is water treatment technologies. Nanoparticles are ideally suited for
growing as a result of the overall impact and concern that water resource water purification and waste-water treatment due to their superior
contamination has on the planet. Polluted water is becoming an qualities and viability [5,6]. Due to their superior performance
alarming situation for the globe. Only about 80 % of all polluted water is compared to other materials used in water purification and their larger
treated before being recycled back into the environment. This leads to a surface area, nanoparticles are inherently preferred. These might be
condition where about 1.8 billion people rely on contaminated water used on a bigger scale for water treatment in the future because of these
that is full of different microorganisms and pathogens [3]. The harmful qualities. There are a few challenges associated with using nano­
and non-biodegradable nature of toxic metals, dyes, pesticides, fertil­ particles, however these challenges can be overcome [5].
izers, and other contaminants present in waste water is causing serious Using relevant keywords like nanomaterials in waste-water treat­
concerns across the globe [4]. Several approaches have been developed ment, a literature review was carried out in Scopus. 1990 publications
to deal with this problem. Due to the improved qualities resulting from were discovered using these keywords from the literature search as
the nanoscale effect, several nanomaterials have been developed with illustrated in Fig. 2. Despite the fact that there are an increasing number
the aim of reducing the concentrations of the hazardous pollutant from of research on the use of nanomaterials in waste-water treatment each

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (M.A. Makhesana).

[Link]
Received 11 August 2023; Received in revised form 16 January 2024; Accepted 18 January 2024
2214-7853/Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International
Conference on Advances in Water Treatment and Management.

Please cite this article as: Mayur A. Makhesana et al., Materials Today: Proceedings, [Link]
M.A. Makhesana et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

chemical, etc. Some crucial chemical and physical characteristics

include shape, size, surface area, etc. [8]. The type of material utilized
determines the methods used to characterize NPs [9]. To characterize
nanoparticles, a variety of microscopes available including optical, X-
ray, probe, etc. For topological, imaging, crystal, and chemical analysis,
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), etc. are utilized [9,10]. Both top-
down and bottom-up techniques can be utilized to synthesize nano­
materials. While the top-down strategy weakens Vander Waal’s forces,
the bottom-up strategy makes use of ionic or covalent bonds. The top-
down method reduces large objects or clusters to small particles [11].
To produce particles with a diameter of less than a micron, top-down
synthesis techniques are necessary. Top-down approaches are funda­
mentally simpler and rely on the removal or breakdown of bulk com­
ponents to produce the desired shape with the required qualities.
whereas the bottom-up approach moves up through small, focused
particles to nanomaterials. Many bottom-up approaches are still being
developed or are just getting started with industrial NPs production
[12].

2. Nanotechnology based water treatment methods

As shown in Fig. 4, a variety of treatment techniques have been used

to totally and effectively eliminate contaminated impurities from water
and waste-water. These processes contain ion exchange, photocatalysis,
Fig. 1. Categories of water pollutants.
chemical precipitation, membrane filtration, electrochemical elimina­
tion, etc. [13,14]. Despite the fact that such technologies exist, only a
year (Fig. 2), there aren’t enough review studies that look at the most limited number of them are used for waste water treatment due to a
current developments. Consequently, in order to greatly advance the number of restrictions, including high maintenance requirements, high
technological and scientific fields of waste-water treatment, the present energy requirements, complicated operational procedures, without
work offers a thorough overview of the use and applications of nano­ focusing on sustainability and circular economy. for the filtration of
particles that are being researched or developed as effective materials hazardous contaminants including dyes, heavy metal ions, and more,
for water filtration and treatment (see Fig. 3). the adsorption approach is regarded as one of the most widely used,
highly regarded, adaptable, and effective methods. Although adsorption
1.1. Nanoparticles- its characterization and synthesis has many admirable qualities, its usage in waste water treatment is still
limited due to its poor effectiveness after multiple cycles [15,16]. In
Nanoparticles (NPs) are elements with size between 1 and 100 nm. recent times, with the development of carbon-based, metal-based, and
Though they are smaller in size, these NPs can exhibit enhanced physical polymer-based NPs have attracted a lot of interest as adsorbents [17,18].
and chemical characteristics in comparison to their larger material With a large surface area, the unique characteristics of nanoparticles are
counterparts [7]. NPs can be categorised into several groups based on making it ideal for the adsorption of hazardous pollutants from waste-
their chemical structure, including Metallic NPs: These are composed of water [19,20].
metal particles, including gold, silver, and copper. NPs made of carbon: The potential use of nanotechnology in the purification of water is
These consist of carbon particles with various structural configurations, now being demonstrated. The application of nanotechnology in water
such as graphene [6]. The suitability of NPs for a particular application treatment for adsorption and separation, disinfection, sensing, and
is primarily determined by various features including physical,

Fig. 2. Number of publications to date on nanomaterials in waste-water treatment in Scopus.

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M.A. Makhesana et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Synthesis of nanoparticles following different approaches.

Fig. 4. Methods for removing harmful pollutants from water.

photocatalysis, is briefly discussed in this section. nanomaterial-based adsorbents that frequently have a large specific
area, strong reactivity, rapid kinetics, and a special affinity to particular
pollutants. They sometimes perform better in adsorbing specific pol­
2.1. Adsorption and separation lutants than traditional adsorbents [24]. The interaction of a liquid, gas,
or solids that are dissolved in a liquid causes the ions, atomic particles,
The two most commonly used technologies for enhancing water and or molecules to form bonds with the outermost layer of a solid sub­
waste-water treatment are membrane-based and adsorbents processes stance. Adsorption materials must have a high capacity for adsorption,
[21]. Conventional adsorbents usually experience problems such as be neutral, biocompatible, and resistant to mechanical force in order to
inadequate efficiency and specificity and a brief adsorption- be effective.
regeneration cycle, which significantly decreases the adsorbents’ cost- Van der Waals forces and electrostatic interactions are the factors
effectiveness [22,23]. The use of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, responsible for adsorption. Because the adsorption rate varies with how
nanocomposites, and nanometal or metal oxides are examples of

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long an adsorbent is subjected to a pollutant, a material’s adsorption countries today, is capable of cleaning textile waste water of organic
capacity fluctuates according to the system it is used in [25]. Nano­ pollutants. Due to its superior stability and UV adsorption properties,
materials offer a wide variety of options for modifying a material’s TiO2 is a highly efficient semiconductor photocatalyst in presence of
surface characteristics. Nanoparticles have the capacity to accurately ultraviolet light in water and air [40].
attach metal ions and other pollutants in water when organic solvents Silver (Ag) blended-TiO2 was used as a nano photocatalyst to elim­
are used. The scientific literature has described many surface-modified inate recombinant DNA in polluted water from a plant. It was discovered
nanostructured materials that can filter pollutants from water [6,7]. that the utilized nano photocatalysts were very successful at breaking
When used as adsorbents, nanoparticles and their large surface area down rDNA. The authors showed that the temperature of the calcination
composites effectively remove organic and inorganic contaminants from and the concentration of silver (Ag) affected the degradation of rDNA. If
water [26]. Nanomaterials like graphene and the nanomaterials are it can be replicated commercially, this manufactured nanophocatalyst
being seen as attractive candidates to be utilized in water treatment. will treat waste-water at an ambitious and forward-thinking level by
They are with very unique physiochemical properties [27]. The ability degrading rDNA with an efficiency of 80.7 % [41]. The nanoporous filter
of CNTs to remove a variety of contaminants from waste-water has led to can stop a variety of microbiological organisms, particularly big viruses
their widespread recognition as an effective adsorption material. The and bacteria. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are formed by the
adsorption capacity is influenced by the sorbent’s kind, area of surface, TiO2NW/CNT-based filter material when exposed to sunlight, are
and functionalization [28]. Activated carbon cannot effectively remove capable of efficiently removing a variety of organic compounds and
heavy metals from water, such as cadmium, arsenic, nickel, mercury, pathogenic bacteria. A research study on reducing drug and pesticide
zinc, lead, chromium, and copper. Nano-metal oxides can. Metal oxide- levels in drinking water also revealed encouraging results [42]. There­
based nano adsorbents, including the oxide of zinc (ZnO), titanium oxide fore, the potential for photocatalytic elimination of water contaminants
(TiO2), and iron oxide (Fe3O4), are frequently used for the purification under irradiation for contaminant remediation in waste-water treatment
of water. Nano-metal oxides have been studied as dynamic adsorbents has been the subject of extensive research. Using photocatalysis, one can
for heavy metal removal due to their substantial surface area and high get rid of potentially hazardous substances from water.
specific affinity [29].
Membrane separation, in addition to adsorption, is a critical part of 2.3. Disinfection or antimicrobial nanomaterials-based technology
the cleaning treatment stage that enables water recovery from non-
traditional water sources like sewage treatment plants. A membrane is Another effective strategy being researched for waste-water treat­
an extremely thin, semi-permeable sheet of material. Substances can ment is disinfection. Disinfection is the method of using chemical or
only pass through the membrane’s pores if their size and shape corre­ physical procedures to reduce the amount of microorganisms in a water
spond to those of the pores. Therefore, membrane-based solutions for body to a level that is acceptable [6]. As an alternative to conventional
waste-water treatment have gained popularity recently. [30] Never­ disinfection procedures, nanotechnology-based disinfection methods
theless, there are still many challenges to overcome in order to advance have recently been developed that take use of the bio-toxicity of
membrane technology, including high energy consumption, fouling, and particular nanomaterials [43]. Conventional disinfection techniques
operational complexity, as well as the inherent trade-off between including chlorine, reverse osmosis, and peracetic acids have been made
membrane selectivity and permeability. Nanocomposite membranes obsolete due to their high cost and energy requirements as compared to
were utilized to solve these problems by adding multifunctional NPs in NP approaches. Furthermore, NPs are more attractive for waste-water
membrane. It displayed improved physiochemical characteristics, such treatment due to their huge surface area and specific reactivity. Also,
as increased porosity, hydrophilicity, or mechanical or thermal stability metal nanoparticles are more effective than antibiotics at controlling
[31,32]. bacteria because they can strike through multiple pathways at once and
use multiple genetic alterations to prevent bacteria from developing
2.2. Photocatalysis resistance at the same time [44]. Three types of nanomaterials can be
used for disinfection: carbon-based, metal or metal oxide-based, and
Catalysis or photocatalysis is an advanced oxidation process and one those made of naturally occurring antimicrobial compounds, which are
of the most significant techniques for eliminating various microbiolog­ also referred to as modified NPs [45,46]. Various nanomaterials have
ical pathogens and pollutants from waste-water. It is considered as an recently demonstrated significant antimicrobial properties. The most
effective pre-treatment technique for increasing the biodegradability of widely investigated antimicrobial agents with nanostructures are those
pollutants that are harmful and not biodegradable. [33]. Through the made of silver [47], TiO2 [48] and carbon nanotubes [49]. When it
use of a suitable heterogeneous catalyst and light-induced reactions, comes to antimicrobial action, silver NPs are very effective and have an
photocatalysis is a technique for speeding up chemical reactions [34]. extensive spectrum of activity. Both gram-positive and gram-negative
Water splitting by photocatalytic means and the photocatalytic germs can be wiped out by it. The ease of usage and low toxicity to
destruction of water-based biological compounds are some of its appli­ human cells are the final and most crucial points. As a result, nano-silver
cations [35]. The electrons in the band known as the valence band are is the substance that is most frequently used in a variety of applications,
driven to travel into the conduction band, where they produce voids in including the purification of drinking water, medical treatments, and
the valence band when exposed to visible or ultraviolet light with energy waste-water disinfection [44,47,50]. Compared to traditional chemical
equal to or more than the photocatalyst’s spectrum gap [36,37]. disinfectants, these antimicrobial NPs are more environmentally
Nano catalysts with high surface-to-volume ratio outperformed their friendly approach, which is anticipated to reduce the development of
bulkier counterparts in terms of catalytic performance. The crystalline hazardous disinfection by products (DBPs). Additionally, when com­
structure and band gap of the semiconductors with nanoscale di­ bined with the right separation techniques, some nano-disinfectants can
mensions also showed size dependence [38]. Immobilizing nano­ operate continuously with great efficacy and minimal energy use, which
particles on diverse substrates also improved the durability of the nano is particularly appealing for decentralized water and waste-water
catalyst, and the nanocomposites that emerged were compatible with treatment [45].
modern photo-reactors [39]. The most extensively used photocatalysts
among the several that are readily available include tungsten trioxide, 2.4. Sensing and monitoring
titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, iron oxide, zinc sulfide, zirconium dioxide,
and cadmium sulphide. When exposed to UV radiation, TiO2 is best The standard sensing and monitoring systems are unable to identify
recognized for treating textile waste-water effluent. Hybrid UV-TiO2 micro pollutants at extremely low concentrations in water bodies. Mi­
photocatalysis, that is still widely used in many underdeveloped crobes and highly harmful contaminants must be detected in-situ and

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M.A. Makhesana et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

quickly. From a safety standpoint, it is essential to identify and keep are any accepted or universal criteria for determining the effectiveness
track of these toxic compounds in water. It is a difficult and exciting area of nanomaterials in water treatment. The selection of nanomaterials that
of study since it calls for extremely sensitive techniques to detect even merit future study and development is difficult because each functions
the smallest amounts of organic, inorganic, and biological contaminants differently. To handle and regulate nanomaterials, appropriate laws and
in water [51]. Nano sensor-based detection and monitoring of common standards must be established. In this direction, some guidelines should
microbiological pollutants is a prevalent technique in waste-water be developed to minimize the potential health risk and toxic effects of
treatment due to their low cost, great selectivity and sensitivity, easy nanoparticles [63]. Future evaluations of nanoparticles’ efficacy in
operation, effective tracking of contaminants, and quick analysis [6,52]. water and wastewater treatment are necessary. It is advocated to
Nanomaterials with special electrochemical, optical, or magnetic prop­ improve selectivity, stability, operational time, and adsorption perfor­
erties include graphene, CNTs, quantum dots, and noble metals (such as mance to help commercialize and scale up the production of nanoscale
Ag or Au). These nanoparticles could be used in sensors or electrodes to technology.
precisely preconcentrate trace pollutants for detection [53].
4. Conclusions
3. Future perspectives
The most common contaminants in wastewater include heavy
Since many years, nanoparticles are widely utilized in waste water metals, organic debris, and biodegradable substances. It is becoming
treatment. It has got very crucial role in purifying the water from more and more difficult to treat industrial wastewater sustainably as a
micropollutants. The nanoparticles possess very unique properties result of these toxins. Before being disposed of, such contaminants must
including shape and size, making it more effective for water treatment be eliminated using ecologically acceptable purification techniques.
[54]. Additionally, they come with unique morphological properties and Water and wastewater treatment, especially industrial water treat­
and sub-structure with cost-effectiveness [55]. Applications of nano­ ment, is crucial to protecting the environment and human health and is a
materials include industrial wastewater treatment using nano adsor­ serious public health concern. This study clarifies that significant ad­
bents. Large surface-volume ratio and surface functionality are the two vancements in the fight against environmental contamination have been
essential qualities of nanomaterials that give them considerable poten­ made recently. More environmentally friendly nanotechnology and
tial as a sorbent. Nanomaterials are very effective in adsorption because sustainable nanomaterials are among the cutting-edge technologies that
they have active catalytic sites on their surface. With the help of nano­ can be employed for wastewater treatment, notably in handling haz­
particles, the sorbent can interact and tie with different surrounding ardous compounds that were previously untreatable. In addition to the
molecules [56]. The addition of various functional groups to the mem­ apparent concern regarding the toxicity of the nanomaterials, which
brane by the use of NPs in membrane filtration increases the mem­ may be a benefit for carbon-based materials, there are still a number of
brane’s permeability and chemical and thermal stability. Compared to challenges to be overcome, notably the absence of infrastructure and
conventional treatments, this approach uses less energy because of its resource utilization.
increased permeability [57]. Furthermore, nanoparticles offer the ideal Where toxins can be removed using more environmentally friendly
surface area and have a quick extraction time for larger pollutants. nanotechnology, treatment is more effective, although more research is
During the water purification process, they save energy and time. needed in this area. Carbon-based nanomaterials could prove to be
Numerous more advantages come with using nano sorbents, such as effective, reasonably priced, and ecologically friendly substitutes for the
their high removal capacity, affordability, low toxicity, and reusability current treatment supplies from environmental cleanup and resource
[58]. At the same time, it was reported that due to small size of nano­ conservation perspectives.
particles, the separation becomes more challenging in water treatment
process. Also, the inefficiency of nanoparticles makes it more costly and CRediT authorship contribution statement
difficult to apply [59]. Additionally, some of the nanotechnologies are
not effective for large-scale water treatment process. The use and Mayur A. Makhesana: Writing – original draft, Resources, Meth­
exposure of nanoparticles is toxic for human health and surrounding odology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Kaushik M. Patel:
environment. If the nanoparticles enter into human body through Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis. Anesu
breathing or nay other means, it severly damages the organ system Nyabadza: Writing – review & editing, Methodology.
[8,60].
Metallic oxide NPs, such as TiO2 and ZnO, CNTs, and nano­
composites, are some of the nanomaterials that have been the subject of Declaration of competing interest
the most research. It was thoroughly detailed how they were used in the
purification of wastewater and water. Considering how quickly they are The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
being developed and utilized, nanoparticles have enormous promise for interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
water treatment. To solve the problems that nanomaterials provide, the work reported in this paper.
more study is required. Only a few varieties of nanoparticles have been
extensively used in commerce. The primary focus of future research Data availability
should be on the economic viability of nanomaterials. The likelihood
that nanoparticles will be harmful to the environment and people’s No data was used for the research described in the article.
health is rising along with their widespread and regular use in water and
sewage systems [61]. There is proof that some nanomaterials can harm
Acknowledgements
the environment and people’s health. However, the current guidelines
for determining the risks associated with nanomaterials are weak and
Authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by Nirma
insufficient. Before using nanomaterials in real-world applications, their
University to carry out the research work.
toxicity must be carefully evaluated. It is required to develop a method
to evaluate the real-time performance of the nanoparticles and tech­
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