21ME751 NTM ECM

MODULE 3
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM):
Introduction, Principle of electro chemical machining: ECM equipment, elements of ECM
operation, Chemistry of ECM. ECM Process characteristics: Material removal rate, accuracy,
surface finish. Process parameters: Current density, Tool feed rate, Gap between tool & work
piece, velocity of electrolyte flow, type of electrolyte, its concentration temperature, and choice
of electrolytes. ECM Tooling: ECM tooling technique & example, Tool & insulation materials.
Applications ECM: Electrochemical grinding and electrochemical honing process.
Advantages, disadvantages and application of ECG, ECH.

CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM):

Elements of the process: Resists (maskants), Etchants. Types of chemical machining process
chemical blanking process, chemical milling process. Process characteristics of CHM: material
removal rate, accuracy, surface finish, advantages, limitations and applications of chemical
machining process. 10 hours

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

Introduction
ECM is Electrical energy used in combination with chemical reactions to remove
material. It relies on the principle of electrolysis for material removal.
ECM (anode cutting) is one of the latest and potentially the most useful non-traditional
machining process. Michael Faraday discovered that if two electrodes are placed in a bath
containing a conductive liquid and DC potential is applied across them, metal can be deplated
from the anode and plated on the cathode. This principle was in use for a long time in a process
called electroplating. With certain modifications, ECM is the reverse of electroplating.
In ECM, the material is removed and hence electroplating is reversed, i.e. work piece
is made the anode. Work material must be a conductor. Machines having current capacities as
high as 40,000 A and as low as 5A are available.

Principle of electro chemical machining:

Net result of electrolysis: Iron gets dissolved from the anode and forming the residue
consuming electricity and water, and nothing else. Reaction products are ferric hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Metal from the anode is dissolved electrochemically and hence the MRR based on
Faraday’s laws will depend upon atomic weight, valency, the current passed and the time for
which the current passes.
At the cathode only hydrogen gas is evolved and no other reaction takes place, hence
the shape of the cathode remains unaffected.

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ECM equipment

ECM uses a shaped tool or Electrode. Since the term machining implies the removal of
material from the work-piece, the tool is made the cathode and the work-piece the anode. An
electrolyte is pumped through the small gap which is maintained between the tool and work
piece. The chemical properties of this electrolyte are such that the constituents of the work-
piece go into the solution by the electrolytic process, but do not plate on the tool.
By designing the tool accurately, the cavity or hole which is produces exactly
reproduces the tool shape.

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Elements of ECM operation

1. Cathode tool - of a shape which is almost the mirror image of the cavity to be machined
2. Anode work-piece - and means to hold & locate it near the tool
3. Source of DC power - of sufficient capacity so that high current densities can be
maintained between the tool and work-piece
4. Electrolyte - a conductive liquid – and means to supply it into the gap between the tool
and the work-piece

Cathode tool
The accuracy of the tool shape directly affects the work-piece accuracy, since the
configuration of the cavity produced cannot be more accurate than the tool that produces it.
Poor surface finish of the tool will produce a poor surface on the part.
The tool materials that are usually used are brass, bronze, Cu, Carbon, SS, monel,
reinforced plastics, etc. Shaping the tool isn’t a problem as all these can be easily machined.
Cold forging is preferred.

Anode work-piece
There is no restriction on the type of work-piece except that it must be a good conductor
of electricity. Chemical properties of the work-piece affects the MRR. MRR is proportional to
the atomic weight and inverse of the valency of work material.
The fixtures required to hold the work-piece are made of some insulating material like
epoxy resins, glass fibre resins, etc. PVC can be a cheaper fixture. The fixture material should
have good thermal stability and low moisture absorption properties.

Source of DC power
The process needs low voltages of the order 2 to 30V and current of the order of 800
amp/cm2. Three phase, 440V, AC power from the mains is converted to low voltage DC by a
step down transformer and a rectifier.
Adequate protective circuits are provided against short circuit and overload conditions.
These conditions may occur due to:
 Mishandling/incorrect fitting of electrodes or work piece
 Piling up of conducting debris in the gap
 Malfunctioning of gap control system

Owing to lack of control, sparking may occur between the tool & work-piece, causing
damage to both. Damage increases with duration of spark.

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Electrolyte
The electrolyte used in the process performs the following functions:
 Completing the electric circuit between the tool & the work-piece.
 Allowing desirable machining reactions to occur.
 Carrying away heat generated during the chemical reactions.
 Carrying away products of reaction from the zone of machining.

Desirable characteristics
 High electrical conductivity
 Low viscosity & high specific heat
 Chemical stability
 Resistance to formation of passivizing film or work surface
 Non corrosive & nontoxic in nature
 Inexpensive & readily available
All these factors have to be considered while selecting an electrolyte for a
specific use. NaCl, KCl, NaOH, NaNO3 etc are used
Concentration
 A concentrated electrolyte offers low resistance to the flow of current
 A greater current density is achieved for a specific operating voltage
 But the disadvantage is that salts crystallize out of the solution at higher concentrations
and clog the areas in the tool - work enclosure
 Dilute electrolytes are useful in cases where work surface finish is important/ high
machining voltage is required/ small gap should be employed

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Working life
The composition of an electrolyte changes during use. The changes & their effects are
as follows:
 Loss of hydrogen – Reduces the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte
 Loss of water due to evaporation or is carried away by the hydrogen liberated –
Concentration of the electrolyte increases which affects viscosity & conductivity
 Precipitate formation – Increases viscosity & interferes with the process in the tool-
work gap
 Salt absorption by precipitate – Reduces concentration & affects conductivity

Temperature & Pressure

 The difference in temperature of electrolyte at the entrance & exit is an important factor.
 This temperature difference affects the flow rate & pressure characteristics.
 Increase in the temperature of the electrolyte reduces the requirement of higher
voltages.
 Higher electrolyte temperatures increases the solubility of the products of reaction.

In order to obtain good results, it is important to:

o Remove contaminated electrolyte from the working gap
o Minimize polarization
o Limit the rise in temperature of the electrolyte, particularly when working at
higher current densities
 Increased pressure of electrolyte above atmospheric pressure increases the boiling point
of the electrolyte & decreases the volume of hydrogen generated

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 Hydrogen bubbles thus occupy a smaller volume of the gap & displace less electrolyte,
permitting the use of higher current densities

Chemistry of ECM
In the electrolytic circuit shown, the direction of electron flow is from the work-piece
to the tool. Chemical reactions occur at cathode, anode & electrolyte. At cathode, reaction
having smallest oxidation potential will take place & at anode, reaction having largest oxidation
potential will take place.

At the cathode, the following reactions are possible:

 M+ + e- M (metal)
 2H+ + 2e- H2 (Hydrogen evolution)

The following reactions occur at anode with halogen electrolyte

 M M+ + e- (Metal dissolution)
 2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e- (Oxygen evolution)
 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e- (Halogen gas evolution)

It has been established that the metal dissolution reaction is the main or the only
reaction that occurs.

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ECM Process characteristics:

Material removal rate

Theoretically, MRR can be estimated as follows: From the figure, let

h – tool-work gap (m)
A – Area of current path (sq m)
E – Machining voltage (volts)
I – Current flowing through gap (Amps)
t – Time for which current flows
ρs – Specific resistance of electrolyte (ohm-m)

Current density – S (amp/m2) is given by

By Faraday’s first law of electrolysis (interpretation):

Volume-V of metal removed by any quantity of electricity is given by:

Where N – Atomic weight of work piece
n – Valency of work piece
η – Current efficiency(usually 100% for NaCl)

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Specific Metal Removal Rate (s) can be written as:

(m3/amp/s)

Feed rate of electrode (f ) is given by:

f = S X s (m/s)

Numerical
Calculate the machining rate and the electrode feed rate when iron is electrochemically
machined, using copper electrode and sodium chloride solution (specific resistance = 5.0 ohm
cm). The power supply data of the ECM machine are as follows:
Supply voltage = 18V DC
Current = 5000 amp
Tool-work gap = 0.5 mm (constant)
For iron,
Atomic weight – N = 56
Valency – n =2
density – d = 7.87 X 106 g/m2
Solution:
S = 2.5 X 10-5 amp/m2
s = 3.67 X 10-11 m3/amp/s
V = s.I = 1.835 X 10-7 m3/s
f = 1.585 mm/min

Influence of Contact pressure and Grinding wheel speed on Current density and MRR
is as shown in the following characteristic curves
 Contact pressure: Higher contact pressure beyond certain limit results in the formation
of sparks and increased wheel wear due to higher current densities.
 Increase in MRR with contact pressure is less and not quite linear
 As the grinding wheel speed is increased, MRR as well as current density increases

Accuracy
There are a number of factors which govern the accuracy of the parts produced by ECM. The
major ones are:
 Machining voltage
 Feed rate of electrode (tool)

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 Temperature of electrolyte
 Concentration of electrolyte
Machining voltage and electrolyte temperature affects the overcut; Feed rate of
the tool affects the accuracy.

Machining Parameters for various process

Sl. Surface Finish Dimensional
Process MRR (mm3/m)
No. (µ) Accuracy (µ)
1 Ultrasonic Drilling 40 – 100 Rt = 2 – 10 +/- 50
2 Spark Erosion Machining 25 – 300 RMS = 0.3 – 1.0 +/- 10 - 20
3 Electro chemical Machining 1600 @ 1000A Rt +/- 10 - 50

Surface finish
The surface finish of a component depends on:
 Its material
 The electrolyte
 The operating conditions
In general, there is no appreciable change in the mechanical properties such as
tensile strength, yield strength, ductility, etc. Fatigue strength of stainless steel is found to
decrease by ECM.

Process parameters
i. Current density
ii. Tool feed rate
iii. Gap between tools
iv. Work piece
v. Velocity of electrolyte flow

ECM Tooling:
ECM tooling technique & example
Two major aspects of tool design:
1. Determining the tool shape so that the desired shape of the job is achieved.
2. Other considerations such as electrolyte flow, insulation, strength and fixing
arrangements.
 Modification of the tool profile to get the required final surface is relatively complex -
FEM can be used to get the final tool design.
 Designer must determine the nature and the extent of the required deviation or gap
allowances from the mirror image configuration, while providing for a uniform and
sufficiently high flow rate of electrolyte in the gap to allow a practical MRR.

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 Tool dimensions must be slightly different from the nominal mirror dimensions of the
completed part to allow for ECM overcut.
 Part and the cathode must have adequate current-carrying capacity.
 ECM cell must have strength and rigidity to avoid flutter and arcing.

Tool design types

 Most common – open-flow type
 Cross-flow type for external machining
Because of the interaction of working-tip shape and dimensions, location of insulation,
Current density and feed rate, the design of tools for machining complex shapes requires
understanding of fluid flow, electrical and electrochemical principles as well as experience and
ingenuity.
Although tool design may be difficult and time consuming, the cost of additional or
replacement. ECM tooling is usually much less than that for conventional machining.

Tool & insulation materials

Properties expected out of the tool material are:
 High electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Good stiffness.
 Easy machinability - particularly important if complex shaped tools are required
 High corrosion resistance - to protect itself from the highly corrosive electrolyte
solution.
 Rigidity - Rigidity of the tool construction and material is important because the
high pressure can cause deflection of the tool.
 Easily available
Generally aluminium, copper, brass, bronze, carbon, copper -manganese, copper-
tungsten, titanium, cupro-nickel and stainless steel are used.

ECM Tool Material Properties

Materials
Sl.
Properties Stainless Copper/
No. Copper Brass Titanium
steel Tungsten
1 Electrical Resistivity 1.00 4.00 53.00 48.00 8.00
2 Stiffness 1.60 1.00 1.90 1.10 2.20
3 Machinability 6.00 8.00 2.50 1.00 1.80
4 Thermal Conductivity 25.00 7.50 1.00 2.60 10.00

The most commonly used insulation materials are porcelain, vinyl, phenolic enamel,
teflon and epoxy. They are applied to the electrode by spraying or dipping.

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Advantages of ECM
 Irrespective of their hardness, any material can be machined
 Components with very small wall thicknesses can be machined easily (honey comb
structure)
 Work piece suffer no metallurgical changes
 No tool wear and hence same tool can be used for any number of times
 Complex shapes can be produced in one operation
 For very hard materials, MRR is sometimes better than that of conventional machining

Disadvantages of ECM
 Equipment is costly
 Process is uneconomical for small quantity production of dies and work pieces
 Specific power consumption is high
 Problems encountered in ECM are not familiar to those who are accustomed to
conventional processes
 The design and manufacturing of tool electrode is very difficult and time consuming
 Tooling costs are relatively high

Applications ECM:
 Die sinking
 Trepanning
 Deep hole drilling
 Milling or grinding
 Profile turning
 Cutting off (EC sawing)
 Multiple drilling
 Internal grinding
 Spline cutting

Metal Removal Rate:

 Influence of Contact pressure and Grinding wheel speed on Current density and MRR
is as shown in the following characteristic curves
 Contact pressure: Higher contact pressure beyond certain limit results in the formation
of sparks and increased wheel wear due to higher current densities.
 Increase in MRR with contact pressure is less and not quite linear
 As the grinding wheel speed is increased, MRR as well as current density increases

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Electrochemical grinding

ECG is the anodic dissolution of a positive work-piece under a conductive rotating

abrasive wheel with a moving conductive electrolyte.

Advantages
 Fixtures used for holding the components are simple in construction

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 Hard metal parts can be easily machined without cracks and burns
 Cutting tools with specially shaped edges can be ground easily and quickly
 Closer tolerances can be obtained in this process
 Due to negligible wear, the life of grinding wheels is increased
 Surface finish up to 0.25 microns can be achieved

Disadvantages
 Initial investment required for the equipment is quite high compared to conventional
process
 Applications of ECG are limited – Non-conductive materials like hard ceramics cannot
be machined with this process
 Electrolytes, if purchased in ready-to-mix form are quite expensive and must be
replaced regularly
 Most electrolyte solutions are corrosive in nature and hence detrimental to machines
 Machining of cast iron by ECG presents certain difficulties

Electrochemical honing
 Electrochemical Honing can be used to increase the MRR by a factor of 2 or 3 than that
achieved in conventional honing.
 Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a metal
work-piece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path.
 Honing is primarily used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but may also
improve the surface texture.

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Electrochemical Deburring
Deburring is slightly different from ECM in that the tool and work-piece are placed in
a relatively fixed position with a gap of 0.1 to 1mm. The tool is positioned near the base of the
burr and machining is done.

Electrochemical Turning

 Figure shows a typical set up for EC Turning operation.

 The tool is made as wide as possible to cover the intended area.
 Holes are provided at the end of the tool to supply the electrolyte.
 Tool feeding is similar to conventional machining.
 Special equipments are available for facing & peripheral metal removal.

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