04/02/2025

3. Reproduction
Mario V Balzan Ph.D.
[Link]@[Link]

Reproduction
• Type of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Parthenogenesis.
Adaptive meaning of the different reproductive patterns.
• DEVELOPMENT: Biological cycles. Larval and metamorphosis
development.

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Animal Reproduction
• Biological process by which living organisms generate new
individuals (offspring), to which they transmit their genetic
material.
• Sexual vs asexual reproduction.
• Asexual reproduction – there is only one parent; usually there are no
reproductive organs; gives rise to copies genetically identical to the
parent.
• Sexual reproduction – usually involves two parents. Germ cells
(gametes or sex cells) unite forming a zygote. The offspring is
genetically different from the parent. Creates multiple variations and
makes possible evolution of different forms.

Asexual Reproduction

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Asexual Reproduction
• 1 parent
• Without reproductive organs
• Produces clones
• Found in bacteria and unicellular eukaryotes and in many
invertebrate phyla, such as cnidarians, bryozoans, annelids, and
echinoderms.
• Rare among vertebrates but animals of some taxa can reproduce
both asexually and sexually. In these groups, asexual reproduction
ensures rapid increase in numbers prior to the individual’s
attaining sexual maturity.

Asexual Reproduction
• Types of asexual reproduction
• Binary Fission
• Multiple Fission or schizogony
• Budding
• Gemmulation
• Fragmentation

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Asexual Reproduction
• Binary Fission: the body of the unicellular parent divides by
mitosis into two approximately equal parts, each of which grows
into an individual similar to the parent.
• Binary fission may be lengthwise, as in flagellate unicellular
eukaryotes, or transverse, as in ciliate unicellular eukaryotes.

Asexual Reproduction
• Multiple Fission (or schizogony): the nucleus divides repeatedly
before division of the cytoplasm, producing many daughter cells
simultaneously.
• Spore formation, called sporogony, is a form of multiple fission
common among some parasitic unicellular eukaryotes, for
example, malarial parasites.

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Asexual Reproduction
• Budding is an unequal division of an organism. A new individual
arises as an outgrowth (bud) from its parent, develops organs like
those of the parent and then detaches itself.
• Budding occurs in several animal phyla and is especially
prominent in cnidarians

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Asexual Reproduction
• Gemmulation is the formation of a new individual from an
aggregation of cells surrounded by a resistant capsule, called a
gemmule.
• In many freshwater sponges, gemmules develop in the fall and
survive the winter in the dried or frozen body of the parent. In
spring, the enclosed cells become active, emerge from the
capsule, and grow into a new sponge.

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Asexual Reproduction
• Fragmentation: a multicellular animal breaks
into two or more parts, with each fragment
capable of becoming a complete individual.
• Many invertebrates, for example, most
anemones and many hydroids, can reproduce
asexually by simply breaking into two parts and
then regenerating the missing parts of the
fragments.
• Many echinoderms can regenerate lost parts,
but this is not the same as reproduction by
fragmentation.

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Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is the production of individuals from the
fusion of gametes.
• Includes bisexual (or biparental) reproduction as the most
common form, involving two separate individuals.
• Hermaphroditism is a less common form of sexual reproduction.

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Sexual Reproduction
• Bisexual reproduction is the production of offspring formed by
the union of gametes from two genetically different parents.
• Offspring genetically different from the parent.
• Dioecious vs Monoecious:
• Dioecious - Different sexes, male and female (e.g. nearly all vertebrates).
• Monoecious – animals having both male and female organs. These
animals are Hermaphrodites.

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Sexual Reproduction
• Meiosis
• Haploid gamete cells
• Fertilisation
• 99% of animals reproduce sexually at
some point in their lives. Why?

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Sexual Reproduction
• Meiosis
• Haploid gamete cells
• Fertilisation
• 99% of animals reproduce sexually at
some point in their lives. Why?
• Genetic Recombination: Diploid Zygote
with equal number of chromosomes
from each parent but is a unique
individual bearing a recombination of
parental characteristics. -> Adding new
genetic combinations to a population.

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Fertilisation or
Syngamy
• Types of fertilisation
• Internal fertilisation:
• Gametes inside the female
• Aquatic or terrestrial environment
• Frequent care of offspring

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Fertilisation or
Syngamy
• Types of fertilisation
• Internal fertilisation:
• Gametes inside the female
• Aquatic or terrestrial environment
• Frequent care of offspring
• External Fertilisation
• Gametes released into the
environment
• Generally aquatic environment
• No offspring care
• Production of many eggs.

Giant Clam (Tridacna

gigas; Mollusca)
Sponges (Porifera) Coral (Cnidaria) spawning spawning

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Hermaphroditism
• Animals with sexual organs (testes and
ovaries) in the same individual.
Monoecious individuals.
• Some fertilise themselves but most
avoid self-fertilisation.
• Simultaneous Hermaphrodites:
• Maturation of gonads at the same time.
• Sequential Hermaphrodites
• Maturation of gonads at different
times.

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Reproductive Patterns
• Oviparous (“egg-birth”) – animals that lay their eggs outside the body
for development. Include the majority of vertebrates. Many abandon
their eggs indiscriminately while other display great care in finding
places that provide food for young when they hatch.
• Many invertebrates and some vertebrates such as amphibians, some fish, reptiles and
birds
• Ovoviviparous (“egg-live-birth”) – animals that incubate their eggs
internally, with embryos deriving nourishment from the egg yolk.
• Annelids, brachiopods, insects and gastropod molluscs and common in fish and reptiles
• Viviparous (“live-birth”) – fertilised eggs develop in the oviduct or
uterus with embryos deriving all their nourishment directly from the
mother.
• Mammals, some elasmobranchs, some amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates such as
scorpions, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates such as scorpions

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Parthenogenesis
• The development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg or one in which the
male and female nuclei fail to unite following fertilization.
• Ameiotic or Diploid Parthenogenesis:
• No meiosis occurs and the egg is formed by cell division.
• The offspring is therefore a clone of the parent.
• Some flatworms, rotifers, crustaceans, and insects.

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Parthenogenesis

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Parthenogenesis
• The development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg or one
in which the male and female nuclei fail to unite following
fertilization.
• Ameiotic or Diploid Parthenogenesis:
• No meiosis occurs and the egg is formed by cell division.
• The offspring is therefore a clone of the parent.
• Some flatworms, rotifers, crustaceans, and insects.
• Meiotic Parthenogenesis
• The egg is formed by meiosis.
• The haploid begins development spontaneously and may or may not
be activated by the influence of sperm.
• Diploid condition may be restored by chromosomal duplication or by
autogamy (rejoining of haploid nuclei).
• Some flatworms, rotifers, annelids, mites, and insects.
• Case of bees, wasps and ants. Example: Honebees: Fertilised eggs -
> diploid females (workers, queen); unfertilised eggs -> meiotic
parthenogenesis -> haploid males (drones)
• Haplodiploidy - males are haploid; females are diploid.

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Animal Development Animals having tissue organisation.

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ORGANOGENESIS
FERTILISATION

EMERGENCE
OF THE
MESODERM

SEGMENTATION
GASTRULATION
(2 germ layers)
Blastocoel

MORULA
Archenteron (primitive gut)
BLASTULA Blastopore

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1. Radial Holoblastic Cleavage

A. Sea Star (Isolectihal Egg):
• Isolectihal eggs have small, evenly distributed yolk.
• Cleavage is radial and holoblastic, meaning the entire egg divides
symmetrically.
• Results in uniform, symmetrical blastomeres.
B. Frog (Mesolecithal Egg):
• Mesolecithal eggs have moderate yolk concentrated at the vegetal pole.
• Cleavage is holoblastic, but slower at the vegetal pole due to yolk.
• Formation of the grey crescent, a region critical for dorsal-ventral axis
formation.
2. Spiral Holoblastic Cleavage
C. Nemertean Worm (Isolectihal Egg):
• Spiral cleavage occurs in spiralians (e.g., annelids, molluscs).
• Cells divide in a spiral pattern, leading to a helical arrangement.
• Typically found in organisms with isolectihal eggs.
3. Discoidal Meroblastic Cleavage
D. Chick (Telolecithal Egg):
• Telolecithal eggs have large amounts of yolk, mostly at the vegetal pole.
• Cleavage is meroblastic (partial), occurring only in the small, yolk-free area
(blastodisc).
• Common in birds and reptiles, where yolk hinders complete division.
4. Rotational Holoblastic Cleavage
E. Mouse (Isolectihal Egg):
• In mammals, cleavage is rotational and holoblastic.
• Initial divisions are perpendicular, followed by asynchronous divisions.
• Leads to formation of a morula and later a blastocyst, essential for
implantation.

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Feature Protostomes Deuterostomes

Cleavage Spiral, Radial,

Pattern determinate indeterminate
Becomes the Becomes the
Blastopore Fate
mouth anus
Enterocoely –
Schizocoely -
Coelom forms
Coelom Coelom forms
by outpocketing
Formation by splitting of
of the
the mesoderm
archenteron
Nervous Ventral nerve Dorsal nerve
System cord cord
Mollusks, Chordates,
Examples arthropods, echinoderms,
annelids hemichordates

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Coelom
• The coelom is a fluid-filled cavity within the
mesoderm.
• A space bounded by the mesoderm, where
organs are suspended by mesenteries.
• Allows for a more stable arrangement of
organs.
• Functions as an efficient hydrostatic skeleton,
facilitating movement through antagonistic
circular and longitudinal muscles.
• Mesenteries: provide an ideal site for blood
vessel networks, enhancing circulation.
• Support a more muscular gastrointestinal
tract, improving digestive efficiency.
• Enable the development of larger and more
complex body forms.

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Germ Layer Structures

Endoderm - Epithelium lining the digestive tract (except the oral cavity and anal canal) and the epithelium of its glands.
- Epithelium lining the urinary bladder, bile ducts, and liver.
- Epithelium lining the pharynx, Eustachian tube, tonsils, tympanic cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
- Epithelium of the thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, and thymus glands.
- Epithelium lining the prostate, Cowper's glands, vagina, vestibule, urethra, and associated glands.
Mesoderm - All cardiac and skeletal muscle tissue, and most of the smooth muscle tissue.
- Cartilage, bone, and other connective tissues.
- Blood, red bone marrow, and lymphatic tissue.
- Blood vessels and lymphatic vessels.
- Dermis of the skin.
- Fibrous tunic and vascular tunic of the eye.
- Mesothelium of the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.
- Kidneys and ureters.
- Adrenal cortex.
- Gonads and genital ducts (excluding germ cells).
- Dura mater (outer layer of the meninges).
Ectoderm - All nervous tissue.
- Epidermis of the skin.
- Hair follicles, arrector pili muscles, nails, and the epithelium of cutaneous (sebaceous and sweat) glands and mammary glands.
- Lens and cornea.
- Inner ear.
- Neuroepithelium of sensory organs.
- Epithelium of the oral and nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, salivary glands, and parts of the anal canal.
- Epithelium of the pineal gland, pituitary gland, and adrenal medulla.
- Melanocytes (pigment-producing cells).
- Nearly all components of the skull and connective tissues of the head.
- Arachnoid and pia mater (meningeal layers).

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Life Cycles
• Postembryonic development - a part of ontogeny that follows
embryonic development and ends with sexual maturation:
• Indirect Development
• Direct Development

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Indirect Development
Presence of free larval stage
(usually swimming).
More or less accentuated
metamorphosis to reach the adult
stage.
Aquatic and insect organisms.

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Metamorphosis
It is the passage from larva to juvenile or
preadult. This is a crucial and dangerous
time in the animal's life. The animal
changes its habitat and lifestyle.
E.g. Free-swimming larvae -> Benthic
juveniles
It responds to environmental stimuli to
establish itself:
• Negative phototropism.
• Positive geotropism (towards gravity) ->
sinking to the bottom.
By physical, chemical and biological
stimuli, it detects suitable habitat
to establish itself

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Direct Development
• Copulation and internal fertilization (except in certain direct-
developing amphibians, fish, and insects).
• No free larval stage - juveniles resemble adults at birth or
hatching.
• Development occurs within the egg (incubation) or inside the
mother (gestation). In some insects (e.g., silverfish), juveniles
hatch as miniature versions of adults and continue moulting
throughout life.
• Parental care may or may not be present, depending on the
species. Many vertebrates exhibit parental care, whereas most
direct-developing insects do not.

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Direct Development
Female
Gametes

Copulation Internal Fertilisation

Embryo incubated or
Adult
encapsulated

Birth or
Maturation
hatching
Juvenile

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