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Graphical Ray Tracing

The document discusses graphical ray tracing techniques for solving optical problems involving lenses and mirrors. It outlines methods for tracing light rays through multiple lenses, including the parallel ray method and the oblique ray method, while providing rules for locating images formed by positive and negative lenses. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of using basic drafting tools and techniques to create accurate optical diagrams.

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116 views19 pages

Graphical Ray Tracing

The document discusses graphical ray tracing techniques for solving optical problems involving lenses and mirrors. It outlines methods for tracing light rays through multiple lenses, including the parallel ray method and the oblique ray method, while providing rules for locating images formed by positive and negative lenses. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of using basic drafting tools and techniques to create accurate optical diagrams.

Uploaded by

myfcon77
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
No. 9083 50% graphical Find: EL er Back, 66 ‘uel! pos" [ Raa: ie RACI P i EDMUND & BROWN dN GRAPHICAL Solution Pos x NEG E.FL.= eg-pos+ a 2 ae 20 ee : : | EFL = gag y as ale aa Tig 1+! to" POSITION of Ma ERE xd 316. x12e10 yn MATH ei F; 4 4 ce ti Cie Pos. Solution graphical RAY TRACING Ne AA CLS lue eT P COPYRIGHT 1368 ] EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CO. BARRINGTON, NEW JERSE IF YOU like optics you will find graphical ray tracing both interesting and instructive, The simple graphical trace combined with a bit of elementary math will give you the approximate first solution to any kind of optical problem in- volving an object and an image, You can put Light rays through multiple lenses almost as easily as through a singie element, ‘Tools needed are the common ones used in any kind of mechanical drawing or drafting, that 1s, drawing board and T-square, An adjustable triangle {s helpful, almost amust for the popular and useful oblique trace, Three or more colors of pencils or ballpoint desk pens will make your work easy on the eyes and easy to understand, Drawings should be made full-size whenever possible, and if beyond your board, the apertures should be retained full-size, scaling down the Jongitudinal dimensions only to suit, First Pointers fa\ Lens 1s ASSUMED To [AVE NO THICKNESS ~IT IS ___ REPRESENTED BY A SINGLE LINE SINCE THIN LENSES ARE SELDOM QUER Ia" THICK, ‘NO GREAT ERRORS REST. FROM NEGLECTING THE KIND OF GLASS AND 173 THICKNESS Positive TENS) Necarwe| ENS LENSES ARE THIN — See TELESCOPE LENS i aa i “Sas Peaecror ——>| LIGHT COMES FROM THE LEFT (wHewever peacricac) FIRST on PRIMARY SECOND FOCAL PoinT FOCAL REPT TaRTE —>| Peg naa ‘GRE FOCAL TENET ‘THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A LENS re ee THE SAME IN EITHER DIRECTION meee Stsggeree Mega nAN) secono secon gs ~f SEA SERN SS Point = POINT — Be # lenge 5 ALL LENSES WORK PERFECTLY. ExampLe 1s Basic CASE WHERE ALL RAYS FROM A DISTANT POINT FOCUS AT ONE F.L. t \_— Bdsrwov 1: Re-rack ORAWING WITH LINE Proletem QNENTHE A PARALLEL TO INE) A, T-SQUARE . You CAN LINEB PARALLEL TOIT tuet pea Line Vee et [ite | E urs be ee QAstwo0 2: Ser Aa TRIANGLE TO LINE A AND THEN SLIDE IT ALONG HAND-HELD T-SqUuARE To DRAW LINE B Best way! AN ADJUSTABLE TRI- ANGLE (Sven as coruno| 1070-799) HANDLES THE J08 PERFECTLY “~<[== MATH FORMULAS, Calculating the equivalent Menai ot a ewociena syetomn te obe of te se eet Seontons tnvoptioa Sra ables cee eee eer alse conventions waa get he eiving @ separsie forma for cae i Sotininiuons porsbie wit foo Senos Paraue. | Omer TRACE to PP's 44" (examers)- eEnren or 2 Lens Diagrams /. Se Qui “fram Pra ‘The £, 1, of a atmple lens ts VEX Aen Increseed by glase thickness and decreased by a refractive wen Paria umber higher than 1,80. The Ro gouveanesn Pa vray thie works out, You can ‘MMe Sea Eonar toply the simple formulas From Font of GLASS shown to get £1, with a good degree of accuracy, aesuming crown glass (indexabou! 1,52) for mont lenses. Yay ger mace axsranct paoe Mes aboot ai ee) — | @© EQUIVALENT FOCAL LENGTH of TWO LENSES: Dre “Woe [se awn | Two positive | Two Nesarive | yecarwve'is zomsen’[ NEG. If SHORTERTL. TE zs BASIC efi Sg al Fxe = POS x NEG = POS x NEG Bae) ers F+F-dy, cueing Feed | EFL" wes-posed | fitibis Pos-nee-a Examples: ae Fee’ yy 4" rage prea" ry fies hedxo(veane) =o wesney 4.0 (usee) 0 (uanw) eonacr) 24 o 2x4 " 4x2 1 Res gharo? to"24"| Revaeaton fea" [Fenmate= $= 4" |R-gtit5= 9 = 40 | “Lt ke ilies =a, =U Binge NO SPACING LIMIT, | NO SPACING LIMIT, NO CHANGE IN NO CHANGE IN SPACING FORMULA FORMULA Tair E.P.L, ALWAYS NEGA- THE EFL. (Fe) iS Gran) Fite and oucacasts | Tuas peeve | Ur ‘nedeased | and Becomes Less SPmCING Ginn menensed Space change FORMULAS | yo cimir ge tite Bete aetaey Samoter |SPACING' a o OVER § 4 ay THE = 120 d= 10% ar Camry 5 ore = = -O¥A 224) |p 2 2x e* a Te+4)~ Fe b+ 4410 ~ 204 CA=24+10 Re ceunouna harass 2 at THE MICROSCOPE Basis rom PROJECTION HOTE! Ait FORMULAS ARE ARRANGED TO BE WORKED By SMBLE ARTHONETIC sus MINUS MEANS ONLY SUBTRACTION Standard FORMULAS: DISTANCE from FIRST LENS (or PPI of First Lens) * TO PP of COMBINATION = DISTANCE from SECOND LENS (or PP2 of Second. Lens) To PP2 of COMBINATION = THESE FORMULAS APPLY TO ALL cases IE THE Two Lenses ane Wpenrital, Taz BP's whee BE SYMMETRICAL @_PRINCIPAL PLANES Example: PP DIRECTION... spacing () /ese than Limit} ty, TWO | Th Ry, ['0s, | Nee. PP1 | Ria | RIGHT Pe2 | cert | user Order [gEES| moras | +eSpacing MORE than limit Two | Two Pos. | NES. pea pen Te pes ace [ppy | uerr | — ' Tacakearm | PPZ | #1647 | above iW) incest space [Order |wormas) — Baweuese u OBJECT- IMAGE lene and the postin ofthe object irom the ene, The problem, then, is to find the position of the image, Fig, 3 table on opposite page covers all of the common situations, Strangely, the for~ mulas become useless for the common case of an object at infinity, but on the other hand such a math solution is never needed-~if the GRAPHICAL RAY TRACING inevitably reveals object is at infinity, the image will be exactly that math {s faster and more accurate for most ‘one focal length from the lens. problems, Perhaps the best feature of the graph~ Graphical and math methods are comparedin ival trace is the assurance you get from actually Figs. 1 and 2, which show a typical telephoto putting the light rays through the various lens: lens, A Barlow lens used with a telescope is, A combination of math and graph is often the similar, The graphical trace is done by the best solution, The math itself is simple, being parallel ray method for the first lene; then, the confined to the elementary thin-len equations, same ray is put through the second lens with the ‘The general idea is that you know the f.1, of the oblique ray method, The diagram must be made MATH vs Graphical Trace Q@7VPICALPROBLEM = F=9" Feanes GIVEN: 4 Dos-neG Duncer [\ es Cine SoeeeKL | eee Seeno Fino: £.6..and.posi= |} —~ TION of FOCAL PLANE fa MATH SowUTION: de Fros ¥ Eneo _ 8X3 24 oJ EPs Qeged-os "346-8 1 24 FOCAL PLANE: This Is SIMPLY THE IMAGE t POSITION OF A DISTANT OBJECT FIRst LEN! Since THe oBsEcr 1s. AT INFINITY, THE PRIMARY (MAGE es > 2a | IMAGE SR 1 Paine ~ Wyk BE IN THE FOCAL. PLANE OF FIRST LENS Secono Lens: THE IMAGE FORMED BY Fist Lens Becomes THE OBsECT FOR THE SECOND LENS This 18 4 CASES ‘prosiem (Se 0 Pacs) opmioa. B=h%A .3%2, ster D FA 3-2 ' AgTER FINDING WOH! caccurare posirion oF pp2, ‘THE FOCAL PLANE USING THE FORMULA SHOWN OF COMBINED ON PREVIOUS PAGE. Then, SET OFF THE LENSES, YOU Focal Lensr FeOM PPA 70 LOCATE FOCAL PANE caneadon uP ANY DESIRED ~ Light RAYS TO. ‘SHOW ACTUAL LIGHT PATH 12 @ OBJECT - IMAGE MATH How TO FIND IMAGE DISTANCE from ‘KNOWN Sree LENS WHEN OBJECT DISTANCE IS GaSe| opzices| SBI TRE EE ance Example: ‘MIRROR More images] THAN eet 1 Bor cess a— SS * THAN "ghee Any | ineintry | B= EXa Bte Postrive AF LENS OR | Less | teimace LENS maton | Han on roca, | k—8 LENGTH | Bs £ xA =A Any fa 3 [Neate Any Take “+ LENS | DISTANCE, an OR MiRRo EEA xA ef¥R 7 ge ® ETA B= 62 ~ 18 4 ay ES \SECOND \ OF TWO | ANY 4 |postrne tore Oa OR eA x rome MiRRORS| =ErA NERINE Ea Less =F THAN 5 | re | THAN = ggarive| ONE, Mignon | LENGTH = xa OFA OS-NES| MORE. Eral aa Bec comer | Tan | 42. Cage, 4 6 |Nmon | One —F Be Focat | L a—l LENGTH * 3x8. Bog B= EEA (uyyee| Ba 2XS = B= oer ‘ALi Cases: A is the OBJECT DISTANCE; ® is the IMAGE DISTANCE, MasniFicaTiON (Linear): M = Ya fairly “fat," as shown, in order to obtain a reasonable degree of accuracy, The diagram can be made in less than 5 minutes when you are familiar with the procedure, ‘The math solution is done by finding the image position for the first lens and then using this as the object for the second lens, This locates the final image plane of a distant object, and this, image position is algo the focal plane of the combined lenses, The equivalent focal length ie found by a separate calculation, as shown, With an infinity object, you can also finde.f,1, by multiplying the linear M, of second lens by the 4, 1, of first lens, This is the formula commonly used for Barlow lenses, In the example shown, the near M, of second lens is B/A is 6/2 is ax, Then, 3 times 8 gives 24 inches for the focal length of the combined lenses, This calculation is used only for a distant object; if the object is at a lesser distance, the first lens will contribute to the magnification so that it is not an exclusive feature of the second lens, ® ENTRANCE PUPIL, ‘ond. APERTURE STOP Exit PUPIL of a TELESCOPE GRAPHICAL TRACE TO FIND SIZE and. POSITION STOPS and Pupils IN EVERY optical system there is one lens or diaphragm which limits the size of the bundle of ght rays that can get through the lens system, ‘This Hmiting aperture {s called the aperture stop, Often it Le the front lene of an instrument, which is the case for telescopes and micro- scopes, For 2 camera lens, the aperture stopis the iris diaphragm located between the lenses, When you use a magnifying glass, your eyeis the smallest aperture in the optical system, and 60 becomes the aperture stop. ‘The pupils are images of the aperture stop, ‘The entrance pupil is the image of the aperture stop formed by the lens or lenses ahead of it, If there is no lens in front of the aperture stop, the aperture stop itself assumes adual role, be~ ing alo the entrance pup! Thus, inatelescope, the front lens is the aperture stop and and also ‘the entrance pupil. ‘The exit pupil is the image of the aperture stop formed by the lens or lenses behind it, In the case of a telescope, the lens behind the @ TRACE THROUGH 2-LENS EYEPIECE objective is the eyepteces the image of the ob- jective formed by the eyepiece ie the exit pupil. It the eyeptece is a single lens, the exit pupil is readily located by the parallel ray method, a8 shown in Fig. 1, More often the eyepiece {sa tworlens system and the trace to locate the exit pupil is done by the parallel ray method for the first lens, and the oblique ray method for the second, Fig, 2 {8 an example, Inastrotelescopes with long objectives, the exit pupil ts approx- imately one focal length of the eyeptece behind the eyepiece, In other words, the eyepiece is looking at a comparatively distant object (the objective), and so forms an image at about one 1,1, In short telescopes and binoculars, the ob- jective is closer to the eyepiece with the result the exit pupil will be found s little more than cone focal length behind the eyepiece, A DUPLET WITHOUT A STOP, One of the most familiar optical systems is the simple lens duplet, with or without a stop, When there ig no we a f/value of a DUPL Ifyou make a graphical tracethrough © 2 duplet from the front focal point, the emergent parallel beam will be the diameter of the entrance pupil. ‘Than, by the usual formula, the f/value ‘of the lens fe the focal length divided by the diameter of the entrance pup! ‘The f/value isnot validunlees the Lens covers come practical sizeofangular Held, commonly 25 degrees or more, Fhualueacibiton= Ss" 3 HEELS SMALLER LENS Has same Fil @ But tale '§ NOT vasiD UNLESS SMa ek A nana PeLD 4 stop, the front lens te the aperture stop and also’ the entrance pupil, The exit pupil {s the image of the first lene formed by the second lens, Preliminary date is usually obtained mathematically, using the simple formulas already described, The math work includes the e.f., and the P's, Fig. 3, and may include the exit pupil itself, as shown at C, Unlike the tele- scope, the exit pupil is a virtual image, appear- ing to be ahead of the first lens, as shown, If desired, its position can be found graphically, as shown in Fig, 3D, ‘Once you know the location of the exit pupil, it offers yet another method of graphically tracing light rays through the optical system. Fig. 3E is a typical example, with the object Jocated at infinity, The graphical trace of light rays through the first lens is done by the parallel ray method, You already know how to put the light ray through the necond dens by using the oblique ray method, However, the exit pupil now offers an alternate method. Since the exit pupil is a picture of the firetlens, anything that happens to the first lens will also happen to the image of the first lens, which is the exit pupil, So, if @ Mgnt ray goes through the edge of the first lens, it will also pass through (or appear to pass through) the exit pupil, This particular example is a virtual image, |<— IMAGE. 50 the refracted ray only (er cis exrr PUPIL appears to come from the edge of the exit pupil, How- t ever, the virtual exit pupil serves just as well az areal one in locating the ray path ! through the second lene. Tt | can be seen in the drawing, I the trace of the axial ray Lien aay prom 4 Poy | ing a @ SYMMETRICAL DUPLET without 0 STOP +6" Fi26" EFL. SEaE-d TT = Bses3 ae Al Calculation of Rxk THE PP’ ARE caosseD 6 In rns xantpie © Caleulation of EXIT PUPIL Fz6" A=3" W casea: Be EEA 843 18 ge 8 6-3 3 6 8.8, Mey 2S = 2x TIS THE BXIT PUPIL zo $2086 rorny GRAPHICAL TRACE APERTURE TO LOCATE THE stop EXIT PUPIL, ENTRANCE Sete we nude re PUPIL | Ay sieur ay pass fae | Saeed nates | Wenaesena To pass Toau) HE CENTER OF ‘THE-EXIT PUPIL 15 oe wf GRAPHICAL TRACE ‘eg awe © Ounce tHe EXIT PUPIL yr BAST. ext. puen, Fé as. pea” ees a ERLE EHH JUNSYMMETRICAL Dupcer t Nore nie: Bp Bo " Aer eoineioe @ symmereicat ourter with a stop ff —_ WITH THE PUPILS THE PUPILS ARE prnmerRicaL and. ARE = COINCIDENT with the PRINCIPAL PLANES: apggyuns ar erm S| BRC pe = pe image —a| — : on © Seereen re Sions Ti STOP “a Example 13 PRcseeriOn are AFTER REFRACTION BY FIRST ALTER REFRACTION BY SECOND also locates the second principal plane as well as the rear focal point of the combined lenses, With other graphical methods you can obtain good accuracy by drawing construction lines be- yond the diameter of small lenses, but with the stop~and-pupil technique you must stick to the exact sizes of stop and pupils, This oftenmeans narrow angles, apt to be inaccurate in locating the image position, Hence, it is preferable to calculate the image position and tnen use the stop and pupils only to determine the exact path of the ght raya through the lens, DUPLET WITH A STOP, Inthis familar system, the diaphragm is the aperture stop, The Image of the stop formed by the first lens is the en- trance pupil, whtle the image of the stop formed, by the second lens is the exit pupil, The pupils are usually calculated, Since the average system, is eymmetrical, one calculation serves for both entrance and exit pupils, Fig, 4, However, if the duplet is not symmetrical, you will have different locations for the pupils, as shown in Fig. 5 example, Fig. 6 shows how a ray trace is made using the stop and pupils, This is shown for 1x projec= tion, which is a convenient and compact teat case with both object and image at two focal lengths, The general method of making the ray trace is the same as already described, You know the LENS, THE RAYS PASS THRU THE ‘LENS, THE RAYS APPEAR TO COME coneésroncine ‘PART OF THE STOP FROM THE EXIT PUPIL. entrance pupil 1s a picture of the stop formed by the first lens, So, you aim the light rays at the image of the stop, knowing that after re~ fraction by the first lens the rays will then go through the stop Itself, Similarly, when the light rays leave the system, they will seem to come from the image of the stop, which is the exit pupil, The rays through the center of the lens, Fig, 6, are easy to follow. SIZE OF FIELD, The linear field of a duplet is determined by a line connecting the clear ap- erture of first lens with the lower edge of the entrance pupil; when extended to object plane, this Line marks the limit ofthe fully-IMuminated field, Fig. 6 diagram reveals the general nature of the symmetrical duplet, Note that a point at edge of field gets just about as much light as a point right on the axis, making the overall light- ing perfectly uniform, Note also how the edge- of-field rays criss-cross the two lenses, going through the thin part of one lens and the thick part of the other, a path which tends to eliminate the lateral faults of coma, distortion and color. ‘You still get poor performance from the longi tudinal faults, particularly spherical aberration, which can be decreased only by using a smaller stop, Depending on what itis used for, the simple Jens dupletis rarely practicalif faster than £/4,5, surface-by-surface incioent where doce tt ge? glass INDEX method Ray Hetanr = \Bm REFRACTIVE INDEX oF GLASS = I'SIB IT IS a needless refinement touse a surface-by- surface ray trace to solve simple object-image problem, but if you want to find the epherical aberration of alens system, the separate surface trace is the answer, whether you do the work by math or graph, The graphical method showniea vector method applied to the refractive index of SENTER OF paeausen ro AIR®1 —GLASS=LSIB Biacram Consreucrion DIAGRAM (‘4 Fut size) THB CIRCULAR ARCS REPRESENT THE INDEXES QE REFRACTION, US ANY CONVENIENT SCALE, S0cH AS 4x (shower) secon REFRACTED RAY ‘SURFACE Same Example -204 sunrace @ TRACE CONTINUED THRU SECOND SURFACE the glass, The trace is easy to do and makes an The process is repeated for the second or ad~ interesting study even if you have no great use ditional surfaces, The work is mainly a matter for it, of transferring angles from one diagram to the other. This is readily done with an adjustable AUXILIARY CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM, A sep= triangle or similar drafting tool, arate construction dlagram is neededin addition, Fig. 4 shows the complete trace in one dia~ toa diagram of the lens iteel?, The construction gram, Where the light ray crosses the axisis the diagram consists of two circular areas, one rep- focal point for this particular light ray, The senting the refractive index of air, which is 1, reference standard for the focal length of alens while the other fs the index ofthe glass used for ie obtained from a paraxial (PAR-axial) ray, the lens, which means a light ray on or near the axie, If ‘The sample problem, Fig, 1, 18 broken into you were to draw such a ray, you would be likely two stages to show the process more clearly, to make a considerable error because of the Lines 1 and 2 are drawn first, these being on the slim angles involved, What youneedis paraxial lens diagram, The angle of line 2is thentransfer- trace, but drawn at some comfortable distance red to the construction diagram, being line 4, from the axis, This can be done by simply Then, if you Join the end ofthie line to the center duplicating the conditions at the center of the of the construction dlagram, you will get the angle lens, which is accomplished by using tangent of the refracted ray at the first surface, This planes, Fig, 5, Now you can work a! any distance angle {s then transferred to the lens drawing, from the axle, and the light ray will perform iv INGENT GLASS 1.518 % Respacren why 1SsuRt Ff REFRACTED RAY-2"4 SURE. aiea™ — aie a “AIRE | Giass=1.518 ig-—-—} 2 3 is t€ ~ 7” ai OS wa ~ ie ssl CONSTRUCTION 100 man Buenas with STRAIGHT | wnesTeaere, Enraaret AiRe1 Alt DIAGRAMS Ty Fue SPE Pemacre INDEX (") 2156 pot — FL. with Ws 1.518- TT cas s80—af Nore: The woRma"7T0A —AIR=| 4x CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM, PARAXIAL TRACE for a. PLANO-CONVEX LENS AIR=1 GLAS © PARAXIAL TRACE For an EQuI-CONCAVE LENS exactly like a paraxial ray, From the paraxial trace you get the focal plane of the lens, which is at the point where the light ray cuts across the axis, SPHERICAL ABERRATION, A paraxial trace as described locates the focal point of the lene, Ideally, all rays should come to thie same focus--any departure is the fault known as spherical aberration, Simple lenses will always show some S, A, It is always under-corrected for positive lenses, that is, a marginal ray will fall short of the paraxial focus, Spherical aber- ration increases approximately as the square of the ray height--a ray twice as far fromthe axis will have four times the S. A. To find the S, A. of a lens, you make a par- axial trace using tangent planes to find the paraxial focus, Then, a marginal ray ie drawn, It can be the same incident parallel ray as be fore, but this time it is drawn to the surface of the lens, and the construction diagram uses in- dex cireles instead of straight lines, The dif- ference in the axial intercept is the longitudinal, spherical aberration, Unfortunately, you can't use this method for mirrors for the simple reason the "index" of a mirror is 1, the same as air, 19 REFRACTED Ayan REFRACTED rf RAY=15¢ SURF. lpp2 Fibs UO k- REFRACTED 7 RAY=aM Sue, "REFRACTED. SS RAN= Tet sone. VARIATIONS IN FOCAL LENGTH, The various graph and math methods used to find f. 1, may vary slightly since some of the methods are merely close approximations, For example, the £1, of an equi-convex lens is the same as its radius of curvature--FsR, Neither glass thick- ness nor index are considered, Fig, 6 is graphical proof thatthe f.1, of a lens is increased by glass thickness, Fig. 7 shows that a high index number will decrease the focal length, Simple lens formulas are based on an assumed index of 1,50, However, the most com- mon optical glass has an index of about 1.52, ‘And, of course, even a thin lens has some glass thickness, The next result is that the two var- iables are more or less self-compensating, OTHER EXAMPLES, Fig, 8 shows a paraxial trace through a plano-convex lens, It can be seen that the "normal" to a plane surface is a line parallel with the axis, Another small var~ iation here is the normal tofirst surface, which, if desired, can be drawn first at any convenient angle, here 45 degrees, Fig, 9 shows the paraxial trace through a negative lens, It can be seenthe trace also serves to locate the principal planes, which are sym- metrical in a symmetrical lens,

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