Difference b/w male and female External sex characters

Male External sex Characters Female external Sex Characters

1) Height is comparatively more. 1. Height is comparatively short.

2) Facial hair beard and moustaches present. 2. Facial hairs are absent.
3) Breast remain undeveloped, mammary 3. Breasts are well developed and contain
glands are absent. mammary gland.
4) Skin vasculature is less developed. 4. Skin has more blood supply.
5) Pelvis is narrow. 5. Pelvis is broad.
6) Voiced is low pitched. 6. Voice is high pitched.
7) Basal metabolic rate is higher. 7. Basal metabolic rate is lower.
8) Larynx is apparent externally as Adam’s 8. Larynx is not apparent externally.
apple.
9) There is less deposition of fat in buttocks. 9. Increased deposition of fat in buttocks.

HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

➢ It is a system of closely related organs and accessory glands found in human males.
➢ It is located in pelvic regions.
➢ Human male reproductive system is consists of;
1) A pair of testes.
2) External genitalia.
3) A number of accessory ducts.
4) Accessory glands and
➢ External genital includes Penis and scrotum.
➢ Accessory ducts are; rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and
urethra.
➢ Accessory glands includes; seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland.
Functional Anatomy of Male Reproductive System:
1. Testes: (sl. Testis)
➢ Testes are only primary sex organs of human
male.
Location:
➢ Testes are extra abdominal or scrotal.
Morphology:
➢ Testes are oval, soft, smooth and pinkish.
➢ The size is 4 to 5 cm in length, 2-3cm in
thickness and 2-3cm in wide.
➢ Weight is about 12g.
Anatomy of testis:
➢ Each testis is covered with three coverings
called Tunicae or testicular coverings.
➢ These are;
(i) Tunica Vaginalis: It is restricted to one side.
➢ It is a sac like structure filled with coelomic
fluid.
➢ This helps testis in frictionless sliding.
➢ Its presence indicates abdominal origin of
testis.
(ii) Tunica Albuginea: It is actual covering of testis.
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 ➢ Tunica albuginea is the outermost covering of testis.
➢ The covering is made of dense bluish fibrous connective tissue.
➢ This passes into testis to form mediastinum and a number of septa.
➢ The septa divide testes into about 250 testicular lobules.
(iii) Tunica Vasculosa:
➢ It is delicate loose connective tissue which lines the testicular lobules inner to tunica albuginea.

Histology of testis:
➢ Each testicular lobule is filled with connective tissue and 1-3 yellow seminiferous tubules.
➢ The total number of seminiferous tubules in a testis is about 500.
➢ These occur in highly coiled form and each seminiferous tubule is about 70-80cm long.
➢ Few adjacent seminiferous tubules joins at mediastinum to form tubule recti.
➢ The rete testis is an anastomosing network of delicate tubules located in the hilum of
the testicle (mediastinum testis) that carries sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the efferent
ducts.
➢ Connecting tissues of testicular lobules contain endocrine cells called Leydig cells.
➢ Leydig cells are large sized polyhedral cells with eccentric nucleus, yellow pigment and fat
vacuoles.
➢ Under the influence of Luteinising hormone (LH) or Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)
Leydig cells produces androgenic hormone. e.g. Testosterone.
➢ They also stimulate germinal epithelium to undergo spermatogenesis.
Germinal Epithelium:
➢ Epithelium of seminiferous tubules functions as germinal epithelium.
➢ The epithelium has two types of cells;
(a) Primary Male germ cells: these are cuboidal in shape.
➢ they undergo divisions to form 4-8 layers of spermatogenic cells.
➢ Spermatogenic cells undergo meiosis to form spermatozoa.

(b) Supporting cells/ Sertoli Cells:

➢ These are large, pyramidal and elongated cells.
➢ Apices of these cells projecting to the lumen of seminiferous tubules providing attaching site to
spermatocytes.
➢ Sertoli sells works in response to FSH.
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 ➢ They secrete spermatogenic substance to nourish different cells involve in spermatogenesis.
➢ These are hence called as nurse cell.
2. External genitalia
(i) Scrotum:
➢ It is a loose pigmented pouch of skin arising from lower abdominal wall which hangs b/w the
thighs behind the penis.
➢ An internal septum divides scrotum into two sacs.
➢ Testis rest in its chamber over a pad like cord called gubernaculum.
➢ Each scrotum possesses a smooth dartos muscle.
➢ Scrotum provides testes a temperature 2-2.50C lower as compared to abdomen.
➢ Lower temperature is optimum for Spermatogenesis.
➢ Testes maintain the lower temperature than the body temperature through counter current
mechanism.
➢ Counter current mechanism is done through a plexus of arteries called pampiniform plexus.
➢ Hence, pampiniform plexus maintains lower temperature in testis.
➢ During cold season testes elevate by the help of cremasteric muscle present in scrotum to get the
warmth of the body, a phenomenon described as Cremasteric reflex.
➢ In foetus the testes develop inside abdomen but descend into scrotum in 7th month of development.
➢ Testis descend into scrotum through inguinal canal.
➢ In few mammals remain permanently in the abdomen without any defect. E.g. Elephant, Seal,
Whale etc.
➢ In mammals which seasonally, the testes descend into scrotum only during breeding season. E.g.
Bat, otter etc.
(ii) Penis:
➢ It is erectile male copulatory organ.
➢ Penis has a long shaft and swollen tip known as glans penis.
➢ Glans penis is covered by retractile foreskin known as prepuce or praeputium.
➢ Prepuce can be made inside out.
➢ Prepuce secrete a white sebaceous secretion called smegma.
➢ Terminally, the glans contains a urinogenital aperture.
➢ Tyson’s glands are present around corona of glans, which are the modification of sebaceous
gland.
➢ Penis has two types of erectile muscles; Corpora cavernosa and corpos spongiosum.
➢ Corpus spongiosum guards urethra.
➢ Surgical removal of prepuce is called circumscion
3. Duct system:
i. Vasa Efferentia: They are 10-20fine tubules which connect rete testis with an epididymis.
➢ The cilia present in the lumen of vasa efferentia help in conducting sperms.
ii. Epididymes: These are a pair of ducts from each testis which is formed by the union of vasa
efferentia.
➢ It is about 6cm length.
➢ Each epidedymis has 3 aprts; head(caput) , middle epididymis (corpus )and caudal
(tail)epididymis or tail.
➢ It secretes nutrients required for maturation of sperms.
➢ Epididymis stores sperms till ejaculated.
iii. Vas deferens: These are a pair of uncoiled straight tube of 30-35 cm length.
➢ Vasa deferentia conduct sperms from epididymis to ejaculatory duct.
➢ They cannot store and provide nourishment to sperms.
➢ The movement of sperms in vas deferens is muscular or peristaltic.
iv. Ejaculatory ducts:
➢ Each ejaculatory duct is formed by joining vas deferens and duct of seminal vesicles.
➢ During the movement of sperms they move with mix up with secretion of seminal vesicles.
➢ It is about 2 cm long.
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v. Penile Urethra:
➢ Penile urethra is 19-20 cm long.
➢ It is common pathway for transfer of urine and semen.
4. Accessory Glands:
(i) Seminal vesicles:
➢ These are a sac like structure ranges about 4-5cm length.
➢ They secrete seminal fluid, which makes up 60-70% semen.
➢ The mucoid secretion contains fructose, citrate, inositol, prostaglandin, fibrinogen and proteins.
➢ Prostaglandin causes reverse peristalisis of female genital for quicker passage of sperms.
➢ Fructose provide energy source for sperms to swim in female genital tract.
➢ Rape victims are subjected to fructose test.
ii. Prostate Gland
• It is large grayish brown pyramidal gland of the size of a golf ball.
• Secretion of prostate gland is thin, milky and alkaline.
• Prostate secretion makes up 20-30% of semen.
• Its alkalinity is useful in neutralizing acidity of vasa deferens and vagina.
(iii)Bulbourethral gland/ Cowper’s gland:
• These are a paired yellow coloured gland.
• These opens into urethra.
• Its function is to lubricate the urinogenital tract and removal of traces of urinary acidity.
Male sexual act:
• The glans penis has a sensory endo-organ system which transmit sexual sensation to CNS.
• This induces sexual desire which is created at CNS.
• Some aphrodisiac drugs such as cantharidin increases sexual desire by irritating the bladder and
urethral mucosa.
Stages of Male sexual act:
1. Erection of penis: the first step of sexual act is erection of penis which is caused by nitric oxide
which relaxes the arteries of penis. This causes increase circulation of blood to penis.
2. Lubrication
3. Emission
4. Ejaculation: It is the release of semen from male duct.
➢ Forceful expulsion of semen from urethra is called ejaculation.
➢ The entire period of emission and ejaculation is called the male orgasm.

Human Female Reproductive System:

➢ Human reproductive system includes;
1. Primary sex organs; a pair of ovaries
2. Ducts system; fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina.
3. Vulva; mons pubis, labia, vestibule and clitoris.
4. Accessory glands; vestibular glands and breasts.

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OVARIES:
• Ovaries are discovered by Steno, 1667.
• Ovaries are the primary sex organs in human beings.
Morphology:
• Ovaries are a pair of almond shape, solid, grayish pink gonads.
• Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length, 1.5 cm in width and 1.0cm in thickness.
Location:
• They lie close to the lateral wall of pelvic cavity in the lower abdomen region.
• These remain suspended from the dorsal body wall by a fold of peritonium called mesovarium.
Anatomy & Physiology:
➢ Anatomically ovary is differentiated into;
a. Germinal Epithelium
b. Tunica Albuginea
c. Stroma; stroma consists of cortex and medulla
➢ Tunica albuginea is a loosely arranged connective tissue b/w germinal epithelium and cortex.
➢ Medulla is the central part of ovary and is supplied richly with blood vessels.
➢ Cortex region contains ovarian follicles.
➢ Cells of germinal epithelium give rise to oogonia or ovum mother cell.
➢ All oogonia develops in ovary of foetus .
➢ Each oogonium arrested in Prophase-I are called primary oocyte.
➢ Primary oocyte transformed into primary follicle after covered by a sheath of granulosa.
➢ b/w birth and puberty about 60,000 to 80,000 primary follicles left from about 2 millions oocytes.
➢ These are also called as ovarian follicle.
➢ This ovarian follicle pass through secondary follicle and tertiary follicle stages to became a Graafian
Follicle.
➢ The number of follicles in each ovary of young adult is 60,000 to 80,000. However only 450 of them
mature during the entire reproductive span.
➢ Degeneration of these follicles is called Follicular atresia.

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Structure of a Graafian Follicle:
➢ Mature ovarian follicle is called Graafian follicle, which is covered by granulosa and theca.
➢ The membrane of the follicle is called theca, the inner layer is called theca interna and outer layer is
called theca externa.
➢ A stalk like structure holds and displaced the oocyte to one side , the stalk is called cumulus ovaricus
or cumulus oophorus.
➢ Few elongated cells surround oocyte called corona radiate.
➢ A vitelline non-cellular muco protein membrane is present around oocyte called zona pellucida.
➢ The Plasma Membrane of oocyte is called oolemma.
➢ Oolemma and zona pellucida bear receptor protein called fertilizin for the recognition & attachment
of sperm head (antifertilizin).

Functional aspects of Graafian follicle:

➢ Graafian follicle are developed under the influence of FSH. FSH is a gonadotropin, glycoprotein hormone
secreted by the gonadotropic cells of anterior pituitary gland.
➢ Graanulosa cells of GF secrete estrogen. Increasing estrogen level stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete
Luteinizing hormone (LH).
➢ LH causes ovulation. LH is Ovulatory hormone
➢ Empty GF is called corpus haemorrhagic.
➢ Granullosa cells of GF converted to corpus luteum by developing lutein pigment.
➢ Corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine gland which secretes progesterone with small amount of
estrogen.
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 ➢ During menstrual period corpus luteum degenerates and is called corpus albicans.
Duct system:
(a) Fallopian tube:
➢ Each fallopian tube is about 10-12cm long and extends from the periphery of each ovary to uterus.
➢ Fallopian tube has 3 parts; (i) Infundibulum
(ii) Ampulla
(iii) Isthmus.
➢ The edge of infundibulum possess finger like projections called fimbriae, which help in collecting the
ovum after ovulation.
➢ The lumen of oviduct has cillia which help in conduction of ovum.
(b) Uterus:
➢ Uterus is single and it is also called womb.
➢ The shape of womb is an inverted pear.
➢ The wall of uterus has 3 layers; (i) outer Perimetrium
(ii) middle Myometrium
& (iii) inner endometrium
➢ The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle while myometrium exhibits strong
contraction during delivery of the baby.
➢ Removal of uterus is called Hysterectomy.
➢ The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix. Uterus is homologous to seminal vesicle of male.
(c) Vagina:
➢ Vagina is the female copulatory organ.
➢ It opens outside through an aperture called vaginal orifice.
➢ Vaginal orifice is partially covered by a perforate membrane called hymen. Which, is called as guard of
virginity.
➢ Vaginal cells often stores glycogen resulting in harbouring of bacteria of species Lactobacillus &
Lactoneutoc (Doderlein’s Bacillus).
➢ Vagina functions as copulatory organ, pathway of menstrual flow and birth canal.

Female external genitalia:

(a) Mons pubis: it is cushion shape fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
(b) Peritonium; it is an area between vestibule and anus.
(c) Labia majora: these are fleshy folds of tissue which extends down from mons pubis and surround the
vaginal opening. Labia majora are homologous to scrotum of males.
(d) Labia minora; these are a paired folds of tissue under the labia majora.
(e) Clitoris: It is the tiny finger like structure lies at the upper junction of the labia minora above the urethral
opening. Clitoris is a vestigial organ. It is homologous to penis of man.
Female Reproductive Glands;
(a) Bartholin Gland: There are one pair of glands present on each side of vaginal opening and help in
vestibular lubrication. These glands are homologous to cowper’s glands of male.
(b) Mammary gland:
➢ Mammary glands are milk producing modified sweat glands present inside two rounded thoracic
prominences called breast.
➢ Each breast has a broad multiparous erectile tip called nipple for release of milk.
➢ A circular pigmented area called areola lies below nipple. It possesses areolar gland and nerve endings.
➢ Each breast contains fibrous connective tissue and adipose tissue.
➢ The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells
called alveoli.
➢ The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the lumen of alveoli.
➢ Milk secretion occurs only after parturition. Milk is ejected through lactiferous duct.
➢ Milking is stimulated by Prolactin hormone of anterior pituitary.
➢ Expulsion of milk is under the control of Oxytocin hormone.
➢ The first milk after parturition is called colostrum or fore-milk. In which the antibiotic IgA is found.
Composition of milk: Fat, Casein (milk protein), lactose (milk sugar), mineral salt, vitamin and antibodies. Milk
is poor in iron and vitamin C.
Common breast disorders:
1) Micromastia/ hypomastia: Very small breasts.
2) Macromastia/ hypermastia : Very large breasts.

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 3) Inverted nipples: Nipple is in backward direction.
Functions of female reproductive system:
1. Oogenesis
2. Sperm reception
3. Conduction of sperm to fertilization site.
4. Implantation
5. Nourishment and protection to foetus.
6. Parturition
7. Postnatal nourishment of the baby.
Human sexual disorders:
(A) Male sexual disorders:
1. Prostatitis: Inflammation of prostate gland generally caused by infection.
2. Prostate Hyperplasia: Excessive enlargement of prostate.
3. Prostate carcinoma: It is cancer in prostate.
4. Impotence: It is the inability of adult male to achieve penile erection.
5. Sterility: Sperms are unable to fertilize the ovum.
6. Cryptorchidism: Failure of testes to descend in to the scrotum or retention of testis in abdomen.
7. Inguinal Hernia: Failure in closure of inguinal canal.
8. Hydrocele: Enlargement of testicles due to accumulation of fluid either in tunica vaginalis or along the
spermatid cord.
9. Oligospermia: Low sperm count per ejaculation. (below 200million per ejaculation)
10. Priapism: An abnormal erection that does not go away after several hours even though stimulation has
stopped.
11. Erectile dysfunction: A man's penis does not achieve sufficient hardness for satisfying intercourse.
Atherosclerosis (damage to the arteries) is the most common cause of erectile dysfunction.
12. Azoospermia: Production of non-motile sperms.
13. Asthenospermia: Loss of motility of sperms up to 40%.
14. Eunuchoidism: Non-secretion of testosterone
(B) Common female reproductive disorders:
1. Endometritis: Inflammation of endometrium generally caused by infection.
2. Endometriosis: It is development of endometrial tissue in locations outside its position.
3. Oophoritis: It is inflammation of ovary, generally caused by an infection.
4. Oophorocystosis: It is condition of ovary having cysts. Cysts are formed by enlargement of any of the
ovarian structures including follicles, theca, granulosa or germinal regions.
5. Cancers: Any part of the female reproductive system may suffer from cancer; Breast cancer, vaginal
cancer, cervical cancer, uterine cancer etc.
6. Ectopic pregnancy: Implantation of embryo at a place other than uterus is called ectopic pregnancy.
➢ The common form is tubal pregnancy where implantation occurs in oviduct.
➢ As the foetus grows in size, it raptures the oviduct, requiring immediate surgical removal.
➢ Signs and symptoms classically include abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding.
➢ But fewer than 50 percent of affected women have both of these symptoms. The pain may be described as
sharp, dull, or crampy.
7. Menstrual disorders: Various menstrual disorders include Amoenorrhoea, menorrhagia,
menometrorrhagia and dysmenorrhoea.
8. Infertility: It is in ability to bear children due to non-ovulation and anatomical or physiological defect.
➢ A woman (or female animal) that has never given birth to a viable child is called Nullipara.

GAMETOGENESIS
➢ It is the process of synthesis of male and female gametes. Gametogenesis is the first step of sexual
reproduction. Gametogenesis is of two types; Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis:
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 ➢ It is the process of formation of haploid spermatozoa from diploid primary male germ cells..
➢ Spermatogenesis begins in human males during puberty.
Site of Spermatogenesis:
➢ Inside testis seminiferous tubules are the site for spermatogenesis.
➢ The cells of seminiferous tubules are called germinal epithelium. The germinal epithelium cells of seminiferous
tubules have two types of cells; Primary germ cells and sertoli cells.
➢ Srtoli cells develop processes for supporting and nourishing product of spermatogenesis. They function under
the influence of FSH.
➢ Primary germ cells undergo spermatogenesis.
STEPS OF SPERMATOGENESIS:
➢ Spermatogenesis involves four phases;
a) Multiplication phase
b) Growth phase
c) Maturation phase
d) Differentiation phase
a) Multiplication phase:
➢ Primary germ cells divide mitotically several time to form large number of type-A spermaogonia.
➢ These serve as stem cell or mother spermatogonia and give rise to type-B spermatogonia, which are
progenitor or precursors of spermatozoa.
(b) Growth phase:
➢ It is the process of formation of primary spermatocytes from B-type spermatogonia.
(c) Maturation phase:
➢ In this phase diploid primary spermatocyte undergo Meiosis-I to produce haploid secondary
spermatocyte of two type, 22+X and 22+Y.
➢ Secondary spermatocyte undergo meiosis-II to produce haploid spermatids.
(d) Differentiation phase/Spermiogenesis:
➢ It is the process of conversion of spermatids into spermatozoa.

Events of spermiogenesis:
i. Formation of acrosome by Golgi apparatus.
ii. Elongation & condensation of nucleus.
iii. Separation of centrioles.
iv. Formation of axial filament from distal centriole.
v. Development of mitochondrial spiral around upper part of axial filament.
vi. Formation of flagellum.
• The whole process of spermatogenesis requires about 74 days.
• Average number of sperms produces by an adult male per day can be 1012 to 1013 .

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 Fig.
Process of

spermatogenesis

Hormonal control of Spermatogenesis:

➢ During puberty, beginning of spermatogenesis is carried out by GnRH by Hypothalamus.
➢ GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary to produce LH & FSH.
➢ LH acts on Leydig cells which produce testosterone.
➢ Androgen binding protein (ABP) sectreted by sertoli cells helps in concentrating testosterone in
seminiferous tubules.
➢ Sertoli cells also produce a glycoprotein called inhibin, which supress synthesis of FSH and GnRH.
Sperm/ Spermatozoan:
➢ It is a dart like uniflagellate male gamete.
➢ Human sperm is about 60µm long with a maximum breadth of 3.5µm
➢ A sperm has four parts; head, neck, middle piece and tail.

1. Head: Head consists of two parts, nuclear part and cap like acrosome.
➢ Nucleus is highly condensed. Some less dense regions are also occurs in the nucleus known as nuclear
vacuoles.
➢ Acrosome is a narrow cap like structure that covers the 3/3rd of head.
➢ Acrosome is derived from Golgi complex of spermatid.
➢ Acrosome contains proteolytic and lysosomal enzymes.
➢ Viz; Sperm lysine. E.g. Hyaluronidase, corona penetrating enzyme, acrosin or zona lysine.
2. Neck:
➢ it is 0.3µm long, narrow area b/w head and middle piece.

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➢ Neck possess two centrioles. Proximal centriole is free and the distal centriole is connected to axonema or
axial filament.
3. Middle piece:
➢ It is the cylindrical part of the sperm lies b/w
neck & tail.
➢ Axial filaments run through it.
➢ Axial filament region is covered by a
mitochondrial spiral of 10 to 14 turns called
nebenkern.
➢ The mitochondria provide energy during
flagellar movement of sperm.

4. Tail:
➢ It is the longest part of sperm about 50µm
long.
➢ It possess single flagella.
➢ The sperm swims with flagella movement
about 1-2mm/hour in a fluid medium.
➢ Human male ejaculate about 200-300
millions of sperms during coitus.

SEMEN:
➢ It is mucoid, milky, viscous fluid, ejaculate of male produced during orgasm.
➢ It is rich in fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes.
➢ It is slightly alkaline with pH 7.3-7.5.
➢ An ejaculate is about 3-4 ml with 200-300 million sperms.
➢ The fluid part of semen is called seminal plasma.
➢ Semen contains fructose, fibrinogen, a clotting factor for forming coagulation inside vagina.
➢ It also contains profibrinolysin for dissolving coagulum, Calcium Bicarbonate, which provides alkaline
pH to neutralise acidity of female genital and prostaglandin for thinning of cervical mucos.
➢ Fructose(monosaccharide) is the energy source for sperms. Fructose is only found in semen in human
body, so rape victims are subjected to fructose test.
Pathway taken by sperms:
➢ Seminiferous tubule➜Rete testis ➜vasa efferentia ➜Epididymis ➜Vas deferens ➜Ejaculatory duct ➜
Penile urethra ➜Vagina.
➢ Release of sperms from sertoli cells to the lumen of seminiferous tubules is called spermiation.

OOGENESIS (GK. Oon-egg, genesis- Production)

➢ It is the process of formation of functional haploid germinal cells.
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Location: Cortex of Ovary or female gonad.
➢ Early stage of oogenesis occur by the time female foetus is only 25 weeks old.
STEPS IN OOGENESIS:
➢ Oogenesis involves following phases;
1. Multiplication phase:
➢ The larger cells of germinal epithelium function as germ cells.
➢ They undergo repeated mitotic division to form diploid oogonia.
➢ Some 2 millions oogonia or gamete mother cells formed in each foetal ovary.
➢ The oogonia form egg tubes of pfluger and enter into oogonia.
➢ Egg tubes of pfluger give rise to egg nest.
2. Growth Phase:
➢ One oogonium from each nest grows & functions as primary oocyte.
➢ Other oogonia make a covering around primary oocyte, which is called follicular sheath.
➢ The primary oocyte covered by follicular sheath is called primary follicle or ovarian follicle.
➢ A number of these ovarian follicle degenerate during birth and puberty.
➢ The act of degeneration or act of regression of ovarian follicle is called follicular atresia.
(3) Maturation phase:
➢ It begins in foetal stage of female but is interrupted quite early.
➢ The primary oocyte of follicle begins meiosis-I but division is arrested in diplotene or diakinesis sub-
stage of prophase-I of Meiosis-I.
➢ In this stage the primary follicles remain in female body till puberty.
➢ After attainment of puberty, usually one at a time, the follicle resumes their development.
➢ Follicular sheath differentiated into granulosa layer.
➢ Another layer called theca develops from cortex.
➢ With the development of theca, the primary follicle is converted to secondary follicle.
➢ Theca differentiated into theca externa and theca interna.
➢ Granulosa secretes a fluid that causes development of a cavity called antrum (cavity of graafian follicle).
At this stage follicle is called tertiary follicle.
➢ Primary oocyte completes meiosis-I & produces a large secondary oocyte and a polar body (1st), both are
haploid (n).
➢ Tertiary follicle containing secondary oocyte and a polar body, develops further and converted to graafian
follicle.
➢ Zona pellucida develops around secondary oocyte.
➢ Secondary oocyte proceeds for meiosis-II but get arrested at metaphase-II due to accumulation of
metaphase promoting factor (MPF).
➢ In this stage ovum shed ovary during ovulation.
➢ Metaphase-II is completed only when the sperm is received by ovum.
➢ Entry of sperm triggers breakdown of MPF and stimulates formation of anaphase promoting complex
(APC).
➢ Due to accumulation of APC meiosis-II is completed.
➢ On completion of meiosis-II a second polar body and an egg cell is produced.

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Hormonal regulation of oogenesis:
➢ In response to GnRH, anterior pituitary gland secretes FSH & LH.
➢ FSH stimulate follicular growth & maturation of oocyte.
➢ Granulosa cells of developing follicle secretes estrogen. i.e. granulosa is the chief source of circulating
estrogen.
➢ In response of high titer of estrogen & LH ovulation occurs.
➢ LH is known as ovulatory hormone.
➢ High conc. Of estrogen inhibits secretion of both FSH & GnRH.
➢ This is called negative feedback control.
➢ LH helps is converting ruptured graafian follicle into corpus luteum.
➢ Corpus luteum, a temporary endocrine structure secretes progesterone.
➢ High concentration of progesterone inhibits further secretion of LH; this is another example of feedback
control.
Structure of Ovum/ Ootid:
➢ It is non motile female gamete.
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 ➢ Human ovum is rounded & non-cleidoic (without shell).
➢ Human ovum is a lecithal i.e. without yolk.
➢ Ovum is covered by a membrane called plasmalemma or oolema.
➢ Cytoplasm of ovum is called ooplasm.
➢ Ovum has a polarity; animal pole & vegetaive pole.
➢ Ovum has two coverings, one non-cellular zona pellucida and a cellular corona radiata.
➢ Zona pellucida has receptor proteins called ZP1, ZP2 & ZP3, for determining the attachment & non
attachment of sperms.
➢ Corona radiata is part of granulosa that remainss around the ovum at the time of ovulation.

SEXUAL CYCLES IN MAMMALS:

➢ RUT CYCLE: In few male mammals testes descend into scrotum only during the breeding
season called rutting season. This cycle is called Rut cycle.
➢ In female mammals two types of sexual cycles are found; Oestrus cycle & Menstrual cycle

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MENSTRUAL CYCLE /Human Ovarian / sexual cycle [Mensis= month]
➢ Menstrual period is the regular recurring physiological changes found in primate females during
reproductive life.
➢ The onset of menstrual cycle is called menarche and ceasing of menstrual cycle is called menopause.
➢ Menstrual cycle has three phases;
(a) Menstrual phase/ bleeding phase/Menstruation:
➢ It is the first phase of menstrual cycle that lasts for 3 to five days.
➢ During this phase endometrial lining of uterus cast off and is slowly passed out of vagina as a mixture of
blood, serous fluid and menstrual fragment.
➢ The unfertilized ovum and corpus albicans also passed out with menstrual flow.
(b) Follicular phase:
➢ During this phase GnRH stimulate anterior pituitary gland to secrete FSH & LH.
➢ FSH act on primary follicles and helps the primary follicles to mature into graafian follicle.
➢ Graafian follicle is consists of secondary oocyte, zona pellucida & theca.
➢ Endometrium layer is repaired.
➢ On 14th day of menstrual cycle under high conc. Of LH and estrogen ovulation occurs. This timing is also
called ovulatory phase.
(c) Leutal phase/ Secretary phase:
➢ It is the last phase of menstrual cycle.
➢ It begins after ovulation.
➢ Empty graafian follicle is converted to corpus luteum by the help of LH.
➢ Under the influence of LH corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
➢ Ovum remains viable for 48 to 72 hours after ovulation.
➢ Failure in fertilization causes start of bleeding phase again after 28th day.
➢ Bleeding phase reappears under decreased concentration of ovarian hormone ( Estrogen & progesterone)
and Gonadotropins (FSH & LH)
Hormonal activities during menstrual cycle:
➢ During follicular phase granulosa secretes estrogen.
➢ Estrogen stimulates the secretion of FSH & LH from anterior pituitary.
➢ FSH acts on follicular growth.
➢ LH causes ovulation on 14th day of menstrual cycle.
➢ Prior to ovulation about 16-26 hours of ovulation height of LH secretion become highest, a process
described as LH surge.
➢ LH stimulate development of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum.
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 ➢ During leutal phase level of progesterone is high.

Significance of Menstrual cycle:

➢ Menstrual cycle if the sign of fertility in females.
➢ The purpose of the menstrual cycle is to prepare the body for a possible pregnancy.
➢ During the menstrual cycle, a mature egg is produced by the ovaries and the lining of the uterus thickens
to support a possible pregnancy
Menstrual disorders:
i. Menorrhoea: Normal menstruation.
ii. Amenorrhoea: Absence of menses
iii. Menometrorrhagia: Excessive menses and at irregular intervals.
iv. Menolipsis: Temporary stoppage of menses.
v. Dysmenorrhea: Painful menstruation.

FERTILIZATION & IMPLANTATION

➢ Fertilization is the process of fusion of two types of gametes to form zygote.
➢ In human being the fertilization site is the oviduct [Ampulla-Isthmus junction].
➢ Fertilization in human being occurs in following steps;

1) Arrival of Ovum:
➢ On 14th day of menstrual cycle ovulation occurs.
➢ Ovum is collected by fimbrae & tranported to ampulla-isthmus junction due to ciliary movement.
➢ It takes 10-12 hours to ovum to reach at fertilization site.
2) Insemination:
➢ It is the phenomenon of deposition of sperms in female genital tract (vagina) during coitus or copulation.
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 ➢ Actually the inseminating material is semen.
➢ The quantity of ejaculate is 3-4 ml.
➢ After passing into vagina the semen is converted into a coagulum, that dissolves with 15-30 min.
3) Motility of Sperm:
➢ Sperms swim in seminal fluid in the rate of 1.5 to 3.0mm/min.
➢ It takes about 5-6 hours for the sperms to reach at fertilization site.
4) Capacitation of sperms:
➢ It is the phenomenon of sperm activation by which the sperms develop the ability to fertilize ova.
➢ Capacitation occurs in female genital tract.
➢ The factors present over the sperm and in semen, which do not allow immediate capacitation, are called
decapacitation factors.
➢ Capacitation occurs in following process;
i. Dilution of the inhibitory factors present in semen.
ii. Washing of cholestero vesicles covering the sperm head.
iii. Removal of membrane cholesterol present over the acrosome. This weakens the membrane covering.
iv. Entry of Ca2+ into sperms.
v. Increasing permeability of the weakened acrosomal covering by Ca 2+.
5. Fusion of Gametes:
➢ When sperm reach oviduct (ampulla-isthmus junction) following events occurs;
i. Acrosomal reaction:
➢ When sperm reach to the ovum surface, acrosome release few sets of enzyme called spermysin.
➢ Hyaluronidase & corona penetrating enzyme rupture corona radiate.
➢ As the sperm head reaches the zona pellucid, compatibility reaction occurs.
➢ Acrosome secretes zona lysine or acrosin which degenerate zona pellucid.
➢ Compatibility reaction stimulates development of an outgrowth by the oocyte called fertilization cone or
cone of reception.
➢ Compatibility reaction is determined by special protein present over zona pellucid & sperm surface. They
are collectively called as fertilizin in case of egg & antifertilizin in case of sperm.
➢ Receptor proteins of zona pellucid are known as ZP1, ZP2 & ZP3.
ii. Entry of sperm:
➢ Sperm head comes in contact with fertilization cone.
➢ It releases Ca++ wave into the egg.
iii. Cortical reaction:
➢ Ca++ causes extrusion of the cortical granules, this cause of modification of plasmalemma into fertilization
membrane.
➢ This membrane prevents entry of additional sperms.
➢ Human fertilization is monospermic, for this two block mechanisms operate; fast block & slow block.
➢ Due to depolarization of zona pellucida sperms are prevented from entry, this is known as fast block and
formation of fertilization membrane due to cortical reaction is called slow block.
iv. Activation of ovum:
➢ The secondary oocyte of the ovum arrested at metaphase-II during ovulation due to MPF resumes its meiosis-
II after entry of sperm.
➢ After entry of sperm, MPF is removed and anaphase promoting complex (APC) is developed which causes
completion of meiosis-II
➢ On completion of meiosis-II an egg and a second polar body are formed.
➢ The nucleus of egg is called female pro nucleus.
v. Karyogamy:
➢ It is the final step of fertilization in which male and female pro-nuclei fuse to form a zygote.
➢ Fusion of male and female pro-nuclei or gametes in human is called amphimixis.

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vi. Sex of the baby:
➢ Sex of the baby is determined at the time of fertilization & no medicine or quackery can change it later on.
➢ Women are homogametic & produce same type of ova (22+X).
➢ Men are heterogametic & produce two types of sperms; androsperm (22+Y) & gymnosperm (22+X).
➢ Fusion of androsperm (22+Y) confirms formation of male child and fusion of gymnosperm confirms
➢ female child. Karyotype of male child is (44+XY) and that of female child is (44+XX).
Early embryonic development:
➢ Early embryonic development or embryogenesis is the development of fertilized ovum (zygote) into a
➢ complete foetus.
➢ It has 3 major stages; Cleavage, gastrulation & organogenesis.
Cleavage:
➢ The early rhythmic mitotic divisions of fertilized egg characterized by absence of growth of daughter cells
are collectively called cleavage.
➢ The size of embryo remains same as ovum.
➢ Cleavage is characterized by rapid DNA replication & increased O2 consumption.
➢ The cells produced as a result of cleavage are called blastomeres.
➢ The divisions which completely divide the fertilized egg into cells or blastomeres are called holoblastic.
➢ As a result of cleavage the zygote the zygote is converted into morula.
Types of cleavage:
➢ Cleavage in animals can be categorised into following types;
A. On the basis of Planes of cleavage:
1) Meridional plane: The cleavage furrow passes through the centre of zygote. E.g. first cleavage in
frog and chick.
2) Vertical plane: The cleavage furrow passes in animal-vegetal pole direction but not through the
centre, rather through one of the side. E.g. third cleavage in chick.
3) Equatorial plane: The cleavage furrow passes halfway and right angle to animal-vegetal axis. E.g.
fifth cleavage in frog, Ambystoma and first cleavage in higher animals.
4) Longitudinal plane: This cleavage furrow is horizontal but does not pass through the centre of the
zygote. E.g. third cleavage in frog and Amphioxus.
B. On the basis of patterns of cleavage:
1) Radial cleavage: The resultant blastomeres are arranged in radial symmetry around animal-vegetal
pole axis. E.g. some echinoderms, sponges, coelenterates etc.
2) Spiral cleavage: The blastomeres are arranged in a spiral form around animal-vegetal axis. E.g.
Ascaris, flat worms, annelids, molluscs and rotifers.
3) Biradial cleavage: The planes of the first three cleavages are not at right angle to each other. E.g.
Ctenophora
4) Bilateral cleavage: The blastomeres are arranged in such a way that the right and left sides become
apparent. E.g. Tunicata, Amphioxus, higher mammals.

C. On the basis of amount and distribution of yolk.

➢ The amount & distribution of yolk in egg also the types of cleavage and method of of blastulation,
gastrulation and further development.
1) Holoblastic cleavage: Alecithal, homolecithal and mesolecithal eggs show rapid and complete
divisions of zygote. It is called complete holoblastic cleavage.
2) Meroblastic cleavage: It is characteristics of large polylecithal eggs as in most fishes, reptiles, birds
and egg-laying mammals. The cleavage furrow cannot cut through the enormous yolk present so that
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 the entire zygote is not divided into blastomeres. Thus cleavage is incomplete or partial, termed
meroblastic. It can be of two types;
(a) Discoidal cleavage: In this case the cleavages are restricted only to the small cytoplasmic cap at
the animal pole.
(b) Superficial cleavage: It is characteristics of centrolecithal eggs of arthropods. Cell division
restricted to a superficial peripheral layer of cytoplasm around yolk.
Importance of cleavage:
i. It converts unicellular zygote to multicellular embryo.
ii. Rapid cell divisions as the daughter cells are not required to grow before next division.
iii. Rapid metabolic activity.
iv. Reduction in cell size to attain optimum nucleo-cytoplasmic (Kern-plasma) ratio.
v. Non development of cell junctions. This allows the cells to rearrange.
Morula stage:
➢ At the 16 celled stage the embryo consists of a tiny cluster of cells looking like a mulberry hence,
called Morula. Actually the embryo is called Morula when it becomes 8-16 celled stage.
➢ Morula does not remain in ampulla part of oviduct but slowly descends towards uterus in 4-6 days.
➢ During this stage corona radiate detaches.

Blastulation or Blastocyst formation:

➢ Outer peripheral cells enlarge further to form trophoblast.
➢ Trophoblast secretes a fluid into the anterior; this creates a cavity called blastocoels.
➢ The cells present inside the trophoblast are called inner mass cells.
➢ Due to formation of blastocoel, inner mass cells pushed to one side as embryonal knob.
➢ With the formation of blastocoel Morula is converted to Blastocyst.
➢ Up to this time blastocyst has been covered by zona pellucid.

➢ As Blastocyst grows in size blastocyst corrode zona pellucida by tripsin like enzyme & comes out.
➢ The growing Blastocyst comes out of zona pellucida in the form of digit 8.
➢ At this time if it gets broken into two parts, which then give rise to identical twin or monozygotic
twin.
➢ Faulty separation produces conjoint twin (Siamese twin).
➢ Sometime dizygotic twins are formed due to ovulation of two ova.

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➢ Sometimes due to lack of nutrition of mother one twin absorbs other twin formed during early
development, it is called as vanishing twin syndrome.
➢ Trophoblast cells in contact with embryonal knob are called cells of Rauber.
➢ Area of embryonal knob represents animal pole & opposite side represents abembryonal pole.
➢ Soon embryonal knob shows rearrangement to form embryonal disc.
➢ Trophoblast cells divide periclinally, this make trophoblast into two layer; outer syncytotrophoblast
and inner cytotrophoblast.
➢ Later on these two layer form chorion, amnion and foetal part of placenta.

IMPLANTATION:
➢ It is the attachment or embedding of the blastocyst into the endometrium of uterus.
➢ Implantation begins about 7th day after fertilization.
➢ It takes about 3 days for the completion of the process.
➢ Blastocysts get attached with endometrium in the region of embryonal disc.
➢ Adherence of blastocyst to endometrium stimulates the uterine cells to undergo rapid division and
partially cover the blastocyst.
➢ Implantation leads to pregnancy.

PREGNANCY & EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT:

➢ Pregnancy is the condition of developing embryo or foetus inside the uterus of mother.
➢ The pregnancy timing or developmental course is called gestation period.
➢ Soon after implantation the surface cells of trophoblast secrete lytic enzymes which cause corrosion
of endometrial lining.
➢ They also give rise to finger like outgrowth called chorionic villi. This villi and uterine wall become
interdigited.
➢ Trophoblast cells secrete a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). hCG cn be detected
in urine of gravid women within a day after implantation. (Gravidex test)
➢ hCG maintains the corpus luteum beyond its normal life.
➢ The corpus luteum during pregnancy continues to secrete progesterone, which prevents menstruation.
GASTRULATION:
➢ It is a process in embryonic development which is characterized by movement of cells in small masses
to form primary germinal layers.
➢ There are three primary germ layers; ectoderm, endoderm & endoderm.
➢ The product of gastrulation is called gastrula.
FATE OF GERM LAYERS:
a) Ectoderm derivatives:
➢ Epidermis of skin, hair, nails, lining of buccal cavity & anal canal, nasal chamber, enamel of
teeth, salivary glands, external ear & auditory meatus, outer layer of tympanic membrane,
membranous labyrinth, mammary gland, neurohypophysis, pineal gland, adrenal medulla,
retinal lens, cornea, conjunctiva of eye, CNS nerves, ciliary & iridial muscles of eyes.
b) Mesoderm derivatives:
➢ Connective tissue including ligaments, tendon, cartilage & bones, notochord, dermis of skin, all
muscles (except ciliary & iridial muscles of eyes), dentine of teeth, heart, blood vessels, lining
of coelom spleen, urinogenital system (kidney, uterus), sex organs (except protest gland, urethral

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 tip, lower vagina & vestibule), adrenal cortex, iris and sclera, chorotid & ciliary body of eyes
adrenal cortex.
c) Endoderm derivatives:
➢ Epithelium of tongue, pharynx, digestive tract, except anal canal, eustachain tube, middle ear,
larynx, trachea, bronchi & lungs, gall bladder, liver, pancreas, vagina, vestibule, prostate, terminal
part of urethra, vestibular gland, intestinal & gastric glands, adenohypophysis, thymus, thyroid &
parathyroid glands.

FORMATION OF FOETAL MEMBRANES:

➢ Foetal membranes are coverings & sacs connected to embryo.
➢ All of them are extra embryonic and are therefore called extra-embryonic membrane.
➢ They are 4 in number; chorion, amnion, allantois & yolk sac.
(a) Chorion:
➢ It is the outermost layer, which is formed by outer layer of trophoblast.
➢ Chorion forms villi & other foetal parts of placenta.
Functions:
➢ Chorion forms foetal part of placenta.
➢ It provides attachment to foetus.
➢ Foetus obtains nutrients through chorion.
➢ Excretory products are transferred to the mother blood through chorion.
➢ It is the site for exchange of gases between foetus and mother.
(b) Amnion:
➢ It is the inner foetal membrane.
➢ It covers embryo & is formed by inner layer of trophoblast.
➢ It encloses a cavity called amniotic cavity.
➢ The cavity is filled with a clear fluid called amniotic fluid.
➢ Foetus grows in amniotic fluid.
Functions:
➢ Amniotic fluid surrounds embryo.
➢ This fluid regulates pressure and temperature around the embryo.
➢ It prevents desiccation of embryo.
➢ It allows for growth and movement of foetus.
➢ Amniotic fluid can be taken out with the help of a needle and studied for genetical disorder of
foetus, if any.
(c) Allantois:
➢ It is a small sac develops from embryonic gut lie close to yolk sac.
➢ Allantois forms blood vessels for placenta
➢ As, human placenta is formed completely by chorion and allantois, human placenta is called
chorioallantoic.
(d) Yolk sac:
➢ This sac contains yolk in egg laying animals, but it is non-functional in mammals.
➢ It contains a clear fluid, which believed to help in synthesis of blood corpuscles in young
embryo before the function is taken by liver.

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PLACENTA:
➢ It is the foetomaternal connective that develops during pregnancy and forms a temporary
association between foetal & mother tissue for supporting foetal growth.
➢ Foetus is connected to placenta by a long flexible tube called umbilical cord.
➢ Umbilical cord is mainly formed of allantois.
➢ This cord contains two arteries and one vein.
➢ Arteries transfer deoxygenated blood from foetus & vein carries oxygenated blood towards foetus.
➢ During parturition the placenta passed outside during which it is called as deciduate placenta.
➢ Placenta has two parts; (i) Foetal part, that is formed from chorion & allantois & (ii) maternal part.
It is called as deciduas basalis.

FUNCTIONS OF PLACENTA:
1) Nutrition: Mother provides nutrients to foetus through placenta.
2) Exchange of gases: Placenta helps in exchange of 𝑂2 & 𝐶𝑂2
3) Storage & digestion: Placenta stores fat & glycogen, which can be breakdown and absorbed by
the foetus.
4) Excretion: Placenta excretes nitrogenous waste of foetus.
5) Antibodies: placenta is permeable to certain antibodies for the prevention of foetus. IgG can
cross placental barier.
6) Endocrine function: Placenta produces a number of hormones; hCG, Chorionic thyrotropin,
choionic corticotropin, human placental lactogen (hPL), progesterone, estrogen & relaxin.
(a) Chorionic thyrotropin stimulates mother’s thyroid to secrete more thyroxine.
(b) Choionic corticotropin stimulates mother’s adrenal to secrete more hormones.
(c) Human placental lactogen (hPL) functions as a weak growth hormone. It stimulates growth
of breasts.
(d) Progesterone helps in maintaining pregnancy. Because of its importance in maintaining
pregnancy, progesterone is also called pregnancy hormone.
(e) Estrogen helps in enlargement of pregnant uterus, enlargement of ductal growth in breast.
(f) Relaxin soften the connective tissue of symphysis pubica for reducing discomfort of
carriage and facilitating easy child birth.
EMBRYO & ORGANOGENESIS:
➢ Organogenesis is the formation of organs and tissues in the embryo. The first sign of organogenesis
is notogenesis i.e. differentiation of notochord followed by neurulation. Neurulation is the
appearance of rudiments of nervous system.
➢ By 4th week the embryo has already developed rudiments of many of its organs. A simple but
functional circulatory system begins to work. At this stage the heart is S-shaped tube that beats 60
times per minute.
➢ During the first trimester of pregnancy, the foetus is sensitive to many antibiotics, drugs infections
and chemicals. They cause malformation of foetus and hence called teratogens. Formation of
abnormal foetus is described as teratogenesis.
➢ After second month the embryo is called foetus. The last 3 months of development are a period of
rapid growth and final differentiation of tissues and organs.
➢ During 7th month cerebrum grows rapidly. The grasp and sucking reflexes are apparent and the
foetus may suck its thumb. Most of the body is covered with downy hair called lanugo.

PARTURITON:
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 ➢ It is the process of delivery of human baby.
➢ The average duration of human pregnancy (gestation period) is about 9 months or 280 days.
➢ Parturition is induced by a complex neuro-endocrine mechanism.
➢ Child birth or parturition begins with a long series of involuntary contraction of uterus,
experienced as labour contractions.
➢ Parturition signals originate from the fully developed foetus & the placenta, which include mild
uterine contraction called foetal ejection reflex.
➢ This triggers the release of oxytocin from maternal posterior pituitary.
➢ Oxytocin induces stronger uterine contraction which led to expulsion of the baby from the uterus
through the birth canal (vagina).
➢ Within 10 to 45 min of the delivery the placenta separates from uterus.
➢ In neonates, there is change in respiratory and circulatory system. The switchover is initiates by
gaseous hormone nitric oxide.

LACTATION:
➢ Lactation is the process of formation & ejection of milk.
➢ Lactation occurs only after parturition.
➢ Milk is produced inside alveoli of mammary gland.
➢ Milk is produced by the hormone prolactin & milk ejection is caused by oxytocin.
➢ Oxytocin makes a love bond between mother and baby, so called love hormone.
➢ The first milk produced after parturition is called colostrum (Fore milk).
➢ Colostrum contains the antibody IgA.
➢ Breast milk contains WBC, macrophages & neutrophiles, which protect the body of neonate
from deadly infections & E. coli that causes lethal diarrhoea in newborns.
➢ Milk contains an enzyme called lactogen. It also contains a disaccharide Lactose (Milk sugar).
➢ The principal proteins of human milk are casein (milk protein) homologous to bovine beta-
casein.

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