MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND INNOVATIONS

OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY of UZBEKISTAN

named after MIRZO ULUGBEK

THEORY OF TRANSLATION AND COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS

DEPARTMENT

Speciality: 60230200 – Theory of translation and practice (English)

SAYDAXMEDOVA DIYORA OYBEK QIZI

On the theme: “Humanism and individualism themes within

renaissance literature”

COURSE PAPER

Scientific adviser:
Ph.D., professor
SH.K.Khikmatullayeva

TASHKENT 2024
 2

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .............…………………………………………………. 3-5

CHAPTER I Humanism in Renaissance Literature …………..….……..... 6

1.1 Introduction to Humanism ………………..……………….. 6-9

1.2 Humanistic Elements in Renaissance Literature ………….. 9-18

CHAPTER II Individualism in Renaissance Literature…………………... 19

2.1 Concept of Individualism ………………..………………... 19-23

2.2 Manifestations of Individualism in Literature …………….. 23-27

CONCLUSION ……………………………………………….………......... 28-29

РЕЗЮМЕ (REZYUME) .……………………………………….………..... 30-31

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE …………………............................. 32

APPENDIX
 3

Introduction
The Renaissance period stands as a remarkable epoch in human history,
characterized by an unprecedented surge in artistic, intellectual, and cultural
achievements. At the center of this transformative era lie the principles of
humanism and individualism, which revolutionized the way people perceived
themselves, their society, and the world around them. This paper sets out to
explore Renaissance literature thoroughly, aiming to understand the aspects of
humanist ideas and individualistic expressions present within its texts.
The Renaissance was a time of rebirth, a resurgence of classical learning, and
a fervent pursuit of knowledge that caused a profound shift in the collective
consciousness of Europe. Humanism, a philosophical and intellectual
movement centered on the rediscovery of classical texts and the belief of
human potential, emerged as a guiding beacon amidst the darkness of
medieval dogma. Embracing the ideals of reason, inquiry, and the celebration
of human dignity, humanism breathed new life into literature, causing a
literary renaissance characterized by a renewed focus on the individual and
their place in the world.
Central to the humanistic characteristics was the notion of individualism,
which heralded a departure from the communal mindset of the Middle Ages
and placed the individual at the forefront of artistic expression and intellectual
inquiry. Through literature, writers of the Renaissance explored the
complexities of human existence, delving into the depths of the human
psyche, and championing the autonomy of the individual against the
constraints of tradition and authority. From the towering intellect of Dante to
the poetic genius of Shakespeare, Renaissance literature served as a crucible
for the exploration of humanist ideals and the celebration of individual
agency. This paper seeks to illuminate the relationship between humanism,
individualism, and Renaissance literature, tracing their intertwined evolution
and examining their profound impact on the literary landscape of the period.
Through a comprehensive analysis of seminal works spanning from the 14th
 4

to the 17th centuries, we aim to discern the ways in which humanist principles
and individualistic values permeated the literary imagination, giving rise to
enduring masterpieces that continue to resonate with readers to this day.

The topicality of this course paper: to highlight the profound impact of

humanism and individualism on Renaissance literature, illuminating their
roles in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of the period.
The aim of the paper: to analyze how humanism and individualism
manifested in Renaissance literature, examining their influence on themes,
characters, and narrative structures.
The tasks of the work: identifying key literary works of the Renaissance
period that embody humanistic and individualistic ideals, analyzing the
portrayal of humanist values such as the importance of reason, education, and
the individual's capacity for greatness, and evaluating the ways in which these
themes challenged traditional social and religious norms.
The subject of the work: the exploration of humanism and individualism
within Renaissance literature, focusing on texts from the 14th to the 17th
centuries that showcase these themes prominently.
The object of the paper: to deepen the understanding of how
Renaissance literature reflected and contributed to the emergence of
humanistic thought and individualistic values during a pivotal period in
European history.
The literature review: this work encompass seminal works such as
Dante's "Divine Comedy," Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” and “Macbeth”,
Boccaccio’s “Decameron”, Thomas More’s “Utopia” and other prominent
works of humanists, scholars.
Theoretical and practical value of the work: Theoretically, this course
paper contributes to the understanding of how humanistic ideals and
individualistic thinking emerged during this period and their impact on
 5

society, culture, and intellectual thought. It can inspire further research and
critical analysis in these areas, shaping our understanding of humanism and
individualism not only in the Renaissance but also in contemporary contexts.
Practically, it can benefit students and scholars studying art history, literature,
philosophy, and history by providing insights into the intellectual and cultural
movements of the Renaissance. It can also be valuable for educators looking
for resources to teach these topics.
The structure of the course paper: This paper consists of introduction,
two chapters, conclusion, resume, the list of used literature and appendix.
 6

CHAPTER I. HUMANISM IN RENAISSANCE LITERATURE.

1.1. Introduction to humanism.

Concept of Humanism. Humanism defies a singular definition due to its
multifaceted nature. Oxford Dictionary1 has defined Humanism as follows: “
(1) a system of thought concerned with human rather than divine or
supernatural matters. (2) an outlook emphasizing common human needs and
concerned with humankind as responsible and progressive intellectual beings.
(3) (often Humanism) literary culture, esp. that of the Renaissance
Humanists2. Central to humanism are principles of liberty, humanity,
tolerance, and self-dignity, promoting equality regardless of factors like caste,
gender, religion, or class. In this regard Corliss Lamont in his “The
Philosophy of Humanism” says: “It is a philosophy of Joyous service for the
greater good of all humanity in this natural world and according to the
methods of reason and democracy”3 Despite differences in geography,
religion, language, and politics, all humans share a desire for peace,
prosperity, and security. A particular intellectual layer, the humanists played a
crucial role in the above-outlined developments. Not that we have a
consensus who exactly were the humanists and what did they exactly do.
Before starting with the main narrative, it seems useful to cast a glance at the
historiography of the term and what one can see behind it. The German
educator F. J. Niethammer coined the term Humanismus in 1808 to express
the emphasis on the Greek and Latin classics in secondary education 4. The
word was then applied to those scholars of the Renaissance, who had also
advocated and established the central role of the classics in the curriculum.

1
Oxford Dictionary- London,1989
2
Kindersley, Dorling. (2008). Illustrated Oxford Dictionary. p. 397
3
Kristeller, “Humanism and Scholasticism” 574
4
Corliss Lamont. Philosophy of humanism.- Amherst,NY.1997,p.13
 7

“Humanismus” derived from the Renaissance term, “humanist,” referring to

professors, teachers, and students of the humanities and the student slang
created such words like “umanista,” “jurista,” “canonista.” In our case
“umanista” referred to the students of the studia humanitatis, the liberal and
literary education that had been developed by such ancient authorities as
Cicero (ibid. 572–574). The first modern historian to analyze Renaissance
Humanism was the German Georg Voigt (1827–1891), who in 1859
published his Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums, oder das erste
Jahrhundert of Humanismus (The Rebirth of Classical Antiquity, or the First
Century of Humanism). Just a year later the Swiss scholar, Jacob Burckhardt
(1818–1897), placed humanism on a broader perspective. In his Die Kultur
der Renaissance in Italien (The Culture of the Italian Renaissance, 1860) he
associated the whole Renaissance with the rise of Humanism and identified
“the birth of the individuum” as the hallmark of the whole period (Burckhardt
81–103)5.
As we have already seen, the word itself is of German coinage; and
secondly, its credentials are Greek. Humanismus was a term devised,
probably by the educationalist Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer, in the early
nineteenth century to describe a highschool and university curriculum based
on what have been known since the Middle Ages as the ‘humanities’: the
study of ancient Greek and Latin, and of the literature, history and culture of
the peoples who spoke them6. The word was soon taken up by cultural
historians like Georg Voigt and Jacob Burckhardt to describe the humanistic
‘new learning’, a ‘Renaissance’ or rebirth of Greco-Roman civilisation and its
associated values promoted by the humanist professional teachers and
scholars – of fifteenth-century Italy. And since the notion of the Renaissance,
and with it a whole way of thinking about the relations between past and
present, antiquity and modernity, continues in its turn to exert an enduring
5
Burckhardt, Jacob. The Civilization of the Renaissance.London.1892 = Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien.
1860.
6
T. Davies Humanism. Routledge. New York. 1997 p.10
 8

influence, these early nineteenth-century German debates about education and

culture, history and politics, will repay a closer look.
In modern times, the term 'humanism' has gained a different meaning (a
rational and non-religious way of life) and so to safeguard its original
purpose, when applied to 1400-1600, it is often clarified as 'Renaissance
Humanism'. It is important to remember, though, that Renaissance thinkers
did not themselves use the term humanism, and neither did they agree on all
subjects. Due to these problems of definition, some historians prefer to use
the term studia humanitatis, coined by the Roman statesman Cicero (106-43
BCE) and revived by the Florentine scholar Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406).
Studia humanitatis refers to studies which, rather than concentrating on
religious matters, focus instead on what it is to be human, and more precisely,
consider what is a virtuous individual in its widest sense and how may that
individual fully participate in public life.
The main elements of Renaissance humanism include:
1. An interest in studying literature and art from antiquity
2. An interest in the eloquent use of Latin and philology
3. A belief in the importance and power of education to create useful citizens
4. The promotion of private and civic virtue
5. A rejection of scholasticism
6. The encouragement of non-religious studies
7. An emphasis on the individual and their moral autonomy
8. A belief in the importance of observation, critical analysis, and creativity
9. A belief that poets, writers, and artists can lead humanity to a better way of
living
10. An interest in the question 'what does it mean to be human'?7
The earliest Renaissance literature appeared in 14th century Italy; Dante,
Petrarch, and Machiavelli are notable examples of Italian Renaissance writers.
From Italy the influence of the Renaissance spread at different rates to other
7
https://www.worldhistory.org/Renaissance_Humanism/
 9

countries, and continued to spread throughout Europe through the 17th

century. The English Renaissance and the Renaissance in Scotland date from
the late 15th century to the early 17th century. In northern Europe the
scholarly writings of Erasmus, the plays of Shakespeare, the poems of
Edmund Spenser, and the writings of Sir Philip Sidney may be considered
Renaissance in character.
The literature of the Renaissance was written within the general movement of
the Renaissance that arose in 13th century Italy and continued until the 16th
century while being diffused into the western world. It is characterized by the
adoption of a Humanist philosophy and the recovery of the classical literature
of Antiquity and benefited from the spread of printing in the latter part of the
15th century. For the writers of the Renaissance, Greco-Roman inspiration
was shown both in the themes of their writing and in the literary forms they
used. The world was considered from an anthropocentric perspective. Platonic
ideas were revived and put to the service of Christianity. The search for
pleasures of the senses and a critical and rational spirit completed the
ideological panorama of the period. New literary genres such as the essay and
new metrical forms such as the sonnet and Spenserian stanza made their
appearance.
The creation of the printing press (using movable type) by Johannes
Gutenberg in the 1450s encouraged authors to write in their local vernacular
rather than in Greek or Latin classical languages, widening the reading
audience and promoting the spread of Renaissance ideas. The impact of the
Renaissance varied across the continent; countries that were predominantly
Catholic or predominantly Protestant experienced the Renaissance differently.
Areas where the Orthodox Church was culturally dominant, as well as those
areas of Europe under Islamic rule, were more or less outside its influence.
The period focused on self-actualization and one’s ability to accept what is
going on in one’s life.
 10

1.2. Humanistic elements in renaissance literature.

The humanist movement can be traced back to a trio of Italian authors who
lived before the Renaissance period had even begun: Dante Alighieri (1265-
1321 CE), Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). All three would
receive new interest in their work during the Renaissance when they
were recognized as its founding fathers.
Dante was the first, and his Divine Comedy (c. 1319), although a book with
a central message on how to reach salvation, was a subtle shift from entirely
religious-focussed works to those considering humanity's role in God's
universe. erature. His Divine Comedy, originally called Comedìa and later
christened Divina by Boccaccio, is widely considered the greatest literary
work composed in the Italian language and a masterpiece
of world literature. In the late Middle Ages, the overwhelming majority of
poetry was written in Latin, and therefore was accessible only to affluent
and educated audiences. In De vulgari eloquentia (On Eloquence in the
Vernacular), however, Dante defended use of the vernacular in literature.
He himself would even write in the Tuscan dialect for works such as The
New Life (1295) and the aforementioned Divine Comedy; this choice,
though highly unorthodox, set a hugely important precedent that later
Italian writers such as Petrarch and Boccaccio would follow. As a result,
Dante played an instrumental role in establishing the national language of
Italy. Dante’s significance also extends past his home country; his
depictions of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven have provided inspiration for a
 11

large body of Western art, and are cited as an influence on the works of
John Milton, Geoffrey Chaucer, and Lord Alfred Tennyson, among
many others. Dante, like most Florentines of his day, was embroiled in the
Guelph-Ghibelline conflict. He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (June
11, 1289) with the Florentine Guelphs against the Arezzo Ghibellines. After
defeating the Ghibellines, the Guelphs divided into two factions: the White
Guelphs—Dante’s party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi—and the Black Guelphs,
led by Corso Donati. Although the split was along family lines at first,
ideological differences arose based on opposing views of the papal role in
Florentine affairs, with the Blacks supporting the pope and the Whites
wanting more freedom from Rome. Dante was accused of corruption and
financial wrongdoing by the Black Guelphs for the time that he was serving
as city prior (Florence’s highest position) for two months in 1300. He was
condemned to perpetual exile; if he returned to Florence without paying a
fine, he could be burned at the stake. At some point during his exile he
conceived of the Divine Comedy, but the date is uncertain. The work is
much more assured and on a larger scale than anything he had produced in
Florence; it is likely he would have undertaken such a work only after he
realized his political ambitions, which had been central to him up to his
banishment, had been halted for some time, possibly forever. Mixing
religion and private concerns in his writings, he invoked the worst anger of
God against his city and suggested several particular targets that were also
his personal enemies. The Divine Comedy had many overtly classical
elements, from the Roman poet Virgil (70-19 BCE) acting as a guide to the
many ancienthistorical figures mentioned .Dante's Divine Comedy in Early
Renaissance England derives the mixed power shines through the body like
“gladness through the pupil of a living eye8."
In Dante's thought this light shares a common, generic nature with its divine
source in the mind of God the artist and, as it is filtered through the heavens
8
J.Hughes “Dante’s Divine Comedy in early renaissance England. – London.2012. p.5
 12

and the planets into the souls of human beings, it takes on a multiplicity of
forms, but the light observed in a person's eyes is nevertheless seen to be of
divine origin, and for Dante the light of pure intellect within a book, a star
full of light, could exert the same influence on a reader as the light of the
heavens and the planets. There is a haunting quality to so many passages of
The Divine Comedy; the anxious father of Guido Cavalcanti looking among
the tombs of the atheists for his son; the pale image in the moon of the nun
Piccarda, abducted from her convent and accepting of God's providence; the
lovers Francesco and Paolo, tossed in the tempests of Hell and alighting like
a pair of doves before the pilgrim who, in his search for a home and a
father, eagerly questions his ancestor in Heaven about his native Florence,
lost to exile and time. These things stay lodged in the mind and they raise
this question: Dante may be the one writer of the Middle Ages who
provides a bridge to modern literature and sensibility, but what was the
impact of The Divine Comedy in the years after 1370 when this poem was
becoming an international talking point, with public lectures in Italian cities
and commentaries focusing on its literary qualities and biographical
background in a country that would develop an unrivalled literary tradition
of its own in a language that would, from its beginnings with Geoffrey
Chaucer, replace Dante's Latin as the language of Europe and would
eventually become almost universal in the remnants of its vast empire? This
book attempts to answer this question by focusing on a period (1370-1450)
of profound intellectual change that I characterize as the early English
Renaissance. This will involve a re-evaluation of the vernacular writers
associated with Humfrey Duke of Gloucester, heir apparent to the English
throne, and especially John Lydgate, who may not approach the heights of
the easily recognized genius of Dante and Chaucer but who was more
thoroughly. involved in the public concerns of the regime than any other
English poet of the Middle Ages, and for whom the aesthetic values and
judgements of contemporary English. literary critics and historians'
 13

concepts of humanism will have little relevance in a study that will be

concerned with what people were writing, saying and doing within a social,
intellectual and religious context, however buried their thoughts may have
been in pages of rhetoric and amplification. In alchemical terms these are
the hidden gems within the dross of earth, or to quote the fifteenth-century
warrior Sir John Fastolf's words to his confessor, Friar John Brackley:
'Show me not the meat and show me the man 9."
Next came Petrarch, who was an equally religious man but in his work
criticised some elements of the Catholic Church such as its corruption and
excessive love of show. Petrarch rejected scholasticism which grimly held
on to Church dogma and created endless rounds of fruitless debate amongst
scholars. He made perhaps his greatest contribution to the study of antiquity
by finding manuscripts which had become 'lost' in obscure monastic
libraries. Amongst his famous discoveries were several works and letters by
Cicero. Petrarch believed that a new golden age of thought and
politics could be achieved by returning to the ideals of antiquity and by
permitting poets and scholars to lead a revolution in education. His idea that
the period in which he lived was an intermediary period between antiquity
and this new dawn, what he called disparagingly 'a slumber' was latched
onto by later Renaissance thinkers and did much to foster the idea that the
Middle Ages was somehow a period of cultural darkness. Further, Petrarch's
work with ancient manuscripts encouraged the scholarship of non-religious
subjects with humanity at its centre, and this became a legitimate activity
for intellectuals. Consequently, Petrarch is often cited as the father of
humanism.
Giovanni Boccaccio also searched out 'lost' manuscripts relevant to
antiquity. His major work was The Decameron, a collection of 100 stories
told by ten storytellers who have fled to the outskirts of Florence to escape
the black plague over ten nights. The Decameron in particular and
9
Anthony Robert Smith. Aspects of the career of Sir John Fastolf.London.1982.p.56
 14

Boccaccio’s work in general were a major source of inspiration and plots

for many English authors in the Renaissance, including Geoffrey Chaucer
and William Shakespeare. The various tales of love in The Decameron
range from the erotic to the tragic. Tales of wit, practical jokes, and life
lessons contribute to the mosaic. In addition to its literary value and
widespread influence, it provides a document of life at the time. Written in
the vernacular of the Florentine language, it is considered a
masterpiece of classical early Italian prose.Boccaccio wrote his
imaginative literature mostly in the Italian vernacular, as well as other
works in Latin, and is particularly noted for his realistic dialogue that
differed from that of his contemporaries, medieval writers who usually
followed formulaic models for character and plot. Discussions between
Boccaccio and Petrarch were instrumental in Boccaccio writing the
Genealogia deorum gentilium; the first edition was completed in 1360 and
it remained one of the key reference works on classical mythology for over
400 years. It served as an extended defense for the studies of ancient
literature and thought. Despite the Pagan beliefs at the core of the
Genealogia deorum gentilium, Boccaccio believed that much could be
learned from antiquity. Thus, he challenged the arguments of clerical
intellectuals who wanted to limit access to classical sources to prevent any
moral harm to Christian readers. The revival of classical antiquity became a
foundation of the Renaissance, and his defense of the importance of ancient
literature was an essential requirement for its development. In addition, his
Decameron (Ten Days), a collection of tales compiled between c. 1348 and
1353, appealed to later humanists because it dealt with everyday human
experiences in great detail. Boccaccio also created works that were of great
use to humanist scholars such as his Ancestry of the Pagan Gods. The
invention of the printing press in 1450 further boosted the influence of these
writers and helped democratize knowledge. Renaissance humanism
emphasized creativity, which is evident in Dante's creation of terza rima
 15

(poetry with stanzas of three rhyming lines) and Boccaccio's promotion of

ottava rima (stanzas with eight 11-syllable lines) in written form. After the
fall of Constantinople in 1453, numerous Greek scholars fled to Europe,
particularly Italy, carrying classical texts that complemented the Latin ones
already known to scholars like Petrarch. By 1515, the works of major
classical authors were available in print, sparking a profound interest among
Renaissance thinkers in concepts like virtue and civic duty. They believed
that the wisdom of the ancient world could greatly benefit 15th-century
society, prompting a desire among Renaissance humanists to study, analyze,
and critique ancient sources to enhance public life and serve the state. They
believed that theoretical knowledge alone was insufficient; it had to be
applied for the common good. Consequently, the Renaissance scholars
grappled with the question of what it meant to be human, considering
religious, philosophical, scientific, and artistic perspectives. Although it
may seem strange today that scholars were so fascinated by ancient texts
that might appear outdated, for humanist thinkers, these newly discovered
manuscripts provided a fresh and dynamic alternative to the stagnant ideas
upheld by the medieval church. The newfound perspectives offered in these
texts, along with the unbiased approach of ancient scholars, gave the
Renaissance its character of intellectual revival. Humanist scholars
approached ancient sources critically, similar to ancient thinkers, fostering
the idea of intellectual freedom and free-thinking individuals, unrestrained
by religious or political biases. Some even saw the world as a test given by
God, empowering humanity to apply their virtue to improve it. Thus, while
humanism didn't necessarily oppose religion for many, it did foster the
notion of morally autonomous individuals, leading to the emergence of
individualism. In the north of Europe, humanist scholars were more
interested in religious reforms compared to elsewhere, hence their brand of
humanism is often called Religious Humanism.
Sir Thomas More (1478-1535), the English scholar and statesman, was one
 16

figure in this movement. A defender of the Catholic Church against the

Reformists, he famously wrote Utopia in 1516 about an ideal society set on
an imaginary island. More likely intended the work as a thinly-veiled
criticism of the reign of Henry VIII of England (r. 1509-1547), but its
radical presentation of a society where everyone works for the common
good and shares equally in its success rang a note of recognition in the
minds of humanist scholars elsewhere10. in Utopia, considered by Paul
Kristeller “a masterpiece of Renaissance humanism” 11 and a major
contribution to moral and political philosophy, More, a devout Catholic
himself, presents a society governed by rationalism and religious tolerance,
quite the opposite of sixteenth-century Europe. Initiating the modern utopia,
More not only invented the word and the genre but also described an ideal
society achieved solely by human means, without the intervention of divine
providence. Relying neither on God (millenarian visions) nor on nature’s
supernatural bounty, like the Golden Age of antiquity, the first prerequisite
of More’s utopia is humanity. Alain Touraine argues that utopia may be
defined as a specific content that opposes it to other forms of dreaming,
anticipation or denunciation that arise when people lose hope in a paradise
in some world beyond, and therefore seek it on earth 12.Utopia is a plea for a
society that creates itself, imposing freedom or servitude on its members,
pushing away any nonsocial principle of the legitimacy of the social order.
The utopian world always rests on equality, never on liberty or even justice.
Louis Marin advises the reader that Utopia relates “in a different way to the
historical and geographic world whose contradictory consciousness
produced it”13. For Marin, More emerges both as “a character in his book
and, even better, as a historically existing figure, as a real representation”.

10
Greenblatt, Stephen Jay. Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1980.
11
Paul Kristeller. Renaissance thought and the arts.princeton,New Jersey.1989.p.25
12
Greenblatt, Stephen Jay. Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1980.p13
13
Marin, Louis. Utopics: Spatial Play. Trans. Robert A. Vollrath. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1984.
 17

John Freeman offers a different interpretation, arguing that Utopia

“corresponds very closely to the world in which More had to find his place;
in fact, Book I represents both England and More’s historical and
biographical situations, and Book II offers an allegorization of those
terms”14. The two books, read together, offer for Freeman “a full
presentation, if not an integration, of Thomas More.” The contradictions of
the text are not only the product of “a contradictory consciousness” but also
raise the question of how a humanist might fashion himself, or how an
author might construct his textual subjectivity as an amalgam of the private
and the public, the reflective and the active. Nowhere is the exact place
where a discussion of an emergent subjectivity can be addressed. The
citizens of Utopia with their complete lack of individualism, the denizens of
the absolute communal life, become the topics of a discussion among
intellectuals in the Netherlands in the era when the individual is being
defined or redefined.
More's Utopia, on the other hand, opposes extreme individualism, and binds
it with a strict but reasonable order. The citizens of More's Utopia are not
allowed to do what pleases them, but what reason dictates. Yet, More
believes that the dictates of reason must be pleasant. The citizens of his
utopia "define virtue as living according to nature …. They conclude that
nature herself prescribes a life of joy as the goal of life" (More, 1949:48).
They disassociate themselves from the traditional Christian inhibiting
principles, and according to More15, they "disagree with the grim and
gloomy advocate of virtue, who hates pleasures and exhorts us to toils vigils
and squalid self denial." They also "..think it madness for a man to mar his
body, to weaken his strength… to wear himself down with fasts ….. And
spurn natural delights." Yet, most Renaissance utopians, except Rabelais,
do not have full confidence in the common individual. The happiness and
14
Freeman. John. “More’s Place in ‘No Place’: The Self-Fashioning Transaction in Utopia.” Texas Studies in
Literature and Language 34
15
Major themes in Renaissance Utopias, 2011, p.136
 18

social felicity achieved in their utopians are the result of efficient planning
rather than of individual goodness. More offers the citizens of his utopia
good "order", but little freedom. He keeps the social eye on the alert to
prevent "wanton License of word and behavior." Morton 16explains this in
terms of class conflict, and considers More as a representative of the rising
middle class, who "shared much of its outlook in spite of his genuine
concern for the sufferings of the people." As a middle class man, More,
according to Morton (1968:63), "was therefore a man of order' who dislikes
nothing more than the independent action of the people. All for the people
but nothing by people was his catchword." In conclusion, the works of
Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Thomas More played pivotal roles in the
development and dissemination of humanistic ideals during the Renaissance
period. Through their literary and philosophical contributions, they
championed the importance of human dignity, reason, and the pursuit of
knowledge. Their writings not only shaped the intellectual landscape of
their time but also laid the foundation for the humanist movement, which
continues to influence literature, philosophy, and culture to this day. By
celebrating the potential of the individual and advocating for the study of
classical texts, these thinkers helped pave the way for a renewed emphasis
on human agency and intellectual inquiry, marking a significant shift in
Western thought that continues to resonate in our understanding of
humanity and society.

16
Morton, A.L. (1968). The English Utopia. Berlin: The Seven Seas Publishers.
 19

CHAPTER II. INDIVIDUALISM IN RENAISSANCE LITERATURE.

2.1 Concept of individualism.

The concept of individualism was further reinforced by the socio-economic

changes of the time. It is a belief that individual humans are capable of great
accomplishments17. The more group/manor oriented society and mentality of
the Middle Ages was being replaced by a belief in the potential of the
individual to make great achievements. The importance of this concept was
that it freed remarkable individuals and geniuses, such as Leonardo da Vinci,
to live up to their potential without being held back by a medieval society that
discouraged innovation or questioning traditional beliefs. Besides the
outstanding achievements of Leonardo, one sees individualism expressed in a
wide variety of ways during the Renaissance. For example, artists began
signing their paintings, thus showing individualistic pride in their work. Also,
the more communal guild system was being replaced by the more
individualistic system of capitalism, which encouraged private ownership of
business (not government). The rise of a wealthy and powerful middle class,
particularly in the Italian city-states, led to an increased emphasis on
individual achievement and personal success. This was a marked departure
from the feudal system of the Middle Ages, where one's status was largely
determined by birth and the collective identity of the family or clan was

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paramount18.
In the realm of art and literature, the Renaissance saw a shift away from the
religious and communal themes of the Middle Ages towards more personal
and secular subjects. Artists and writers began to explore the complexities of
the human condition and the individual's relationship with the world around
them. This was reflected in the development of portraiture and autobiography
as popular genres, as well as the use of perspective in painting, which allowed
for a more individualised representation of the world. The emergence of
individualism during the Renaissance was also influenced by the religious
upheaval of the period. The Protestant Reformation, led by figures like Martin
Luther and John Calvin, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and
promoted the idea of a personal relationship with God. This further
emphasised the importance of the individual and their personal faith. In
dividualism in literature refers to a focus on the uniqueness, autonomy, and
freedom of the individual. It often involves characters who assert their
independence, challenge societal norms, and pursue their own goals and
desires, regardless of external expectations or pressures. This theme is
prevalent in many works of literature, particularly those that explore themes
of self-discovery, identity, and rebellion against conformity. The concept of
individualism is rooted in historical contexts where people’s personal
differences were dismissed or even punished by the ruling body. In particular,
the United States is known for having a strong bent towards individualism
because it was founded by people who sought the freedom to practice
whatever religion they chose. The counterpoints to individualism are
socialism and communism (among others). Those who prefer individualism
often site fear of governmental control over their life decisions as reason for
that inclination. Being merely a 19th-century expression, the term has a rich
semantic history, having been ‘used in a great many ways, in many different

18
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renaissance
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contexts and with an exceptional lack of precision’ (Lukes, 1971, p. 45) 19.
According to Lukes (1971), the first uses of the term grew out of the general
European reaction to the French Revolution and, more specifically, to its
declared source, the thought of Enlightenment. The early ideas of
individualism in social and political theory included the ideas of the
maximum welfare and freedom of the individual, with society existing only
for the sake of its members. More specifically, individualism is a ‘political
and social philosophy that places high value on the freedom of the individual
and generally stresses the self-directed, self-contained, and comparatively
unrestrained individual or ego. The individualistic theory of human nature
holds that the interests of the normal adult are best served by allowing him
maximum freedom and responsibility for choosing his objectives and the
means for obtaining them, and acting accordingly’ 20. In psychology, one of
the first operationalizations of individualism was offered by Hofstede 21 (1980,
1991) who used the terms of individualism and collectivism to describe
possible forms of relationships between individuals and the groups to which
they belong. According to him, individualism pertains to a society in which
the ties between individuals are loose and everyone is expected to look only
after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. This definition is
obviously narrower than those used in political and philosophical literature.
By identifying related theories and constructs, Waterman (1984) tried to put
the definition of individualism into a larger psychological context 22.
According to his ideas, normative or ethical approaches to individualism
share four features: (i) being true to one’s self (as in Maslow’s theory of self-
actualization); (ii) freedom of choice within the constraints of the like
freedom of others; (iii) personal responsibility which accompanies a sense of

19
Lukes S. 1971. The meanings of individualism. Journal of the History of Ideas 32: 45–66.
20
Encyclopaedia Britannica, www.britannica.com
21
Hofstede G. 1980. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Sage: Beverly
Hills, CA.
22
Waterman AS. 1981. Individualism and interdependence. American Psychologist 36: 762–773. Waterman AS.
1984. The Psychology of Individualism. Praeger: New York.
 22

being a causally effective agent; and (iv) universality, which involves respect
for the integrity of others (cf. Madden, 2001). Different researchers have
suggested more diverse attributes of individualism. Hsu (1983), for instance,
considered self-reliance, competitiveness, aggressive creativity, conformity,
insecurity, large military expenditures, prejudice toward different racial and
religious groups, and unrealistic interpersonal and international relations as
the defining features of individualism. According to Ho and Chiu (1994) 23,
value of the individual, autonomy, individual responsibility, individual
achievement, and self-reliance were the important components of
individualism. However, it is not clear whether all these attributes are
obligatory components of individualism or simply related concepts.
Humanism, a foundational movement of the Renaissance, placed a strong
emphasis on the study of classical texts, particularly those of ancient Greece
and Rome. Humanists sought to revive the wisdom and ideals of the past,
believing that the study of literature, history, and philosophy could enrich
both individuals and society as a whole. At its core, humanism celebrated the
inherent value and dignity of human beings, advocating for the cultivation of
intellect, virtue, and civic engagement. This emphasis on human dignity and
the pursuit of knowledge resonated throughout Renaissance society, fueling
advancements in education, literature, and the arts.
In contrast, individualism emerged as a distinct philosophical trend within the
broader context of humanism. While humanism focused on the collective
improvement of society, individualism placed greater emphasis on the
autonomy and freedom of the individual. Rooted in the belief that each person
possessed unique talents and capabilities, individualism exalted the rights of
individuals to pursue their own aspirations and happiness. This emphasis on
personal liberty and self-expression led to a more individualistic ethos, with
individuals asserting their independence and challenging societal norms and
23
HoDY-F, Chiu C-Y. 1994. Component ideas of individualism, collectivism, and social organization: an
application in the study of Chinese culture. In Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method and Applications
(pp. 137–156). Kim U, Triandis HC, Kagitc¸ibasi C, Choi S-C, Yoon G (eds). Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.
 23

conventions24.
One of the key differences between humanism and individualism lies in
their scope of concern. While humanism sought to improve society as a whole
through education, culture, and civic engagement, individualism prioritized
personal autonomy and freedom over collective concerns. Humanism
emphasized the interconnectedness of individuals within their communities,
promoting the idea of civic duty and the pursuit of the common good. In
contrast, individualism valorized the rights of individuals to challenge
authority and assert their independence, even if it meant defying societal
norms.
Another important distinction between humanism and individualism is their
attitude towards authority. Renaissance humanism maintained a critical yet
respectful stance towards authority, seeking to reform institutions and systems
rather than outright rebellion. Humanists believed in the importance of civic
duty and the pursuit of the common good, advocating for the betterment of
society through education and cultural renewal. Individualism, on the other
hand, exhibited a more rebellious and anti-authoritarian streak. It celebrated
the rights of individuals to challenge authority and assert their independence,
often leading to conflicts with established institutions and societal norms.

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and-an-individual
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2.2. Manisfetations of Individualism in literature.

In Renaissance literature, the concept of individualism emerged prominently,

often reflecting the growing focus on humanism and the individual's place in
society. Works such as "The Prince" by Niccolò Machiavelli and "Essays" by
Michel de Montaigne are notable for their exploration of individualism.
Machiavelli's pragmatic approach to politics and power challenged traditional
views, while Montaigne's essays delve into the complexity and uniqueness of
human experience, emphasizing individual thought and perspective.
Additionally, William Shakespeare's plays, particularly his tragedies like
"Hamlet" and "Macbeth," portray characters grappling with their own individual
desires, dilemmas, and fates, reflecting the emerging individualistic ethos of the
time. Shakespeare, Macbeth, continues the backbone theme of his work, which
is the struggle between good and evil. The underlying tragedy does not lose its
popularity in contemporary literary criticism, raising to the public attention the
problem of illegal usurpation of power, the path to which is built on the corpses
and blood of the innocent. Although there are multiple issues that can be
discussed in the light of Macbeth, it seems that scrupulous attention should be
devoted to the theme of individualism in the tragedy, as it is the core of the
 25

play25. The portrayal of the title character is maintained through his choice to
stick to power in order to achieve personal success. Presumably, individualism
in Macbeth generates all the vivid concepts in the play and the interaction
between the good and evil, in particular.
Referring to the theme of individualism, it is reasonable to point out that it
profoundly relates to religion, which received particular attention. The concept
of individualism as the interaction between good and evil belongs to the scope
of religious studies. Therefore, Shakespeare’s tragedy is analyzed from this
perspective. The literary critics emphasized, “The tragic quality of Macbeth is
inseparable from the play’s imaginative eliciting of compassion on an explicitly
Christian model” (Cox 225). The relation to Christianity is evident despite the
high level of mysticism. The matter is that the tragedy itself considers the nature
of personal interpretation of good and evil along with the ability to make the
right choices and decisions. In this case, Macbeth enlarges upon the external and
internal influences that frame the concept of individualism. The composition of
the Macbeth tragedy is different from the previous Shakespeare tragedies: it
imparts a brief, concentrated exposure, and prolonged exposition. It shows that
the title character makes a tragic mistake not only once; thus, he is disturbing the
peace and order in himself and the world. In Macbeth, there is a combination of
a hero and an anti-hero, the protagonist and antagonist, whereas the latter
becomes the protagonist in the course of the tragedy. In addition, William
Shakespeare introduces some fantastic images into the tragedy. It is not just a
ghost of killed Banquo but also the characters of the Witches. In this case,
William Shakespeare adopted the traditional ideas of his era, as well as the old
Scottish legend.
Referring to the theme of individualism, it is reasonable to point out that it
profoundly relates to religion, which received particular attention. The concept
of individualism as the interaction between good and evil belongs to the scope
of religious studies. Therefore, Shakespeare’s tragedy is analyzed from this
25
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 26

perspective. The literary critics emphasized, “The tragic quality of Macbeth is

inseparable from the play’s imaginative eliciting of compassion on an explicitly
Christian model”. The relation to Christianity is evident despite the high level of
mysticism. The matter is that the tragedy itself considers the nature of personal
interpretation of good and evil along with the ability to make the right choices
and decisions. In this case, Macbeth enlarges upon the external and internal
influences that frame the concept of individualism. Although the underlying
suggestion is true, the title character only highlights all the contradictions of
human nature, among which the positive features can be easily found. The
portrayal of the Witches can consider the antagonists of some general
metaphysical sense. They are some otherworldly supernatural forces that
decided to prove the relativity of the moral criteria in the person’s life by
blurring the line between the vile and beautiful, good and evil in the human soul.
Macbeth is the object of their influence. On the other hand, the Witches
converted Macbeth’s innermost desires and passiveness into conscious,
purposeful, and effective steps. Their participation makes the man put a seal on
his ambitious desires, describing them as being of the dark and evil origin, as
well as demonic and fatal to the consciousness of humanity. the problem of
individualism in Macbeth is realized through the prism of the title character’s
internal conflict, which is based on the interaction between good and evil. The
concept of individualism constitutes the core of the tragedy; thus, it is translated
into many visual adaptations that enhance it by means of portraying the hero’s
monologues. Individualism generates all the potential themes in the tragedy
related to the nature of personal choice, values, and beliefs 26. Shakespeare
incorporated much of the Renaissance's new knowledge into his plays, and he
often refers to new scientific discoveries of his time, especially discoveries
regarding medical and astronomical science. We also find references to Britain's
exploration of new worlds; especially in the play The Tempest27.However, we
26
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27
Nimavat, S (2016). Renaissance Humanism in Shakespeare’s plays. International Journal of Research and
Analytical Reviews, vol. 3.
 27

find the greatest evidence of his Renaissance identity in his constant

investigation of the human soul. Throughout his plays, he explores the question
'What is a human being?', and he investigates this question through fully
developed characters who possess knowledge and wit, doubt and fear, and who
are capable of self-expression and the practice of individual freedom. Watching
his plays, we can easily relate to Ophelia’s distress, Hamlet’s anguish, and the
ever-lasting love between Romeo and Juliet. We see their short-comings and
their strengths, we follow them in their struggles against the world and the
universe, and we feel for them in their tragic deaths 28.In Hamlet, Shakespeare
articulates the humanist worldview in a nutshell. In a conversation with his two
friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, Hamlet goes to the heart of the question
of what a human being is: What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason,
how infinite in faculty, in form and moving how express and admirable, in
action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god, the beauty of the
world, the paragon of animals! And yet to me, what is this quintessence of dust?
In this quote, Hamlet praises the wonderful qualities of human beings, but he
also points out how insignificant we are in the big picture – we are merely dust.
In every play, Shakespeare introduces new themes, but they are all related to the
question of what it means to be a human. They all raise profound questions
about human existence, and they examine the human dignity and feelings of the
characters. This is probably the most important reason why Shakespeare’s plays
are so universal and have remained popular for so long.

28
McClinton, B (2007). Thinker: William Shakespeare. New Humanist.
28
Hamlet, Act 2, Scene 2
 28

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Renaissance period stands as a pivotal era in the evolution

of human thought, marked by the emergence and interplay of two
foundational concepts: humanism and individualism. Humanism, with its
focus on the value of human experience, reason, and potential, challenged the
prevailing religious and scholastic dogma of the Middle Ages, fostering a
renewed interest in classical learning and the humanities. This intellectual
movement not only revived ancient texts but also engendered a profound
appreciation for the individual's capacity for creativity, critical inquiry, and
self-expression.
Simultaneously, individualism emerged as a potent force, reflecting a growing
emphasis on personal autonomy, selfhood, and agency. As exemplified in
literary works such as Shakespeare's "Macbeth," More's "Utopia," Dante's
"Divine Comedy," and Boccaccio's "Decameron," individualistic themes
pervaded Renaissance literature, portraying characters grappling with
questions of identity, morality, and existential meaning. In my opinion, these
 29

texts not only depict the complexities of human nature but also celebrate the
pursuit of individual excellence and self-discovery. The significance of
humanism and individualism in the Renaissance extends far beyond mere
literary exploration; it represents a fundamental shift in worldview that
continues to resonate in modern society. By championing the dignity of the
individual and the power of human reason, the Renaissance laid the
groundwork for subsequent intellectual and cultural movements, shaping our
understanding of democracy, human rights, and individual liberty. Thus, the
enduring legacy of humanism and individualism in the Renaissance
underscores their timeless importance as catalysts for social, intellectual, and
artistic innovation, serving as beacons of inspiration for generations to come.
This work deepen our understanding of the Renaissance period and its
intellectual underpinnings, particularly focusing on humanism and
individualism. Through this research and analysis, I sought to explore how
these concepts shaped the literature of the era and their enduring significance
in contemporary society. In the process, you learned about the historical
context, developed a nuanced understanding of key concepts, honed your
skills in literary analysis and critical thinking, and recognized the relevance of
Renaissance ideas to contemporary issues. Overall, this course paper does not
only provide the understanding of the Renaissance period but also provides
valuable insights into the enduring significance of humanism and
individualism in shaping human thought and culture. Furthermore, it
contributes to the academic discourse surrounding the Renaissance period,
providing students, scholars, and educators with valuable resources for
studying and teaching about this transformative era.
 30

Rezyume

Xulosa qilib aytadigan bo'lsak, Uyg'onish davri insoniyat tafakkuri

evolyutsiyasidagi hal qiluvchi davr bo'lib, ikki asosiy tushunchaning paydo
bo'lishi va o'zaro ta'siri bilan ajralib turadi: gumanizm va individualizm.
Gumanizm inson tajribasi, aqli va salohiyatining qadriga e'tibor qaratgan
holda, o'rta asrlarda hukmron bo'lgan diniy dogmaga qarshi chiqdi, hamda
klassik o'rganish va gumanitar fanlarga yangi qiziqish uyg'otdi. Ushbu
intellektual harakat nafaqat antik davrni qayta jonlantirdi, balki shaxsning
ijodkorlik, tanqidiy tafakkur qilish va o'zini ifoda etish qobiliyatini chuqur
baholashga o’rgatdi. Bir vaqtning o'zida individualizm kuchli kuch sifatida
paydo bo'ldi, bu shaxsiy avtonomiya, o'z-o'zini anglash va inson erkinligi
vakolatlarga tobora ortib borayotgan urg'uni aks ettirdi. Shekspirning
"Makbet", Morening "Utopiya", Dantening "Ilohiy komediya" va
Bokkachchoning "Dekameron" kabi adabiy asarlarda misol qilib
ko'rsatilganidek, individualistik mavzular Uyg'onish davri adabiyotini qamrab
 31

olgan bo'lib, o'ziga xoslik, ekzistensial ma'no va axloqiy masalalar bilan

kurashayotgan personajlarni tasvirlaydi. Mening fikrimcha, ushbu asarlar
nafaqat inson tabiatining murakkabligini tasvirlaydi, balki individual
mukammallikka intilish va o'z-o'zini kashf qilishni yuksak qadrlaydi.
Uyg'onish davridagi insonparvarlik va individualizmning ahamiyati oddiy
adabiy izlanishlardan tashqarida ham ya’ni, zamonaviy jamiyatda aks
etayotgan dunyoqarashdagi tub o‘zgarishlarni yoritib beradi. Uyg'onish davri
shaxsning qadr-qimmati va inson aqlining kuchini himoya qilish orqali
keyingi intellektual va madaniy harakatlar uchun zamin yaratdi, demokratiya,
inson huquqlari va shaxs erkinligi haqidagi tushunchalarni shakllantirdi.
Shunday qilib, Uyg'onish davridagi insonparvarlik va individualism
tushunchalari aks etgan abadiy meroslar hozirgi davrning ijtimoiy, intellektual
va badiiy innovatsiyalar uchun yuqori ahamiyatga ega bo’libgina qolmay,
kelajak avlodlar uchun yo’l ko’rsatuvchi bo'lib xizmat qiladi. Ushbu tadqiqot
va tahlillar orqali insonparvarlik va individualizm tushunchalari uyg’onish
davri adabiyotini qanday shakllantirgani va ularning zamonaviy jamiyatdagi
doimiy ahamiyati o’rganildi. Umuman olganda, ushbu kurs ishida nafaqat
Uyg'onish davri haqidagi tushunchalarni chuqur tahlil qilindi, balki insoniyat
tafakkuri va madaniyatini shakllantirishda gumanizm va individualizmning
o’rni haqida qimmatli tushunchalar yoritildi. Ushbu izlanishlar Uyg'onish
davri bilan bog'liq ilm-fan rivojiga hissa qo'shgan holda, talabalar, olimlar va
o'qituvchilarga ushbu davrni o'rganish va o'qitish uchun qimmatli manbalar
bilan ta'minlaydi.
 32

The list of used literature

1. Burckhardt, Jacob. The Civilization of the Renaissance.London.1892 = Die

Kultur der Renaissance in Italien. 1860.
2. Corliss Lamont. Philosophy of humanism.- Amherst,NY.1997.
3. Freeman. John. “More’s Place in ‘No Place’: The Self-Fashioning
Transaction in Utopia.” Texas Studies in Literature and Language. 1996
4. Greenblatt, Stephen Jay. Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to
Shakespeare. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.
5. HoDY-F, Chiu C-Y. Component ideas of individualism, collectivism, and
social organization: an application in the study of Chinese culture. In
Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method and Applications. Sage:
Thousand Oaks, CA. 1990
6. Hofstede G. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-
Related Values. Sage: Beverly Hills.1980
7. CA.J.Hughes “Dante’s Divine Comedy in early renaissance England. –
London.2012.
8. Kristeller, “Humanism and Scholasticism” .1984
9. Lukes S. 1971. The meanings of individualism. Journal of the History of
Ideas.
 33

10.Major themes in Renaissance Utopias, 2011.

11.Marin, Louis. Utopics: Spatial Play. Trans. Robert A. Vollrath. Atlantic
Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1984.
12.McClinton, B (2007). Thinker: William Shakespeare. New Humanist.
13.Morton, A.L. (1968). The English Utopia. Berlin: The Seven Seas Publishers.
14.Nimavat, S (2016). Renaissance Humanism in Shakespeare’s
plays. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, vol. 3.
15.Paul Kristeller. Renaissance thought and the arts.princeton,New
Jersey.1989.
16.T. Davies Humanism. Routledge. New York. 1997.
17.Waterman AS. 1981. Individualism and interdependence. American
Psychologist 36: 762–773. Waterman AS. 1984. The Psychology of
Individualism. Praeger: New York.

The list of used fiction

1. Shakespeare The tragedy of Hamlet- London.1899
2. Thomas More. Utopia – Westminister.1895

The list of used dictionaries

1. Encyclopaedia Britannica, www.britannica.com

2. Kindersley, Dorling. (2008). Illustrated Oxford Dictionary.
3. Oxford Dictionary- London,1989

The list of used internet recourses

1. https://123helpme.org/essays/the-problem-of-individualism-in-
shakespeares-tragedy-macbeth/
2. https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/97999/what-is-the-
difference-between-a-human-being-and-an-individual
3. https://quizlet.com/589399093/secularism-humanism-and-
individualism-of-the-renaissance-flash-cards/
4. https://www.tutorchase.com/answers/ib/history/how-did-the-concept-
of-individualism-emerge-during-the-renaissance
5. https://www.worldhistory.org/Renaissance_Humanism/