WERABE UNIVERSTY

Institute of Technology

Mechanical Engineering Department

14 February 2024 Nur. Jems

 Well come 2 your Th.D II classes

• Usual Class Ground rule

➢ Punctuality for (class, exam, assignments etc…)

➢ Switch off / make on silent mode your Mobile

➢ Exam cheating is strictly forbidden

➢ Side talk is forbidden unless you are told to so for group discussion and etc.

➢ Reasoning after exam (especially Once you see your grade) not allowed

14 February 2024 Nur. Jems

 chapter 4
Gas Power cycle
( Air standard Power Cycle)
Air standard Power cycles
• Course outline ➢Some air (gas) power cycle
➢ Introduction
✓ Otto cycle
➢ Basic consideration in analysis of power
cycle ✓ Diesel engine
➢ Carnot cycle and its value in engineering ✓ Dual cycle
➢ Air standard assumption
✓ Stirling and Ericson cycle
➢ Overview of reciprocating engine
✓ Joule (Brayton) or gas turbine cycle
➢ Ideal jet propulsion cycle
➢ Modification to turbojet engine ✓ Deviation of actual Joule cycle from
➢ Second law analysis of gas power cycle idealized ones

✓ Modification of gas Turbine

EC and IC engine
• What is the difference between EC and IC engine?
Gas Power Cycle
• In gas power cycle your working medium (gas or air) is remain gas
throughout the cycle. Gas is may me a mixture of air and fuel. In IC
engine the quantity of air is more than fuel. Hence the gas power is
also called as air standard cycle.

• What process is take place in IC engine?

Basic consideration in analysis of power cycle
• Air standard Power cycles is a cycle that uses air as working medium. Example in the case of fuel for automobile a fuel is
a mixture of air and fuel. But the amount of air is much greater than fuel. Hence we can consider it as air power cycle under
different considerations. Basic assumption ia air standard power cycle

➢ The cycle does not involve any friction. hence no any pressure drop

➢ All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi equilibrium manner.

➢ The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible

➢ Working medium is air which is perfect gas. Hence perfect gas obey all gas law(_).

➢ No change in mass of air

➢ All the process is reverible

➢ No heat exchange between system and surrounding

➢ Homogeneous reaction

➢ Specific heat is constant

• Types of gas power cycle for internal combustion engine
➢ Carnot

➢ Otto
➢ Diesel
➢ Dual
➢ Stirling and Ericsson
➢ Brayton (joule)
1. Carnot cycle: is the most efficient cycle operating between two
specified temperature limits. Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle
which gives maximum efficiency when compared to other cycle. There
are four basic process take place in carnot cycle.

P1-2: reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression

P 2-3: Reversible heat addition

P 3-4: reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion

P 4-1: reversible isothermal heat rejection in condersor

• Several impracticalities are associated with this cycle:
✓Reversible isothermal heat transfer is very difficult to achieve in reality because it
would require very large heat exchangers and it would take a very long time

✓Low quality of steam from isentropic expansion

✓Diffuclties in design a compressor that handles two phases.

AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
• In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire
cycle. familiar examples of devices that operate on gas cycles are Spark-
ignition engines, diesel engines, and conventional gas turbines. In all these
engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel within the system boundaries.
Hence they are internal combustion engines. Combustion process, the
composition of the working fluid changes from air and fuel to combustion
products during the course of the cycle. However, considering that air is
predominantly nitrogen that undergoes hardly any chemical reactions in the
combustion chamber, the working fluid closely resembles air at all times.
• Even though ICE operate on a mechanical cycle (the piston returns to its starting position at the end of each

revolution), the working fluid does not undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle. It is thrown out of the

engine at some point in the cycle (as exhaust gases) instead of being returned to the initial state. Working on

an open cycle is the characteristic of all internal combustion engines.

• The actual gas power cycles are rather complex. To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, we utilize the

following approximations, commonly known as the air-standard assumptions:

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.

2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.

3.The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.

4.The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state
• Another assumption that is often utilized to simplify the analysis even
more is that air has constant specific heats whose values are
determined at room temperature (25°C, or 77°F). When this
assumption is utilized, the air-standard assumptions are called the
cold-air-standard assumptions.

• A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is

frequently referred to as an air-standard cycle.
AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
• the reciprocating engine (basically a piston–cylinder device) is a powerhouse of the vast
majority of automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric power generators, as
well as many other devices. The basic components of a reciprocating engine are

1. (TDC): the position of the piston when it forms the smallest volume in the cylinder

2. (BDC): the position of the piston when it forms the largest volume in the cylinder.

3. Compression ratio: Is The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the
minimum (clearance) volume

4. Bore (B): diameter of piston

• (MEP). It is a fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during
the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work
as that produced during the actual cycle.

• MEP is a parameter to compare the performances of reciprocating

engines of equal size. The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers
more net work per cycle and thus performs better.
• OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
Working
• Initially, both the intake and the exhaust valves are closed, and the piston is at its lowest position (BDC).
During the compression stroke, the piston moves upward, compressing the air–fuel mixture. Shortly before
the piston reaches its highest position (TDC), the spark plug fires and the mixture ignites, increasing the
pressure and temperature of the system. The high-pressure gases force the piston down, which in turn forces
the crankshaft to rotate, producing a useful work output during the expansion or power stroke. At the end
of this stroke, the piston is at its lowest position (the completion of the first mechanical cycle), and the
cylinder is filled with combustion products.

• Now the piston moves upward one more time, purging the exhaust gase through the exhaust valve (the
exhaust stroke), and down a second time, drawing in fresh air–fuel mixture through the intake valve (the
intake stroke). Notice that the pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric value during the
exhaust stroke and slightly below during the intake stroke.
Generally
• Suction stroke: • Expansion (Power) stroke:
➢ Piston move down ➢ Piston move down
➢ Cylinder volume increase
➢ Cylinder volume increase
➢ Cylinder Pressure and temperature decrease
➢ Cylinder Pressure and temperature decrease
➢ Inlet valve opens
➢ Air fuel mixture sacked into cylinder for ➢ Inlet valve closed
gasoline and only air for diesel • Exhaust stroke:
• Compression stroke: ➢ Piston move upward
➢ Piston move upward
➢ Cylinder volume decrease
➢ Cylinder volume decrease
➢ Cylinder Pressure and temperature decrease
➢ Cylinder Pressure and temperature increase
➢ exit valve open
➢ Both valve closes
• In two-stroke engines,all four functions described above are executed in just two strokes: the power stroke and
the compression stroke. In these engines, the crankcase is sealed, and the outward motion of the piston is used to
slightly pressurize the air–fuel mixture in the crankcase. Also, the intake and exhaust valves are replaced by
openings in the lower portion of the cylinder wall. During the latter part of the power stroke, the piston uncovers
first the exhaust port, allowing the exhaust gases to be partially expelled, and then the intake port, allowing the
fresh air–fuel mixture to rush in and drive most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder. This mixture
is then compressed as the piston moves upward during the compression stroke and is subsequently ignited by a
spark plug.

• The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their four-stroke counterparts because of the incomplete
expulsion of the exhaust gases and the partial expulsion of the fresh air–fuel mixture with the exhaust gases.

• However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive, and they have high power-to-weight and power-to-volume
ratios, which make them suitable for applications requiring small size and weight such as for motorcycles, chain
saws, and lawn mowers
• Ideal otto cycle: The Ideal Cycle For spark-ignition Engines
• It consists of four internally reversible processes:

➢ 1-2 Isentropic compression

➢ 2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
➢ 3-4 Isentropic expansion
➢ 4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding the changes in kinetic and potential energies, the
energy balance for any of the processes is expressed, on a unit-mass basis, as
𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑤𝑖𝑛 − 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑢 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes since both take place at constant volume. Therefore,
heat transfer to and from the working fluid can be expressed as
• ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = ∆𝑢 = 𝑢3 − 𝑢2 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2
• ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 = ∆𝑢 = 𝑢4 − 𝑢1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇4 −𝑇1
𝜂 =1− =1−
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇3 −𝑇2
Process 1-2: adiabatic isentropic compression. Then from Tds equation
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1
= = 𝑟 𝑘−1 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑉2
Process 2-3: isochroci heat addition

Finally
1
𝜂𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1
• For a given compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of an actual spark-ignition engine is
less than that of an ideal Otto cycle because of the irreversibilities, such as friction, and
other factors such as incomplete combustion

• when high compression ratios are used, the temperature of the air–fuel mixture rises
above the autoignition temperature of the fuel (the temperature at which the fuel ignites
without the help of a spark) during the combustion process, causing an early and rapid
burn of the fuel at some point or points ahead of the flame front, followed by almost
instantaneous inflammation of the end gas.

• This premature ignition of the fuel, called autoignition, produces an audible noise, which
is called engine knock. Autoignition in spark-ignition engines cannot be tolerated because
it hurts performance and can cause engine damage
• The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding the
changes in kinetic and potential energies, the energy balance for any of
the processes is expressed, on a unit-mass basis, as
Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle For Compression-ignition Engines

• In CI engines (also known as diesel engines), the air is compressed to

a temperature that is above the autoignition temperature of the fuel,
and combustion starts on contact as the fuel is injected into this hot air.
Therefore, the spark plug and carburetor are replaced by a fuel injector
in diesel engines. In diesel engine

➢No problem of autoignition B/c in gasoline engine compression ratios

are limited by the onset of autoignition or engine knock.

➢fuels that are less refined (thus less expensive) can be used
How to draw P-v and T-s diaram for diesel engine
• P-v diagram T-s diagram

• The fuel injection process in diesel engines starts when the piston approaches TDC and continues during the first part of the power stroke.

• Therefore, the combustion process in these engines takes place over a longer interval. Because of this longer duration, the combustion
process in the ideal Diesel cycle is approximated as a constant-pressure heat-addition process. In fact, this is the only process where the Otto
and the Diesel cycles differ.

✓ Process 1-2 is isentropic compression,

✓ Process 2-3 isobaric heat addition

✓ Process 3-4 is isentropic expansion, and

✓ Process 4-1 is constant-volume heat rejection.

 Cont…
• Noting that the Diesel cycle is executed in a piston–cylinder device, which forms a closed system, the amount of heat

transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure and rejected from it at constant volume can be expressed as

• Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle under the cold-airstandard assumptions becomes

𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇4 −𝑇1
𝜂 =1− =1−
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑘(𝑇3 −𝑇2 )

• We now define a new quantity, the cutoff ratio 𝑟𝑐 , as the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the combustion

process:

𝑉3 𝑣3
𝑟𝑐 = =
𝑉2 𝑣2

1 𝑟𝑐 𝑘 − 1
𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1 𝑘 𝑟𝑐 − 1
• under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the efficiency of a Diesel cycle differs from the efficiency
of an Otto cycle by the quantity in the brackets. This quantity is always greater than 1.

𝜂 𝑡ℎ,𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 > 𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

• diesel engines operate at much higher compression ratios and thus are usually more efficient than
the spark-ignition (gasoline) engines. The diesel engines also burn the fuel more completely since
they usually operate at lower revolutions per minute and the air–fuel mass ratio is much higher
than spark-ignition engines. Thermal efficiencies of large diesel ngines range from about 35 to 40
percent.

• The higher efficiency and lower fuel costs of diesel engines make them attractive in applications
requiring relatively large amounts of power, such as in locomotive engines, emergency power
generation units, large ships, and heavy trucks.
Dual cycle
• It’s a theorethical cycle for moder high speed diesel cycle. This cycle is also
called mixed cyle or limited pressure cycle

• Approximating the combustion process in internal combustion engines as a

constant-volume or a constant-pressure heat-addition process is overly
simplistic and not quite realistic. Probably a better (but slightly more
complex) approach would be to model the combustion process in both
gasoline and diesel engines as a combination of two heat-transfer processes,
one at constant volume and the other at constant pressure. The ideal cycle
based on this concept is called the dual cycle
✓ P 1-2: isentropic compression ( no heat transfer, work done on the system)

✓ P 2-3: Reversible isochoric heat addition

✓ P 3-4: Reversible isobaric heat addition

✓ P 4-5: isentropic expansion ( no heat transfer, work done by the system)

✓ P 4-5: Reversible isochoric heat rejection

• The relative amounts of heat transferred during each process

• Heat supplied during the process 2-3: 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

• Heat supplied during the process 3-4: 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 − 𝑇3

• total Heat supplied, 𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 + 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 − 𝑇3

• Heat rejected4 during the process 5-1: 𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇5 − 𝑇1

 𝑞2 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇5 −𝑇1 𝑇5 −𝑇1
𝜂=1 − =1− =1−
𝑞1 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇3 −𝑇2 +𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 −𝑇3 𝑇3 −𝑇2 +𝑘 𝑇4 −𝑇3

Three ratio are used to analyse dual combustion cycle

𝑉1
✓ compression ratio 𝑟 =
𝑉2

𝑃3
✓ Pressure ratio α=
𝑃2

𝑉4
✓ Cut-off ratio 𝑟𝑐 =
𝑉3

➢ Finally thermal efficiency of dual cycle become

1 𝛼𝑟𝑐 𝑘 − 1
𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1 𝛼 − 1 + 𝛼𝑘 𝑟𝑐 − 1
• Draw superimposed p-v diagram of Otto cycle, Diesel cycle and Dual cycle to
compare their efficiencies for same compression ratio (R c ) and heat rejection.

• A comparison of the cycles (Otto, Diesel and Dual) on the p-v and T-s diagrams
for the same compression ratio and heat supplied
 Comparission Between Otto, Diesel And Dual Cycle
Parameter Otto Diesel Dual

Cycle Petrol/ air standard Diesel/Air standard Semidesiel/ Air standard

process Two isentropic (Rev. Two (Rev. adiabatic) isentropic Two (Rev. adiabatic) isentropic
adiabatic) and 2 isochoric and isobaric and 1isochoric and 2 isochoric and 1isobaric
Stirling And Ericsson Cycles
• The ideal Otto and Diesel cycles discussed in the preceding sections are composed entirely of internally reversible processes

and thus are internally reversible cycles. These cycles are not totally reversible.

• Therefore, the thermal efficiency of an Otto or Diesel engine will be less than that of a Carnot engine operating between the

same temperature limits.

• But Carnot cycle is totally reversible (internally and externally). Precisely we define that Carnot cycle is a cycle in which heat

addition and rejection is take place isothermal (dT=constant).

• There are two other cycles that involve an isothermal heat-addition process at TH and an isothermal heat-rejection process at

TL: the Stirling cycle and the Ericsson cycle. They differ from the Carnot cycle in that the two isentropic processes are replaced

by two constant-volume regeneration processes in the Stirling cycle and by two constant-pressure regeneration processes in the

Ericsson cycle. Both cycles utilize regeneration, a process during which heat is transferred to a thermal energy storage device

(called a regenerator) during one part of the cycle and is transferred back to the working fluid during another part of the cycle
• A regenerator is a device that borrows energy from the working fluid
during one part of the cycle and pays it back (without interest) during
another part
• Carnot

✓ P 1-2: isothermal. Heat addition in boiler

✓ P 2-3: isentropic expansion in turbine

✓ P 3-4: isothermal heat rejection in condenser

✓ P 4-1: isentropic compression in compressor

• Stirling cycle

✓ P 1-2: isothermal expansion (heat addition from the external source).

✓ P 2-3: isochoric regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the regenerator).

✓ P 3-4: isothermal compression (heat rejection to the external sink

✓ P 4-1: isochoric regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working fluid)
How Stirling and Ericsson cycle works?
• Initially, the left chamber houses the entire working fluid (a gas), which is at a
high temperature and pressure. During process 1-2, heat is transferred to the gas at
TH from a source at TH. As the gas expands isothermally, the left piston moves
outward, doing work, and the gas pressure drops. During process 2-3, both pistons
are moved to the right at the same rate (to keep the volume constant) until the
entire gas is forced into the right chamber. As the gas passes through the
regenerator, heat is transferred to the regenerator and the gas temperature drops
from TH to TL.
• Both the Stirling and Ericsson cycles are totally reversible, as is the
Carnot cycle, and thus according to the Carnot principle, all three
cycles must have the same thermal efficiency when operating between
the same temperature limits

𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝐿
𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜂𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 = 𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 =1− =1−
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐻
Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle For Gas-turbine Engines
• Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle. Fresh air at ambient conditions is
drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised. The
high pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned
at constant pressure.

• The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to
the atmospheric pressure while producing power. The exhaust gases leaving the
turbine are thrown out (not recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified as an
open cycle. The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be modeled as a
closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard assumptions.
• Here the compression and expansion processes remain the same, but the
combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process from
an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant pressure heat-
rejection process to the ambient air.

• An open-cycle gas-turbine engine A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.

• Gas turbine working principles
• The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop is
the Brayton cycle, which is made up of four internally reversible
processes:

✓P 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

✓P 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition

✓P 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)

✓P 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

• When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are neglected, the energy balance for a steady-flow
process can be expressed, on a unit–mass basis, as
𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑤𝑖𝑛 − 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 − ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Therefore, heat transfers to and from the working fluid are

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 − 𝑇1

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold-air standard assumptions becomes

1
𝜂𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1 −
𝑟𝑝 𝑘−1Τ𝑘

𝑃2
Where 𝑟𝑝 = is pressure ratio and k is the specific heat ratio
𝑃1
• Hence under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the thermal efficiency of an ideal
Brayton cycle depends on the pressure ratio of the gas turbine and the specific heat
ratio of the working fluid. The thermal efficiency increases with both of these
parameters, which is also the case for actual gas turbines.
• The two major application areas of gas turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and
electric power generation.
• The highest temperature in the cycle occurs at the end of the combustion process
(state 3), and it is limited by the maximum temperature that the turbine blades can
withstand. This also limits the pressure ratios that can be used in the cycle. For a
fixed turbine inlet temperature T3, the net work output per cycle increases with the
pressure ratio, reaches a maximum, and then starts to decrease
• In gas-turbine power plants, the ratio of the compressor work to the turbine work, called the back
work ratio, is very high. Usually more than one-half of the turbine work output is used to drive the
compressor. This is quite in contrast to steam power

• plants, where the back work ratio is only a few percent. This is not surprising, however, since a
liquid is compressed in steam power plants instead of a gas, and the steady-flow work is
proportional to the specific volume of the working fluid. A power plant with a high back work ratio
requires a larger turbine to provide the additional power requirements of the compressor.
The Simple Ideal Brayton Cycle
• A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a
pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and
1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard assumptions,
determine (a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the
turbine, (b) the back work ratio, and (c) the thermal efficiency.

• Ans: T2=540 K, T4=770 K, rbw=0.403 and 0.426 or 42.6%

• That is, 40.3 percent of the turbine work output is used just to drive the
compressor.