Module 1 : Nuclear Chemistry and Energy

Course Title : Chemistry for Engineers

Course Number : Chemistry Lecture 111
Course Description : This course provides the students with core concept of
chemistry that are important in the practice of
engineering profession.
Total Learning Time : 3 units (3 hours lecture per week)
Pre-requisites : None

Overview:

In this module, it will discuss the various modes of nuclear decay, such as alpha
decay, beta decay, positron emission and electron capture. It further discuss the
potential of both fission and fusion as energy sources and identify the pros and cons of
the two technologies.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Have a working knowledge how penetrating power and ionizing power combine
to determine the effect of radiation on materials, including living tissues.
2. Have a working knowledge how radioisotopes can be used in medical imaging
techniques to monitor organ function.
3. Write, balance and interpret equations for simple nuclear equations.

Indicative Content:

This module discusses the following topics: Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions;
Transmutation, Fission and Fusion; Stability of Atomic Nuclei; Interaction of Radiation
and Matter; Modern Medical Imaging Methods and Radioactive Waste.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 1

College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology
Name: ___________________________________ Date Submitted: __________
Course & Year: ____________________________ Rating: __________________

Pre-Assessment

1. Match the following forms of radioactive decay with the appropriate result.

a) Alpha 1. No change in mass number or atomic number

b) Positron 2. Atomic number decreases by 1
c) Gamma 3. Atomic number decreases by 2, mass number
decreases by 4
d) K capture 4. Atomic number increases by 1
e) Beta

137
2. Cs has a half-life of 30.2 yrs. How many years will it take for a 100 g sample
to decay to 0.01 g?
Answer: 4.0 x 102 years

3. Complete each equation and name the particle ejected from the nucleus.

a) 820 O ? + -1 0 β + ῡ
232
b) ? 92 U + 24 He
c) 82201Pb 83
201
Bi + ?
20
Answer: a) 9 F
b) 94 236 Pu
c) -10 β

4. The half-life of Sb -110 is 23 sec

a) Determine its decay constant in s -1
b) Compute the activity of a 1,000 g sample of 110 Sb in Bq and Ci.
Answer: a) 0 0301 s-1
b) 1.7 x 10 20 Bq

5. Write the equations for the following nuclear reactions.

a) Alpha decay by 188 Bi
b) Beta emission by 87 Rb
c) Positron emission by 40 K
d) Electron capture by 138 La

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 2

6. What is the N/Z ratio for each of the following nuclides?
a) 7 14 N
b) 8 11 O
c) 50126 S

7. What is the N/Z ratio for each of the following nuclides?

d) 7 14 N
e) 8 11 O
f) 50126 Sn

8. What is the N/Z ratio for each of the following nuclides?

g) 7 14 N
h) 8 11 O
i) 50126 Sn

9. What is the N/Z ratio for each of the following nuclides?

j) 7 14 N
k) 8 11 O
l) 50126 Sn

10. Calculate the binding energy of one mole of 14C nuclei. The experimentally determined
mass of a carbon -14 atom (including its 6 electrons) is 14.003242 u.
Answer: 1.01585 x 10 10 kj/mol

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 3

Discussion:

Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear

processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation
and nuclear properties. It includes the study of the production and use of radioactive
sources for a range of processes.

The Discovery of Radioactivity

In February 1896, Henri Becquerel was experimenting in France with the relation
between the recently discovered X-rays and the phosphorescence of certain minerals.
X-rays had been found to penetrate substances like paper and expose photographic
plates. Becquerel had already discovered that phosphorescing uranium minerals also
exposed the plates. During several days some sample were left waiting in a drawer.
Out of curiosity, Becquerel developed the plates. He had quite a surprise – the plates
were exposed. Obviously, the emission of radiation that penetrated the paper
surrounding the plates had nothing to do with phosphorescence but was a property of
the mineral.
In fact, all uranium compounds, and even the metal itself, exposed photographic
plates. Becquerel also discovered that uranium (U) emitted radiation that was capable
of causing air molecules to ionize (that is, to lose electrons and become positively
charge particles). Before long, it was recognized that the radiation from elements like
uranium and radium consisted of three types known as alpha, beta and gamma rays.
In 1899, Ernest Rutherford found that alpha particles could be stopped by thin
pieces of paper and had a range of only about 2.5 cm to 8.5 cm in air, whereas beta
particles were capable of penetrating far greater distances in air.
In 1900, Paul Villard identified a third form of natural radiation- gamma rays. He
discovered that these were not streams of particles but instead had the general
characteristics of light or X-rays. Gamma rays, a high –energy form of
electromagnetic radiation are extremely penetrating; they are capable of passing
through more than 22 cm of steel and about 2.5 cm of lead.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 4

Nuclear Reactions

After discovery of natural radioactivity of uranium, thorium, and radium, many

other elements were found to have radioactive isotopes. All of the elements heavier
than Bismuth (Bi, atomic number 83 and a few lighter than bismuth have natural
radioactivity. While studying radium, Rutherford found that besides emitting alpha
particles, radium was also producing radioactive radon gas (Rn).
This led Rutherford and one of his students Frederick Soddy, in 1902 to propose
the revolutionary theory that the radioactivity is the result of a natural change of
an isotope of one element into an isotope of a different element. Such change is a
nuclear reaction, is a process in which unstable nucleus emits radiation and is
converted into a more stable nucleus of a different element. Thus, a nuclear reaction
results in a change in atomic number and often a change in mass as well.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 5

Equations for Nuclear Reactions

In nuclear reactions the total number of nuclear particles, called nucleons (proton
plus neutrons), remains the same, but the identities of atoms can change. Just as with
chemical equations, nuclear equations reflect the fact that matter is conserve. As a
result, the sum of the mass numbers of reacting nuclei must equal to the sum of
the mass numbers of the product nuclei. There must also be nuclear charge
balance – the sum of the atomic numbers of the products must equal to the sum
of the atomic numbers of the reactants.
Mass number
238 U
97

Atomic Number
Consider the equation for the nuclear reaction:
226 4
88 Ra 2 He 2+ + 86
222
Rn
Radium -226 alpha particle Radon – 222
The mass number on the left equals the sum of the mass numbers on the right.
Similarly, the atomic number on the left equals the sum of the atomic numbers on the
right.
Mass number: 226 = 4 + 222
Atomic number: 88 = 2 + 86

The isotope of uranium with atomic mass 238 is also an alpha emitter.
When the 92238 U nucleus gives off an alpha particle, made up of two protons and two
neutrons, four units of atomic mass and two units of atomic charge are lost. The
resulting nucleus has a mass of 234 and a nuclear charge of 90, showing that it is an
isotope of thorium, which has 90 protons in its nucleus and an atomic number of 90.

238 4
92 U 2 He 2+ + 90
234
Th
Uranium -238 alpha particle Thorium -234
Mass number: 238 = 4 + 234
Atomic number: 92 = 2 + 90

As is seen in these two examples, loss of an alpha particle from an atom of a given
element results in the formation of an atom whose atomic number is 2 less, and whose
mass is 4 less, than that of the original element.
Some unstable nuclei are beta emitters. For example, uranium-235 emits a beta
particles, which is a nuclear electron (-10e).

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 6

 235 0 235
92 U -1 e + 93 Np
Uranium -235 Beta particle Neptunium -235

Mass number: 235 = 0 + 235

Atomic number: 92 = -1 + 93
Knowing that some nuclei emit beta particles leads to a basic question: How can a
nucleus containing protons and neutrons emit a beta particles, which is an electron? It
has been established that an electron and a proton can combine outside the nucleus to
form a neutron.
Therefore, the reverse process is proposed to occur inside the nucleus. When a
beta particles is emitted from a decaying nucleus, a neutron decomposes, giving up an
electron and changing itself into a proton. The ejected electron is the beta particle.
The resulting proton remains in the nucleus and increases the atomic number by 1.

Therefore, loss of a beta particle from an atom of an element results in the formation
of an atom of an element whose atomic number has increased by 1 but whose atomic
mass is the same.
Beta particle production: 1n 0e + 1 H
0 -1 1

Neutron Electron Proton

Gamma (𝛾) radiation may or may not be given off simultaneously with alpha or
beta particles, depending on the particular nuclear reaction involved. Gamma rays are
emitted when the product nucleus must lose some additional energy to become stable.
Being electromagnetic radiation, gamma rays have no charge and essentially no mass.
The emission of a gamma ray, therefore, cannot alone account for production of a
different element.

Example 1. Writing an equation for an alpha emission

Write an equation for alpha emission from a polonium -218 isotope.
Solution:
First, write the partial equation and set up a table of mass and atomic number
changes under it. The atomic number of polonium is 84.
218 4
84 Po 2 He 2+ + ?
Mass number: 218 4 + ?
Atomic number: 84 2 + ?
The mass number of the product must be 214 because its mass number plus that of
the alpha particle must be equal 218, the mass number of the decaying polonium-218
isotope. The atomic number of the product must be 82 because its atomic number plus
that of the alpha particle must equal 84, the atomic number of the decaying isotope. In
as much as the element with an atomic number of 82 is lead, the product is 82214 Pb.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 7

 218 4
Therefore: 84 Po 2 He 2+ + 82
214
Pb.

Example 2. Writing an Equation for a Beta Emission

Write an equation for beta emission from a lead -210 nucleus.
Solution:
First, write a partial equation that includes what is known: Lead-210 is a reactant,
and a beta particle is a product. Then, to aid in determining the mass and atomic
number change, set up a table like those used earlier. The atomic number of lead is
82.
210 0
82 Pb. -1 e + ?
Mass number: 210 0 + ?
Atomic number: 82 -1 + ?
The sum of the mass numbers of the products must equal to 210, the mass number
of the decaying lead isotope. Since the mass of the beta particle is essentially zero, the
mass number of the product nucleus must be 210.

The sum of the atomic numbers of the products must also equal the atomic number
of lead, 82. So, the atomic number of the product must be 82 [83 + (-1) = 82], which
is the atomic number of bismuth (Bi). The product nucleus is 83210 Bi.
210 0 210
82 Pb. -1 e + 83 Bi.

Stability of Atomic Nuclei

Why are some nuclei unstable and radioactive while others are stable and not
radioactive? The stability of nuclei is apparently dependent on the relative numbers of
protons and neutrons. The nucleus of the simplest atom, hydrogen, contains only a
proton. Its isotopes, deuterium (1 2 H) and tritium (1 3 H) contain one and two
neutrons, respectively. From hydrogen to bismuth, except for 1 1 H and 2 3 He, the
mass numbers of stable isotopes are always twice as large as (even larger than)
the atomic number.
It appears that the larger number of protons in the nuclei of heavier atoms require
extra neutrons to gain stability. Any unstable isotope will decay in such a way that its
decay product falls closer to the stable band. Beta emission occurs in isotopes that
have too many neutrons to be stable. When beta decay occurs, the conversion of a
neutron into proton and an electron increases the atomic number while lowering the
number of neutrons and the new isotope moves toward stable region.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 8

Those isotopes with too few neutrons decay as well but in a manner that increases the
number of neutrons relative to the number of protons. One way this can happen is by
emission of a type of subatomic particle called positron – a positively charge
electron,
0
+ 1 e.

For example, the decay of nitrogen – 13 an isotope with too few neutrons, is by
positron emission.
13 0 13
7 N +1 e + 6 C
The positron results from the decay of a proton.
1 1 0
1 H 0 n + +1 e
Proton Neutron Positron
Because the positron, like electron, has a mass number zero, the mass number of
the product nucleus is the same as that of the starting nucleus. Therefore, emission of
a positron from an atom of an element results in the formation of an atom of an
element whose atomic number is reduced by 1 but whose mass is unchanged. All
isotopes of the elements beyond bismuth (Z = 83) are unstable. Most of them decay
by ejecting an alpha particle. This kind of decay decreases the mass number by 4 and
atomic number by 2.

CHANGES IN ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER ACCOMPANYING

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Change in Change in
Type of Symbol Charge Mass Atomic Mass
Decay Number Number
0
Beta -1 e -1 0 +1 None
0
Positron +1 e +1 0 -1 None
4
Alpha -2 He 2+ +2 4 -2 -4
0
Gamma 0 𝛾 0 0 none none

Activity and Rates of Nuclear Disintegrations

The number of radioactivity nuclei that disintegrate in a simple per unit of
time is called activity (this is “activity” in radioactivity). The activity of a sample
containing radioactive isotopes depends on the number of nuclei present and the rate
at which they decay. If a sample of matter is “highly radioactive”, many atoms are
undergoing decay per unit of time. A small number of nuclei decaying at a rapid rate
can produce the same activity as a larger number of atoms decaying at a slower rate.
Radioactive disintegrations are measured in curies (Ci); one Ci is 37 billion
disintegration per second (dps).

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 9

To illustrate the differences in rates of decay of radioactive nuclei, consider first how
cobalt -60 is used in medicine to treat cancerous tumours in the human body. When
cobalt -60 decays, it produces beta particles as well as gamma rays.

60 60 0 0
27 Co 28 Ni + -1 e + 0 𝛾

Half- Life

The rate of decay of any radioactive isotope can be represented by its characteristics
half- life, the period required for one half of the radioactive material originally
present to undergo radioactive decay. Short half -lives are the results of high rates
of decay, and long half-lives are results of low rates of decay.

HALF –LIFE OF SOME RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Decay Process Half-Life
238 234 4
92 U 90 Th + 2 He 4.51 x 109 years
3 3 0
1 H 2 He + -1 e 12.3 years
14 14 0
6 C 7 N + -1 e 5730 years
131 131 0
53 I 54 Xe + -1 e 8.05 days
64 64 0
29 Cu 30 Zn + -1 e 12.9 hours
69 69 0
30 Zn 31 Ga + -1 e 55 minutes

By focusing attention on the decay products we are also helped to understand the
concept of half-life. For example, if a sample contains one million copper-64 atoms at
some beginning time, 12.9 hours later only 500,000 copper-64 atoms would remain.
However, there would 500,000 zinc-64 atoms present that had not been there 12.9
hours earlier. After 25.8 hours (two half-lives), only 250,000 copper-64 atoms would
remain, and there would be 750,000 zinc-64 atoms resulting from the decay of the
copper atoms. After many half-lives, almost all of the copper atoms will have
decayed, and there will be almost one million zinc-64 atoms, which are stable and do
not undergo decay.
Radioactive decay proceeds according to principle called the half-life. The half-
life (T½) is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the radioactive material to
decay. For example, the radioactive element bismuth (210Bi) can undergo alpha
decay to form the element thallium (206Tl) with a reaction half-life equal to five days.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 10

If we begin an experiment starting with 100 g of bismuth in a sealed lead container,
after five days we will have 50 g of bismuth and 50 g of thallium in the jar. After
another five days (ten from the starting point), one-half of the remaining bismuth will
decay and we will be left with 25 g of bismuth and 75 g of thallium in the jar. As
illustrated, the reaction proceeds in halves, with half of whatever is left of the
radioactive element decaying every half-life period.

Radioactive Decay of Bismuth-210 (T½ = 5 days)

The fraction of parent material that remains after radioactive decay can be
calculated using the equation:
Fraction remaining = 1 (where n = # half-lives elapsed)
2n
The amount of a radioactive material that remains after a given number of half-lives is
therefore:

Amount remaining = Orig. amount x Fraction remaining

The decay reaction and T½ of a substance are specific to the isotope of the element
undergoing radioactive decay. For example, Bi210 can undergo a decay to Tl206 with
a T½of five days. Bi215, by comparison, undergoes decay to Po215 with a T½ of 7.6
minutes, and Bi208 undergoes yet another mode of radioactive decay (called electron
capture) with a T½ of 368,000 years!

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 11

Natural Radioactive Decay Series

As one element expect for an element with such a long half-life, relatively large
amount of uranium-238 can be found in certain rocks and mineral deposits. Uranium-
238 decays first to thorium-234, which then itself decays. These first two steps are
part of the uranium series, which ends with the stable, nonradioactive isotope of
lead. Uranium series is the series of steps in the naturally occurring decay of uranium-
238 to lead-206.

Artificial Nuclear Reactions

In 1919, Rutherford was successful in producing the first artificial nuclear change
by bombarding nitrogen (N2) with alpha particles. All of the results of the experiment
could be explained if one assumed the nuclear reaction to be:

14N + 4 He 2+ 18 F 17O + 1 H
7 2 9 8 1

Where 918 F is an unstable nucleus that quickly disintegrates to 817O and 11 H. Both
product nuclei are stable. Rutherford had observed an artificial transmutation, the
experimental conversion of one element into another, during a laboratory experiment.
Following Rutherford’s original experiment, there was considerable interest in
discovering new nuclear reactions.
In 1934, Irene Curie Joliot, daughter of Marie and Pierre Curie, and her husband,
Frederic Joliot, bombarded aluminium (Al) with alpha particles and observed
neutrons and a positron. The Joliots discovered that when the flow of alpha particles
striking the Al was stopped, the neutrons emissions stopped but the positron
emissions continued. They reasoned that the alpha particles reacted with aluminium
nuclei to produce phosphorus-30 nuclei, which then decayed to produce positrons.

27 4 He 2+ 30P 1
13 Al + 2 15 + 0 n
30 30 0
15 P 14 Si + +1 e (Positron)

The second reaction continued because the phosphorus -30 was decaying more
slowly than it was being produce. Phosphorus-30 was the first radioactive isotope
to be produced artificially. Today more than 1000 other radioactive isotopes have
been produced.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 12

Energy from Nuclear Reactions

A vast amount of energy is released when heavy atomic nuclei split- the nuclear
fission process- and when small atomic nuclei combine to make heavier nuclei- the
fusion process. It was discovered that 92235 Uranium is fissionable by neutrons. This
discovery led to two important applications of this energy release accompanying
fission- the atomic bomb and nuclear power plants.
There is a huge difference between the amount of energy liberated in an ordinary
chemical reaction, such as the burning of methane in air, and the energy liberated in a
nuclear fission reaction. If you compared the energy from the burning of only 16g of
methane with that from the fission of an equivalent amount of Uranium-235, the
fission reaction would produce almost 25 million time of energy.

Stimulated Nuclear Reactions

While many elements undergo radioactive decay naturally, nuclear reactions can
also be stimulated artificially. Although these reactions also occur naturally, we are
most familiar with them as stimulated reactions. There are two such types of nuclear
reactions:
1. Nuclear Fission: reactions in which an atom's nucleus splits into smaller
parts, releasing a large amount of energy in the process. Most commonly this
is done by "firing" a neutron at the nucleus of an atom. The energy of the
neutron "bullet" causes the target element to split into two (or more) elements
that are lighter than the parent atom.

The Fission Reaction of Uranium-235

During the fission of U235, three neutrons are released in addition to the two
daughter products. If these released neutrons collide with nearby U235 nuclei, they can
stimulate the fission of these atoms and start a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
This chain reaction is the basis of nuclear power. As uranium atoms continue to split, a
significant amount of energy is released from the reaction. The heat released during this
reaction is harvested and used to generate electrical energy.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 13

 2. Nuclear Fusion: reactions in which two or more elements "fuse" together to
form one larger element, releasing energy in the process. A good example is
the fusion of two "heavy" isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium: H2 and tritium:
H3) into the element helium.

Nuclear Fusion of Two Hydrogen Isotopes

Fusion reactions release tremendous amounts of energy and are commonly

referred to as thermonuclear reactions. Although many people think of the sun as a
large fireball, the sun (and all stars) are actually enormous fusion reactors. Stars are
primarily gigantic balls of hydrogen gas under tremendous pressure due to
gravitational forces. Hydrogen molecules are fused into helium and heavier elements
inside of stars, releasing energy that we receive as light and heat.

How a nuclear reactor makes electricity

A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the
atoms of uranium. Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of
boiling water to make steam which drives turbine generators. Except for the reactor
itself, a nuclear power station works like most coal or gas-fired power stations.

The Reactor Core

Several hundred fuel assemblies containing thousands of small pellets of ceramic

uranium oxide fuel make up the core of a reactor. For a reactor with an output of 1000
megawatts (MWe), the core would contain about 75 tons of enriched uranium.

In the reactor core the uranium-235 isotope fissions or splits, producing a lot of
heat in a continuous process called a chain reaction. The process depends on the
presence of a moderator such as water or graphite, and is fully controlled. The
moderator slows down the neutrons produced by fission of the uranium nuclei so that
they go on to produce more fissions.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 14

 Two examples of fission of a uranium-235 atom

Common Type of Reactor

The main design is the pressurized water reactor which has water in its primary
cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a secondary circuit. The less
popular boiling water reactor makes steam in the primary circuit above the reactor
core, though it is still under considerable pressure. Both types use water as both
coolant and moderator to slow neutrons.

Diagram of Pressurized Water Reactor

Nuclear Reactors

Nuclear reactors are devices that control fission reactions producing new substances
from the fission product and energy. Recall our discussion earlier about the fission
process in the making of a radioisotope. Nuclear power stations use uranium in fission
reactions as a fuel to produce energy. Steam is generated by the heat released during
the fission process. It is this steam that turns a turbine to produce electric energy.

To maintain efficient reactor performance, about one-third or half of the used fuel is
removed every year or two, to be replaced with fresh fuel. The pressure vessel and
any steam generators are housed in a massive containment structure with reinforced
concrete about 1.2 meters thick.
Diagram of pressurized water reactor

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 15

This is to protect neighbors if there is a major problem inside the reactor, and to
protect the reactor from external assaults, because some heat is generated from
radioactive decay even after the reactor is shut down, cooling systems are provided to
remove this heat as well as the main operational heat output.

Nuclear energy supplies about 11% of the world's electricity. Today 31 countries
use nuclear energy to generate up to three quarters of their electricity, and a
substantial number of these depend on it for one-quarter to one-third of their supply.
Over 15,000 reactor-years of operational experience have been accumulated since the
1950s by the world's 440 nuclear power reactors (and nuclear reactors powering naval
vessels have clocked up a similar amount).

Transuranic Element

The transuranium elements (also known as transuranic elements) are the chemical
elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (the atomic number of uranium). All of
these elements are unstable and decay radioactively into other elements.

Transuranic elements can be artificially generated synthetic elements, via nuclear

reactors or particle accelerators. The half-lives of these elements show a general trend
of decreasing as atomic numbers increase. There are exceptions, however, including
several isotopes of curium and dubnium.

Heavy transuranic elements are difficult and expensive to produce, and their
prices increase rapidly with atomic number. As of 2008, the cost of weapons-grade
plutonium was around $4,000/gram, and californium exceeded $60,000,000/gram.
Einsteinium is the heaviest transuranic element that has ever been produced in
macroscopic quantities.

Applications

Transuranium elements may be utilized to synthesize other super-heavy elements.

Elements of the island of stability have potential important military applications,
including the development of compact nuclear weapons. The potential every-day
applications are vast; the element americium is utilized in devices like smoke
detectors and spectrometers.

Radon

Radon is a chemical element with symbol Rn and atomic number 86. It is a

radioactive, colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas. It occurs naturally in minute
quantities as an intermediate step in the normal radioactive decay chains through
which thorium and uranium slowly decay into lead and various other short-lived
radioactive elements; radon itself is the immediate decay product of radium.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 16

Its most stable isotope, 222Rn, has a half-life of only 3.8 days, making radon one of
the rarest elements since it decays away so quickly.

However, since thorium and uranium are two of the most common radioactive
elements on Earth, and they have three isotopes with very long half-lives, on the order
of several billions of years, radon will be present on Earth long into the future in spite
of its short half-life as it is continually being generated. The decay of radon produces
many other short-lived nuclides known as radon daughters, ending at stable isotopes
of lead.

Useful Application of Radioactivity

1. Radioactivity tracers are commonly used in the medical field and also in the
study of plants and animals.
2. Radiation is used and produced in nuclear reactors, which controls fission
3. Reactions to produce energy and new substances from the fission products.
4. Radiation is also used to sterilize medical instruments and food.
5. Radiation is used by test personnel who monitor materials and processes by
non-destructive methods such as x-rays.

Three sources of radiation approved for use on foods.

1. Gamma rays are emitted from radioactive forms of the element cobalt (Cobalt
60) or of the element cesium (Cesium 137). Gamma radiation is used routinely
to sterilize medical, dental, and household products and is also used for the
radiation treatment of cancer.

2. X-rays are produced by reflecting a high-energy stream of electrons off a

target substance (usually one of the heavy metals) into food. X-rays are also
widely used in medicine and industry to produce images of internal structures.

3. Electron beam (or e-beam) is similar to X-rays and is a stream of high-energy

electrons propelled from an electron accelerator into food.

Medical Imaging

Radioisotopes are used in medicine in two distinctly different ways: diagnosis and
therapy. In the diagnosis of internal disorders, physicians need information on the
locations of the disorders. An appropriate radioisotopes is introduced into patient’s
body, either alone or combined with some other chemical, and it accumulates at the
site of the disorder. There the radioisotope disintegrates and emits its characteristics
radiation, which can be detected.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 17

 Modern medical diagnostic instruments not only determine where the radioisotope
is located in the patient’s body but also construct an image of the area. The imaging
method is based on the emission of gamma rays from the target organ. As the gamma
rays strike a gamma-ray camera, the signal is processed by a computer and displayed
as a video.

Energy from Nuclear Reactions

A vast amount of energy is released when heavy atomic nuclei split- the nuclear
fission process- and when small atomic nuclei combine to make heavier nuclei- the
fusion process. It was discovered that 92 235 Uranium is fissionable by neutrons. This
discovery led to two important applications of this energy release accompanying
fission- the atomic bomb and nuclear power plants.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 18

 A fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly
radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of them
produce neutrons, called delayed neutrons, which contribute to the fission chain
reaction. In nuclear reactors, the reaction is slowed down by the addition of control rods
which are made of elements such as boron, cadmium, and hafnium which can absorb a
large number of neutrons.

n nuclear bombs, the reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of energy
released creates a nuclear explosion. Chain reaction is a process by which neutrons
from one fission reaction can cause multiple fission reactions in nearby nuclei. A
sample of fissionable material of sufficient size to self -sustain reaction is termed the
critical mass.

Nuclear Wastes

Nuclear waste, or radioactive waste, is what is left over of the nuclear substances
that were being used. Nuclear materials are often used for medical treatment and
diagnosis, as well as producing energy. The waste that comes out of nuclear reactor is
dangerously radioactive and remains so for thousands of years. The nuclear waste also
known as spent fuel is kept underwater for a few years until the radiation decays and
it can safely disposed of.

Four Main Types of Nuclear Waste

1. High-level waste: This is the waste that remains when nuclear fuel is used
to make energy via a nuclear reactor. Because the fuel has been used, the
waste takes the form of small pellets and fuel rods.

2. Intermediate-level waste: This in-between level of radioactive waste is

typically inclusive of materials that need to be properly stored away from
land or human exposure, but doesn’t need to go through a cooling process
before doing so. Oftentimes decommissioned nuclear plants have this level
of radioactivity, and waste is typically handled depending on the time it
takes for the radioactivity to decay.

3. Low-level waste: This is typically materials used during a nuclear process

that have become contaminated, such as rags used to clean up, tubes used
to hold materials, or even clothing and tools. Hospitals commonly produce
this kind of waste, which is one of the easiest to dispose of.

4. Mill Tailings waste: Nuclear materials – particularly thorium and

uranium – come from a special process of extraction used to remove them
from naturally occurring ore. Mill tailings are the forms of residue
produced during this extraction process.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 19

Harmful Effect from Improper Disposal of Radioactive Materials

1. Affecting Human Populations: Humans are significantly impacted by

exposure to levels of radiation. Oftentimes, this exposure will affect many
future generations, as it leads to a number of birth and developmental
disabilities. Down syndrome, thyroid cancer, and a number of other issues
have been found in people affected by radiation.

2. Affecting Wildlife: One only need look to the Chernobyl disaster to see
what the effects of radiation can be on wildlife in the area. Unfortunately,
despite the fact that the event was 30 years ago, most of the animals are
deemed to be affected by radioactivity. This manifests in reduced brain
sizes, physical deformities, and other concerns that impact the survival of
these creatures.

3. Affecting Local Flora: Plant life is also susceptible to damage from

nuclear radioactive waste. After Chernobyl, an entire pine forest needed to
be destroyed because it was affected by radiation. Not to mention,
radioactive soils and plants dissuade bees and other important creatures
from fertilizing and helping flora grow, which again, serves to impact
future generations.

4. Affecting Nuclear Workers: It goes without saying that those who work
around nuclear materials are highly susceptible to negative effects. While
rare, nuclear reactor accidents have led to many deaths in the past, both
from those exposed and even some of whom were irradiated during the
research or testing phases. Improperly stored waste at a nuclear site can
also lead to levels of exposure that are beyond what is acceptable for
humans.

Nuclear Waste Disposal Method

1. Incineration: Burning radioactive waste is largely done through

commercially-operated incinerators developed for this purpose, although
certain large companies have the means to do this on their own.
Incineration is common with low-level waste, as this material usually
consists of clothing or other common items that have simply been
contaminated.

2. Storage: Over time, the radioactivity of nuclear material does decay, so

storing this material until it is no longer radioactive is another way to deal
with proper nuclear waste disposal. This process, called radioactive decay,
depends on the amount of materials and the radioactivity level. Therefore,
storage is typically only done with radioactive waste that has a shorter
half-life, or the amount of time it takes for the material’s radioactivity to
be reduced by half. There are commercial storage facilities for this waste,
while some approved companies have their own means of storage.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 20

 3. Deep Burial: While shallow burials can be done with low-level waste, the
most common way of disposing of high-level waste is in deep burial pits.
Many countries with natural resources follow this procedure of geological
disposal, which consists of burying the material deep within the earth.
Oftentimes, underground laboratories are built to monitor usage and
storage of the materials. However, as of now, there is no government that
has a facility for this type of disposal, although one is being created in
Finland.

4. In water: At nuclear sites, a common way of storing material is in water.

Nearly all of these sites have a special pond or have a special pool
constructed, which is a place that they can store fuel that has already been
used for the process of generating power.

5. Recycling: For some radioactive material, such as previously used fuel,

certain radioactive elements can be processed or extracted for reuse.
Uranium and plutonium elements have long lives, so they can be separated
and recycled.

6. The Ocean: A very small amount of liquid waste that is common when
waste is reprocessed to extract usable elements is released into the ocean.
This process is highly controlled, and radiation levels are deemed to be so
low that they are inconsequential. However, recent agreements between
companies that rely on nuclear materials have phased out this procedure.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 21

Managing Used Fuel

Used nuclear fuel is very hot and radioactive. Handling and storing it safely can be
done as long as it is cooled and plant workers are shielded from the radiation it
produces by a dense material like concrete or steel, or by a few metres of water.
Water can conveniently provide both cooling and shielding, so a typical reactor will
have its fuel removed underwater and transferred to a storage pool. After about five
years it can be transferred into dry ventilated concrete containers, but otherwise it can
safely remain in the pool indefinitely - usually for up to 50 year.

Near Oskarshamn nuclear power plant in Sweden is a facility called CLAB

(foreground). It stores all the used fuel from Swedish nuclear power plants that
have provided over 40% of the country's electricity (SKB)

Inside CLAB, used nuclear fuel is stored underwater (SKB)

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 22

 Low-level and intermediate-level waste repository at Olkiluoto in Finland
(Posiva)

Disposal

The categorization - high, intermediate and low - helps determine how wastes are
treated and where they end up. High-level wastes require shielding and cooling, low-
level wastes can be handled easily without shielding.

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 23

College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology
Name: ___________________________________ Date Submitted: __________
Course & Year: ___________________________ Rating: __________________

Evaluation:

I. Choose the correct answer. Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. Chemically identical atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
and mass numbers are called?
a) Isomers
b) Enantiomers
c) Isotopes
d) Chiral forms

2. A very small amount of radioactive isotope added to a chemical, biological, or

physical system to study it is called a?
a) Calorimeter assay
b) Radioactive tracer
c) Dye marker
d) Hydrogenated oil

3. A beta (β) particle is an

a) Electron from the nucleus
b) Electron that changes into antimatter
c) Opaque form of carbon
d) Electron from the electron cloud

4. Which of the following is not used as a diagnostic tool in nuclear medicine?

a) Barium
b) Iodine
c) Technetium
d) Plutonium

5. What is the half-life of 14C?

a) 5730 years
b) 7720 years
c) 9520 years
d) 10,400 years

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 24

6. Radioactive isotope decay
a) Gives off emitted energy
b) Can occur in seconds or thousands of years
c) Can occur through alpha, beta, particle emissions
d) All of the above

7. High-energy electromagnetic waves like light, but with a shorter, more penetrating
wavelength are called
a) Alpha particles
b) Beta particles
c) Gamma rays
d) Sine waves

8. Radioactive barium is used as a radioactive tracer to diagnose

a) Flatulism
b) Halitosis
c) Ulcers
d) Cavities

9. The time it takes for half the atoms of a radioactive isotope to decay into different
radioactive form is the
a) Dosage rate
b) Half-life
c) Tracer rate
d) Number of beta particles

10. Along with oxygen, what isotope forms heavy water?

a) Deuterium
b) Nitrogen
c) Tritium
d) Neon

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 25

II. Solve the following problems. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. Complete the following nuclear equations. Write the mass number, atomic number,
and symbol for the remaining particle.
9 6 4
a) 4 Be + ? 3 Li + 2 He
1 24 4
b) ? + 0 n 11 Na + 2 He
40 40 1
c) 20 Ca + ? 19 K + 1 H
241 4 243
d) 95 Am + 2 He 97 Bk + ?
246 12 1
e) 96 Cm + 6 C 4 0 n + ?
238 240 1
f) 92 U + ? 100 Fm + 5 0 n

2. A wooden articraft is burned and found to contain 21 g of carbon. The 14C activity
of the sample is 105 disintegrations/min. What is the age of the articraft?
Answer: 9200 years

3. A piece of a spear handle is found in an archaeological dig in Central America. It

contains 12.5 % as much 14 C as a tree living today. Based only on the half-life of
carbon-14, how old is the spear handle? Answer; 17, 200 years

4. The thorium-232 radioactive decay series, beginning with 232 Th and ending with
208
Pb, occurs in the following sequence: ∝, β-, ∝, ∝, ∝, ∝, β-, β- , ∝ Write an
equation for each step in this series.

5. How much energy is released in the fission of 1 kg of 235U according to the equation
below? The experimentally determined masses of the produce are 136.92532 u and
96.91095 u, respectively. Answer: 7.6089 x 10 13 J/kg of 235U

92235U + 0
1
n 52
137
Te + 40
97
Zr + 2 0
1
n

6. Ernest Rutherford carried out the first artificial transmutation in 1919 when he
bombarded 14 N with alpha particles. The result was an oxygen nucleus:
14 4 18 * 17 1
7 N + 2 He 9 F 8 O + 1 P

Radiochemists used shorthand notation to represent tranmutations. Omitting the

intermediate 918 F* nucleus, the reaction above can be represented as 14N (∝, p) 17O.
Write balanced equations for each of the indicated nuclear bombardments.
27
a) Al (p,𝛾 ) 28Si
40
b) Ar ( n, 𝛽 ) 41 K

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 26

7. Identify each of the following and indicate its purpose in a fission reactor.

a. Moderator
b. Fuel
c. Control rods
d. Coolant

8. A gieger counter is set to clock once every 100 disintegrations that is detects. The
counter registers 20 clicks per second for a sample of an unknown isotope. What is
the activity of the isotope in Ci? In 𝜇Ci? Answer: 5.4 x 10 -7 Ci or 0.54 𝜇Ci.

9. An average person is exposed to about 360 millirem of background radiation per

year from a variety of natural and man –made sources. About 2/3 of that typically
comes from inhalation of 222Rn produced in soil by the decay of 238 U. Given that
222
Rn decays
By alpha emission, estimate the absorbed dose in:

a) Joules and
b) Grays for a 60 kg person from one year’s inhalation of radon.
Answer: a) 7200 J b) 0.12 Gy

10. Recall that the definition of the curie is 1 Ci = 3.70 x 10 10 disintegrations per
second and that this value was originally chosen so that the activity of 1.0 g of 226
Ra would be equal to 1 Ci. Given that 226Ra has a molar mass of 226.025 g/mol and
a half-life of 1600 years, calculate Avogadro’s number. Answer: 6.1 x 10 23

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 27

ENGR. MA.INEZ STEPHANY UVAS, CH.E. 28