3.
1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
Particle Relative Charge Mass (amu)
Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron -1 1/1840
Proton number (atomic number) : the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom of an element
Nucleon number (mass number): the total number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of an element
Elements are arranged in order of atomic (proton) number and so
that elements with similar properties are in columns, known as
groups
Elements in the same periodic group have the same amount of
electrons in their outer shell, which gives them similar chemical
properties
Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number in rows
called periods
Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in shells. Starting with
the first shell (closest to nucleus) each shell is filled with electrons
before any further shells gain any electrons
First shell can have up to 2 electrons
Second shell can have up to 8 electrons
Third shell can have up to 8 electrons
When reacting, all atoms will try to acquire this perfect arrangement
of electrons, that is having the maximum number of electrons as
possible in their outer shell (valence shell). All atoms try to
have 8 electrons in their outer shell (unless they have one shell,
then they will try to have only 2) because this is the
most stable arrangement
Noble gases have 8 electrons in their outer shells already except
helium which has 2 making them very stable so they are mostly
unreactive
Isotopes
Isotopes: atoms of the same element which have the same proton
number but a different nucleon number
Isotopes have the same chemical properties because they have the
same number of electrons in their outer shell
Two types of isotopes: radioactive (unstable atoms that break
down giving radiations) and non-radioactive
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
Medical use: cancer treatment, radiotherapy, to kill cancerous cells
Industrial use: to check for leaks (radioisotopes added to oil/gas),
at leaks radiation Is detected using a Geiger counter.
3.2 Structure and Bonding
3.2.1 Bonding: the structure of matter
Element: a substance, made up of only one type of atom, which
cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
reactions
Compound: a substance made up of two or more different types of
atoms joined together by chemical bonds
Mixture: two or more elements or compounds mixed together but
not chemically combined
METALS NON METALS
Strong Brittle
Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity except graphite
High melting and boiling points Lower melting and boiling points than metals
High density Low density
Forms basic oxides Forms acidic oxides
Metals form positive ions by losing
Form negative ions by gaining electrons except Hydrogen
electrons
Non malleable and non ductile, brittle and break easily when hit or when pulling
Malleable and ductile
force is applied
Lustrous Dull surface except graphite and iodine which have shiny surfaces
Sonorous Not sonorous, make dull sound when hit with hard object
Difference between metals and non-metals
Alloy: mixture of two or more metals or mixture of one or more
metals with a non metal to improve its properties
3.2.2 Ions and Ionic Bonds
Ion: an electrically charged particle (a charged atom or a charged
group of atoms) formed when an atom loses or gains electrons
Ionic bond: strong electrostatic force of attraction between positive
cations and negative anions
formed when an electron is transferred from one atom to another
Group I and VII
Group I atom loses one electron and forms +1 ion
Group VII atom gains electron the group 1 atom lost and becomes a
-1 ion
Eg. NaCl, KCl, NaBr, KI, LiBr,
Metals give non metals their valency electrons
An ionic compound in solid state has a regular arrangement (lattice)
of alternating positive and negative ions
Valency: the number of electrons lost or gained to form a complete
electron shell in a covalent or ionic compound
Lattice: a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative
ions
Held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between
oppositely charged ions, which are regularly arranged
The electrostatic forces act in all directions in the lattice
Requires a lot of energy to overcome these forces of attraction
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS REASON
Form giant lattice Cations and anions attract
High m.p. and b.p. Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between ions in lattice
Don’t conduct electricity when solids Ions can’t move as they are in fixed positions, can only vibrate
Conduct electricity when molten, Ions can flow
aqeous
Water molecules are able to separate ions from each other and keep the ions in
Usually soluble in water
solution
3.2.3 Molecules and Covalent Bonds
When atoms share pairs of electrons to obtain a noble gas electronic
configuration it is called a covalent bond
Covalent bonding takes place between non-metals only
PROPERTY OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS REASON
Low melting and boiling points Weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules
Usually liquid, gas or low m.p. solid Same as above
Don’t conduct electricity No mobile ions or electrons
Usually insoluble in water
The covalent bonds within molecules are very strong
The forces between the separate molecules are weak, these weak
forces are called intermolecular forces
Because of the weak intermolecular forces between molecules it
needs only a little energy to overcome these forces
3.2.4 Macromolecules
Diamond
Each carbon covalently bonded to 4 other carbons
Very hard, very high melting point, doesn’t conduct electricity
because no free electron
Graphite
Each carbon covalently bonded to 3 other carbons, forming layers of
hexagonal rings, which have no covalent bonds between the layers
Layers can slide over each other due to weak intermolecular forces
between the layers. So it is soft and slippery
One electron from each carbon atom is delocalised
The mobile electrons allow it to conduct electricity as the electrons
can drift along layers when a voltage is applied
Silicon (IV) oxide/Silicon dioxide
Each silicon atom covalently bonded to 4 oxygen atoms
Each oxygen atom covalently bonded to 2 silicon atoms
Formula is SiO2, this is empirical formula, which is used for all giant
molecules because there are too many atoms to give the molecular
formula
Uses of Macromolecules
Graphite:
Lubricant, layers slide over each other
Electrodes in electrolysis, can conduct electricity due to mobile
electrons
Diamond:
Cutting tools, very hard due to rigid structure
Similarities between diamond and silicon dioxide
Very hard
Very high melting and boiling points
Insoluble in water
Does not conduct electricity
These are due to the strong covalent bonds that hold the atoms in a
rigid structure as they both have a tetrahedral structure
General Properties of Macromolecules
Melting point very high since structure is made up of a large number
of covalent bonds, all of which need to be broken if atoms are to be
separated
Don’t conduct electricity as they have no mobile ions or electrons
except graphite
Strength – hard, as they exist in rigid tetrahedral structures except
graphite which is soft
3.2.5 Metallic Bonding
METALLIC BONDING
Metallic bonding is a lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a
sea of delocalised electrons
Delocalised electrons (Free electrons/sea of mobile electrons) can
carry charge. Hence metals are conductors of electricity and heat
Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between positive metal
cations and delocalised electrons. These are metallic bonds
The positively charged ions are held together by their strong
attraction to the mobile electrons which move between ions. This is
metallic bonding.
Layers held together by delocalised electrons, when force is applied
these electrons act like glue holding the structure in shape – hence
metals are malleable and ductile
PROPERTIES OF METALS:
Most metals have high melting and boiling points
This is because it takes a lot of energy to weaken the strong forces
of attraction between the metal ions and the delocalised electrons in
the lattice. The attractive forces can only be overcome when the
temperature is high
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
Conduction of heat is due to vibrations of the atoms passing on the
energy from one atom to the next. The metallic structure allows the
atoms to vibrate more freely compared with covalent structure. But
electrons will not move as readily through the lattice if
atoms are vibrating faster, so electrical conductivity of a
metal decreases with increasing temperature.
Metals are malleable and ductile
Positive ions in a metal are arranged regularly in layers. When a
force is applied the layers can slide over each other. In a metallic
bond the attractive forces between metal ions and the electrons act
in any direction.
