ACIDS SALTS ANDBASES
ACIDS
An acid is a compound which, when dissolved in water, produces
a hydrogen ion (H+) as the only positively charged ion.
e.g hydrochloric acid: HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Sulphuric acid: H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
Nitric acid HNO3 (aq) H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
Properties of acids include
(i) they have a sour taste
(ii) they turn blue litmus to red
(iii) they react with metals such as Zn, Mg, Fe and produce
hydrogen gas. E.g Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) Zn SO4 (aq)
+ H2 (g)
(iv) Most acids react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide
gas, a salt and water.
2H+ (aq) + CO3 (aq) CO2 (g) +H2O (g)
(v) they react with bases and alkalis to form a salt and water
Basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions H+(aq)which can
be produced by one mole of the acid. E.g. sulphuric acid produces two
hydrogen ions H+ when in aqueous solution, therefore its basicity
is two and it is said to be dibasic;
H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
Hydrochloric acid produces only one hydrogen ion when in
solution therefore its basicity is one and its said to be monobasic
HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
A strong acid is one which completely dissociates in aqueous
solution whereas a weak acid is one which only partially dissociates
in aqueous solution.
(i) Sulphuric acid hydrochloric acid and nitric acid are examples of
strong acids.
(ii) Ethanoic acid and carbonic acid are examples of weak acids.
BASES
A base is a substance which can combine with a hydrogen ion
(proton) H+ (aq) e.g. sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide,
ammonia. All metal hydroxides are basic.
An alkali is a base which is soluble in water and yields hydroxide ions
when (OH-) dissolved in water.
Properties of bases include:
(i) They react with acids to form a salt and water only
(ii) They turn damp red litmus paper to blue
(iii) They react with acids to form a salt and water
A strong alkali (base) is one which completely dissociates in water.
E.g. sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate are
strong bases.
NaOH (aq) Na + (aq) + OH- (aq)
A weak base is one which does not completely dissociate in
aqueous solution e.g. ammonia, calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate
Measurement of the strengths of acids and bases: the pH scale
1
The acidity of solutions depends on the on the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the solution.
The pH scale is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a
solution or the acidity of a solution.
The pH scale goes from pH=1 to pH=14. pH means power of H+(aq)
concentration.
A solution of pH=7 is neutral. The concentration of hydrogen ions
and hydroxide is equal in such a solution
A solution of pH greater than 7 us basic, the greater the value,
the more basic the solution and the less the concentration of
hydrogen ions and the greater the concentration of hydroxide
ions.
A solution of pH less than 7 is acidic, the less the value the more
acidic due to increasing hydrogen ion concentration and
decreasing hydroxide ion concentration.
The pH scale
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Strong acid weak acid neutral weak base strong base
Increasing acidity/ H+ Increasing basicity/decreasing
H+
Concentration concentration
Neutralisation is a reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt
and water
E.g. NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H 2O (l)
base acid salt water
An indicator is a substance which changers colour when it comes into
contact with an acid or a base and shows whether a solution is acidic,
basic or neutral.
Examples of indicators include litmus solution, litmus paper, flower
extract, methyl orange, phenolphthalein indicator and universal
indicator.
Hydroxides are substances which contain OH- ions some important
hydroxides include the following
-sodium hydroxide (NaOH-)
-ammonia solution (NH4OH-) these hydroxides are alkalis. The
hydroxides
-Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH-)2) of sodium and potassium are not
decomposed
by heat
SALTS
A salt is an ionic compound formed when a cation derived from a base
combines with an anion derived from an acid
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A salt can also be defined as a compound consisting of positive metallic
ions and negative ions derived from an acid
TYPES OF SALTS
Acid salts; are those salts that are capable of further ionization to
yield hydrogen ions.
Normal salts are those that can’t ionize to yield hydrogen ions
Basic salts: are basic oxides and hydroxides which contain O 2- and
OH- respectively in addition to metallic ions.
Methods of preparation of salts:
1. By action of acids on carbonates. This method is used for only
those metal carbonates which react with acids to form soluble salts
this method can be used to prepare the following salts
copper (II) sulphate from sulphuric acid
CuCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) +H2O (l)
Zinc sulphate from sulphuric acid
ZnCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) +H2O (l)
Lead (II) nitrate from nitric acid
PbCO3 (s) + HNO3 (aq) Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) +H2O (l)
Once formed, the salts can be obtained from solution by heating to
evaporate to dryness or through crystallisation.
2. By neutralization i.e. through reacting an acid and a base. For
example sodium chloride can be prepared by reacting sodium
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
3. By precipitation/double decomposition. This method is used to
prepare insoluble salts. Two soluble salts which carry the ions of the
salt needed are chosen and the solutions of these salts are mixed. A
soluble salt and an insoluble salt are formed. The mixture is then
filtered and the insoluble salt washed with distilled water and dried
between filter paper. Salts that can be prepared by this method
include:
Silver chloride from silver nitrate and sodium chloride
Lead sulphate from lead nitrate and sodium sulphate
Lead (II) chloride from lead (II) nitrate and sodium chloride
Copper (II) carbonate from copper (II) sulphate and sodium
carbonate
Iron (II) carbonate from freshly made iron (II) sulphate and
sodium carbonate
Calcium sulphate from calcium chloride and sodium sulphate
4. By direct synthesis. Elements that form the salts are reacted directly
so as to form the salt required. Salts prepared by this method include
Iron (III) chloride
Aluminium chloride
Calcium chloride
CARBONATES
Carbonate colour Effect of heat Solubility
Lead(II) carbonate White Decomposes Insoluble
Copper(II)carbonate Green Decomposes Insoluble
Iron (II) carbonate Green Decomposes Insoluble
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Zinc carbonate White Decomposes Insoluble
Calcium carbonate White Decomposes Insoluble
Sodium carbonate White No effect Soluble
Potassium carbonate White No effect soluble
Ammonium White Decomposes soluble
carbonate
Equations for the effect of heat on carbonates
PbCO3 (s) PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
White solid Red when hot yellow when cool. It’s an amphoteric oxide (reacts with acids and
bases)
CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
Green solid Black solid
NB Copper (II) oxide is a hygroscopic solid and is basic.
Zinc carbonate is a white solid which decomposes on heating to form Zinc
oxide and carbon dioxide. Zinc oxide is yellow when hot and white when
cold.
ZnCO3 (s) ZnO (s) + CO2 (g)
Ammonium carbonate: forms ammonia and carbon dioxide on heating.
NH4CO3 (s) NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
Blue litmus paper is turned blue because ammonia is a stronger base and
suppresses the acidity of carbon dioxide
Sodium carbonate decahydrate when heated gives off water of
crystallization to form anhydrous sodium carbonate. Anhydrous sodium
carbonate does not decompose.
Na2CO3.10H2O (s) Na2CO3 (s) + 10H2O (l)
NITRATES
Nitrate colour Effect of heat Solubility
Lead nitrate White Decomposes Soluble
Copper(II) nitrate Blue Decomposes Soluble
Zinc nitrate White Decomposes Soluble
Calcium nitrate White Decomposes Soluble
Sodium nitrate White Decomposes Soluble
Potassium nitrate White Decomposes soluble
Ammonium nitrate White Decomposes soluble
Effect of heat on nitrates
1. Sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate decompose to form sodium nitrite
and potassium nitrite respectively and oxygen gas.
Observation: the white powder decomposes to form a pale yellow solid and
a colourless
NaNO3 (s) NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
KNO3 (s) KNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
2. The nitrates of calcium magnesium, Zinc, lead and copper decompose on
heating to form the metal oxides, brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen gas.
2 Ca(NO)2 (s) 2CaO (s)+ 4NO (g)+ O2(g)
2 Mg(NO)2 (s) 2MgO (s)+ 4NO (g)+ O2(g)
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Lead nitrate produces a crackling sound, brown fumes are formed and a
residue that is red when hot and yellow when cool is formed. The residue is
lead (II) oxide.
2 Pb(NO)2 (s) 2PbO (s)+ 4NO (g)+ O2(g)
Lead (II) oxide is red when hot yellow when cool
Zinc nitrate produces brown fumes and a residue that is yellow when hot
and white when cool is formed. The residue is Zinc oxide.
2 Zn(NO)2 (s) 2ZnO (s)+ 4NO (g)+ O2(g)
Copper (II) nitrate crackles and melts; brown fumes are formed and a black
residue is left behind. The black solid is copper (II) oxide
2 Cu(NO)2 (s) 2CuO (s)+ 4NO (g)+ O2(g)
NB: All nitrates are soluble in water.
SULPHATES
Sulphate Colour Effect of heat Solubility
Lead(II) sulphate White Decomposes Insoluble
Copper(II) sulphate Anhydrous-white Decomposes Soluble
Hydrated-blue
Iron (II) sulphate Hydrated-green Decomposes Soluble
Anhydrous-yellow
Iron (III) sulphate Brown No effect soluble
Zinc sulphate White White Soluble
Calcium sulphate White White Insoluble
Sodium sulphate White No effect Soluble
Potassium sulphate White No effect Soluble
Aluminium sulphate White No effect Soluble
Barium sulphate White No effect Insoluble
Ammonium sulphate White No effect soluble
When hydrated Iron (II) sulphate FeSO4.7H2O is heated it first loses its water
of crystallization and colour of crystals change from green to a pale yellow
powder.
FeSO4.7H2O FeSO4(s) +7H2O (l)
On strong heating gives off a colourless gas that turns potassium dichromate
solution from orange to green, white fumes, and red-brown solid.
FeSO4(s) Fe2O3 (s) + SO2 (g) +SO3 (g)
Similarly when copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated, they lose their water
of crystallization and they change from blue crystals to a white powder.
CuSO4.5H2O (s) CuSO4(s) +5H2O (l)
When the anhydrous copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated they
decompose to form a white fumes, and black solid residue.
CHLORIDES
Chloride Colour Effect of heat Solubility
Lead(II) chloride White Decomposes Insoluble
Copper(II) chloride Anhydrous-white Decomposes Soluble
Hydrated-blue
Iron (II) chloride Hydrated-green Decomposes Soluble
Anhydrous-white
Iron (III) chloride black No effect soluble
Zinc chloride White No effect Soluble
Calcium chloride White No effect Soluble
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Sodium chloride White No effect Soluble
Potassium chloride White No effect Soluble
Aluminium chloride White sublimes Soluble
Barium chloride White No effect Soluble
Ammonium chloride White No effect soluble
Silver chloride White No effect insoluble
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SALTS
1. Using sodium hydroxide solution
Cation 2-3 drops of NaOH Excess of NaOH
Ca2+ White precipitate Insoluble in excess
Mg2+ White precipitate Insoluble in excess
Al3+ White precipitate Soluble to form a colourless
solution
Zn2+ White precipitate Soluble to form a colourless
solution
Pb2+ White precipitate Soluble to form a colourless
solution
Fe2+ Dirty-green precipitate that turns brown Insoluble in excess
on standing
Fe3+ A brown precipitate Insoluble in excess
Cu2+ Pale blue precipitate Insoluble
2. Using ammonia solution
Cation 2-3 drops of NaOH Excess of NaOH
Ca2+ No observable chemical No observable chemical change
change
Mg2+ White precipitate Insoluble
Al3+ White precipitate Insoluble in excess
Zn2+ White precipitate Soluble in excess ammonia to form a
colourless solution
Pb2+ White precipitate Insoluble in excess
NH4+ No observable chemical No observable chemical change
change
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Fe2+ Dirty green precipitate that Insoluble in excess
turns brown on the surface
on standing
Fe3+ A brown precipitate Insoluble in excess
Cu2+ Pale blue precipitate Soluble in excess ammonia to form a
deep blue solution
3. Confirmatory tests for cations
Cation Reagent observation
Ca2+ Ammonia solution No observable chemical change
Mg2 Ammonia solution A white precipitate insoluble in excess ammonia
+ solution
Al3+ Add potassium iodide solution No observable change (this separates it from
Pb2+
Zn2+ Add ammonia solution A white precipitate soluble in excess ammonia to
form a colourless solution
Pb2+ Add potassium iodide solution A yellow precipitate
Add Barium chloride solution and A white precipitate that dissolves on warming
boil and reappears on cooling
Add potassium chromate A yellow precipitate
NH4 Add sodium hydroxide solution A colourless gas with a choking smell that turns
+ and boil blue litmus red is evolved
Fe2+ Add potassium hexacyanoferrate A blue precipitate formed
(III)
Fe3+ Add potassium hexacyanoferrate A blue precipitate is formed
(II)
Add potassium thiocyanate Deep red solution
solution
Cu2 Add ammonia solution dropwise A pale blue precipitate soluble in excess to form
+ until in excess a deep blue solution
Add potassium iodide solution A brown precipitate is formed
Add potassium hexacyanoferrate A brown precipitate
(II) solution
4. Confirmatory tests for anions
Anions Reagent observation
Cl - Add nitric acid followed by silver nitrate A white precipitate
SO42- Add nitric acid followed by barium nitrate A white precipitate
Add hydrochloric acid followed by barium A white precipitate
chloride
Add nitric acid followed by lead nitrate and A white precipitate that persists on
heat warming
CO3- Add nitric acid to solid Effervescence, a colourless gas that
turns lime water milky and blue
litmus paper to red
NO3 - Add iron (II) sulphate followed by A brown ring is formed at the junction
concentrated sulphuric acid slowly down between the two liquid layers
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the inner side of the test tube
Add concentrated sulphuric acid and heat Brown fumes
Add copper turnings followed by drops of Brown fumes
concentrated sulphuric acid and warm
