MODULE 3: Gender Identity Exploration in Emerging Adults

Objective: To examine the role of gender and sexual identity in the broader sense of self.

What is Gender Identity?

A person's internal sense of gender, which may differ from the sex assigned at birth, is known as
gender identity. It could be the feeling of being a woman, a man, neither, or any combination of
the two.

Since the late 20th century, psychologists, philosophers, and social activists have examined and
debated the nature and evolution of gender identity. Gender identity is set at birth by genetic or
other biological causes, according to so-called essentialists. Social constructivists contend that
gender identity and how it is presented are "socially constructed," that is, shaped by social and
cultural factors. (Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2024, August 14). gender identity.)

Development of Gender Identity

Whether innate or created, children often acquire their essential gender identity by the age
of three, and it becomes challenging to change once that point is reached.
Children who socially transition before the age of six, according to a Paediatrics study, show a
strong and consistent sense of their gender over time, indicating that by this age, core gender
identity is firmly formed. Moreover, the early-established gender identity tends to endure, even
in cases when puberty-blocking therapies are implemented later. ​(Olson et al., 2022)

Later in childhood or adolescence, it has proven nearly impossible to re-establish a

traditional gender identification in cases where biological sex was unclear at birth.
When a person is born with ambiguous biological sex, attempts to reassign gender are frequently
ineffective. Research on intersex people shows that people who are assigned a gender that
doesn't match their original sense of self have difficulties when trying to reclaim a traditional
gender identity in the future. (Polderman et al., 2018)

Furthermore, as sex-related activities and heterosexual or homosexual orientations can also

arise later in childhood, a secondary gender identity may emerge over the core identity.
Research indicates that secondary characteristics of gender identity, such as sexual orientation
and sex-related behaviours, may appear later. The fundamental gender identity formed in early
life is reinforced by these developments, which can change in response to biological, social, and
environmental variables. (Hopkins & Richardson, 2021)
Language, social reinforcement, and parental examples all play a role in developing gender
identity. From an early age, parents instil in their children behaviours that they consider proper
for a given sexual orientation; as the children become older and interact with a more extensive
range of people, these behaviours are reinforced. (Carter, 2014), (Morawska, 2020)

Formation of Gender Identity in Emerging Adults: Erikson's and Marcia's Theories

Emerging adults' gender identity creation is a complicated psychological process influenced by
social, psychological, and biological factors. Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of identity
development and James Marcia's identity status model are two well-known developmental
theories that shed light on this process.

1. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

Eight psychosocial stages form the basis of Erik Erikson's theory from early childhood to late
adulthood. The following crucial phases are essential for the formation of gender identity in
emerging adults, who are generally between the ages of 18 and 25: (Erikson, 1968)

Identity vs. Role Confusion in Adolescence: Erikson argues that developing a solid identity is
the primary goal of adolescence. This includes gender identity.
Young people experiment with a variety of identities and roles throughout this period, including
their gender expression, gender roles, and sexual orientation. Erikson argued that if this crisis
were not resolved, people would experience "role confusion," a state in which they are unable to
identify their gender identity with certainty. (Erikson, 1968)

Intimacy vs. Isolation in Young Adulthood: As people enter close relationships, gender
identity changes as they age. Erikson contends that developing solid and meaningful connections
requires a stable sense of identity, including gender identity. Understanding one's place in
relationships—whether sexual, platonic, or familial—is facilitated by gender identity. (Erikson,
1968)

Note: Erikson’s proposal that a secure identity must be achieved before realizing intimacy has
not been fully supported by research on either gender.

Case Study:
Sarah, a 22-year-old college student, is navigating her gender identity. In adolescence, Sarah was
unsure of how to express herself and often felt confused about whether her gender identity
aligned with traditional gender norms. At 19, she began to explore gender fluidity, experimenting
with both masculine and feminine expressions. As she progressed through emerging adulthood,
Sarah found an authentic balance, leading her to identify as non-binary. Her stable identity
allowed her to form intimate relationships based on mutual respect and understanding, a key goal
in Erikson's intimacy vs. isolation stage.
2. Marcia’s Identity Status Model
James Marcia expanded on Erikson's theory, paying special attention to how people form a sense
of identity. He created a model that explains the steps involved in discovering and committing to
an identity through four identity statuses. These are the current statuses in the context of gender
exploration

Identity Diffusion: The person hasn't yet looked at or committed to an identity. People in
diffusion might not have thought about what gender means to them or might be ignoring this
topic entirely regarding gender identification. (Marcia, 1980)

Identity Foreclosure: The person settles on an identity without considering other possibilities.
This could happen if someone accepts gender roles that are conventional or enforced without
thinking twice. For example, a person may blindly follow the gender they were assigned at birth
without considering whether this truly reflects who they are. (Marcia, 1980)

Identity Moratorium: The person is experimenting with many identities but hasn't committed
yet. Although they are unsure of their ultimate identity, emerging adults in moratorium may
experiment with gender roles, gender expression, or sexual orientation. (Marcia, 1980)

Identity Achievement: After considering several personas, the person chose one. When it comes
to gender identification, this position represents a person who has confidently identified with a
specific gender identity—male, female, non-binary, or otherwise—after going through an
investigative procedure. (Marcia, 1980)

Case Study:

Alex, a 23-year-old, has been exploring his gender identity for several years. In adolescence, he
was in the __________ stage, feeling disconnected from traditional masculine expectations but
unsure of alternatives. At 19, he entered __________, experimenting with different gender
expressions, from wearing makeup to changing his pronouns to "they/them." By the age of 22,
Alex had reached ___________, confidently identifying as a transgender man. His process
reflects Marcia’s model of active exploration followed by commitment.

Gender Differences in Identity Formation

1. Challenging Erikson’s View

 ● Douvan and Adelson (1966) proposed that there are gender-specific paths to identity
formation:
○ For women, successful identity formation depends on first resolving intimacy
issues.
○ For men, intimacy issues are resolved after achieving a secure identity.

2. Interpersonal Domains and Relationships

Studies supporting the importance of relationships for women’s identity development:

● Archer (1992), Josselson (1988), and Kroger (2006) found evidence that interpersonal
domains are more central to women’s identity development.
● Meeus & Dekovic (1995) conducted a cross-sectional study with 3,000 Dutch
adolescents, finding:
○ Girls were significantly more involved in relationship-related activities
(exploration) than boys.
○ Girls also reported greater personal satisfaction (commitment) from these
activities.
● Friendship Dynamics:
○ Adolescent girls generally form closer friendships than boys and are more
vulnerable to distress when these relationships end (Collins & Steinberg, 2006).
○ Anthis, Dunkel, & Anderson (2004) noted that both adolescent and adult females
express more relationship-related fears about their futures than males.

3. Similarities Between Genders in Identity Development

● Archer & Waterman (1988) found no significant gender differences in:

○ Self-actualization
○ Internal locus of control
○ Social interdependence
○ Moral reasoning
● This suggests that males and females are more similar than different in their identity
development and individuation processes.
● Waterman (1993) summarized that while the processes of identity formation show more
similarities than differences between genders, the content of identity choices may vary:
○ Males may prioritize more autonomous roles.
○ Females may focus more on relationship-oriented aspects.

4. Expression of Identity in Males and Females

● Cramer (1999) observed that:

 ○ Both males and females with achieved identities demonstrate high self-esteem,
adequacy, and assertiveness.
● However, they express these traits differently:
○ Males tend to assert themselves in autonomous ways.
○ Females are more likely to assert themselves within the context of social
relationships.

Gender Identity Exploration in Emerging Adults Assessment Test

Part 1: Multiple Choice Questions

Choose the correct answer for each question.

1. According to Erikson, which stage is most crucial for developing gender identity?
a. Trust vs. Mistrust
b. Initiative vs. Guilt
c. Identity vs. Role Confusion
d. Integrity vs. Despair

Ans: c. Identity vs Role Confusion

2. In Marcia's identity status model, an individual actively exploring gender identity but has
not yet committed is in which status?
a. Identity Foreclosure
b. Identity Diffusion
c. Identity Achievement
d. Identity Moratorium

Ans: d. Identity Moratorium

3. Which of the following is an example of "Identity Foreclosure" in gender identity

formation?
a. A person who identifies as non-binary after exploring both masculine and
feminine roles.
b. A person who never questions their assigned gender at birth and adopts traditional
gender roles.
c. A person who feels unsure about their gender identity and avoids exploring it.
d. A person who explores their gender identity for years before making a decision.

Ans: b. A person who never questions their assigned gender at birth and adopts traditional gender
roles
 4. Which statement best describes the relationship between Erikson's stage of "Intimacy vs.
Isolation" and gender identity?
a. Intimacy vs. Isolation is not related to gender identity formation.
b. Gender identity becomes more flexible in this stage, as individuals experiment
with gender roles.
c. A stable gender identity allows individuals to form intimate, meaningful
relationships in this stage.
d. This stage focuses primarily on career development and is unrelated to identity
formation.

Ans: c. A stable gender identity allows individuals to form intimate, meaningful relationships in
this stage.

5. Which theory emphasizes the gradual process of exploring and committing to an identity,
including gender identity?
a. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
b. Marcia’s Identity Status Model
c. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
d. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Ans: b. Marcia’s Identity Status Model

Part 2: Write a short brief for the following questions in not more than 500 words.

1. In Erikson's framework, what would "role confusion" look like in the context of gender
identity for an emerging adult?
2. How does Marcia’s "identity achievement" differ from Erikson's concept of successfully
resolving the crisis in "identity vs. role confusion"?
3. What are some of the gender differences in identity development?

Part 3: Case Study Analysis

Read the case below and answer the questions that follow.

Case Study:

Chris, 24, was assigned female at birth and raised in a conservative environment where
traditional gender roles were strongly emphasized. Throughout high school, Chris felt a sense of
discomfort with her assigned gender but never explored the issue due to family and community
expectations. After moving away for college, Chris began to question her gender identity and
explored different gender expressions, including adopting gender-neutral clothing and using
"they/them" pronouns. Chris has not yet fully committed to identifying as non-binary or
transgender but feels more authentic living outside traditional gender roles.
 1. Using Marcia’s identity status model, identify which status Chris is currently in and
explain why.
2. From Erikson’s perspective, what stage is Chris in, and how is their gender identity
impacting this stage’s central task?
3. What might be the next steps for Chris if they were to move into Marcia’s identity
achievement status?

MODULE 4: Racial and Ethnic Identity Theories

Ethnicity: One’s sense of belonging to a group and one’s beliefs or attitudes concerning group
membership (Tajfel, 1981).

1. Initial Stage of Ethnic Identity Development

● The initial stage of racial or ethnic identity development is often characterized by low
salience—race or ethnicity is not yet a central aspect of the individual's self-concept.
● This is comparable to diffusion, a state where ethnic identity is either unrecognized or
unimportant.

2. Preference for Dominant Culture

● Cross (1994) suggests that during this stage, individuals may prefer the dominant culture
(i.e., the culture of the majority group in their society).
○ Example: A child may prefer assimilating into the dominant cultural norms
without emphasizing their ethnic or racial background.

3. Ethnic Identity May Not Be Important Yet

● At this stage, ethnic identity may not be necessary to the individual because other aspects
of their identity (e.g., being smart, popular, or athletic) are more salient.
○ Example: A young Mexican girl might value her skills and friendships more than
her Mexican heritage.

Racial and Ethnic Identity Development

Moratorium-like Stage

In many identity theories, after an initial stage of low awareness, the individual enters a
moratorium-like stage. This is typically triggered by a significant experience—often related to
race or ethnicity—that brings these aspects of identity to the forefront of consciousness.
Example: An adolescent might experience an event that makes them more aware of racism or
cultural oppression.

Ambivalence and Conflict

This stage is often marked by ambivalence or conflict as the person begins to explore their race
or ethnicity and what it means to them personally.

There may be a questioning or challenging of previously held beliefs about identity, as the person
attempts to make sense of their experience in a racially stratified society.

Personal Significance of Racism and Oppression

For adolescents, this is a time when the impact of societal racism or oppression becomes
personal. They may begin to notice and internalize how stereotypes or discriminatory behaviors
affect them and others.

Looking-Glass Society

Adolescents live in a "looking-glass society" that reflects judgments and assumptions based on
race, ethnicity, and appearance. These societal reflections influence their self-worth.

Example: A young person from a marginalized group may experience discrimination based on
racial stereotypes.

Confrontation with Stereotypes and Discrimination

Early adolescence is often when youth from minority groups begin to confront negative
stereotypes and discriminatory practices directly.

Adolescent Response to Discrimination

According to racial identity development theories, minority youth often respond to such
discrimination by:

Immersing themselves in their racial or cultural group, where they find solidarity and support.

Rejecting the dominant culture, as a form of resistance or coping with the oppressive norms and
stereotypes they encounter.

These responses allow adolescents to cope with and navigate the racism and cultural oppression
they face in society, shaping their identity during a critical developmental period.

Ethnic Identity Exploration & Achievement

 ● Phinney (1989, 1990, 2003) suggests that ethnic identity development follows the same
four statuses as other identity aspects, indicating how much a person has explored and
committed to their ethnic identity.
○ Identity Achievement: The individual has actively explored and resolved the
meaning of their ethnicity, resulting in commitment. This involves:
■ Reconciling differences between the ethnic minority group and the
dominant group.
■ Coming to terms with the lower status of their group in the larger society.
● Importantly, commitment to ethnic identity does not necessarily require a high level of
involvement in one’s cultural group.

Exploration and Affirmation of Identity in Indian Adolescents

1. Caste and Regional Identity

Adolescents from marginalized groups, such as Dalits or tribal communities, often

experience their identity in the context of societal inequality and caste-based
discrimination (Desai & Dubey, 2011). For these individuals, family socialization efforts,
such as instilling pride in their caste or teaching about the history of oppression, play a
critical role in developing an early foreclosed identity, similar to the foreclosed identity
discussed by Cross and Fhagen-Smith (2001).

Positive reinforcement of caste pride within the family can help buffer against societal
discrimination. However, if the adolescent has not committed to their caste identity,
encounters with casteism can cause them to rethink their identity and explore what it
means to belong to a marginalized caste (Anand & Thampi, 2016).

2. Religious Identity

Indian adolescents from minority religions, such as Muslims, Christians, or Sikhs, may
develop their religious identity in response to the discrimination they experience in a
Hindu-majority society (Engineer, 2004). Discriminatory events often prompt adolescents
to explore their religious heritage and resolve the conflict between their identity and the
dominant societal norms.

For example, Muslim adolescents may explore their Muslim identity after experiencing
Islamophobia, leading to a greater sense of religious commitment (Hasan, 2018). As
Phinney (2003) suggested, this process does not necessarily require a high level of
cultural involvement, but it does involve reconciliation between their minority identity
and the dominant culture.

Racial and Ethnic Socialization

1. Elements of Racial/Ethnic Socialization

According to Boykin and Toms (1985), racial/ethnic socialization includes three main
components:

● Teaching about Culture: Parents educate their children about their cultural heritage,
values, and practices, which fosters a sense of pride and belonging.
● Preparing for Discrimination: Parents equip children to handle potential experiences of
discrimination, which can vary based on their background and societal context.
● Mainstream Cultural Experiences: Providing children with opportunities to engage in
mainstream cultural activities and form egalitarian relationships with peers from different
backgrounds.

2. Positive Outcomes of Racial/Ethnic Socialization

Research indicates that effective racial/ethnic socialization leads to:

● Increased competence, identity, and self-esteem.

● Higher levels of academic achievement.
● Reduced instances of antisocial behaviour (Wang & Huguley, 2012).

3. Results of Preparing for Discrimination

While preparing children for the realities of discrimination can strengthen family bonds, the
outcomes can be mixed:

● For example, studies show that African American children who were prepared for
discrimination experienced heightened feelings of depression and hopelessness, along
with lowered academic performance (Davis & Stevenson, 2006; Evans et al., 2012).
● Research suggests that expectations about discrimination can sometimes lead to increased
hostility and antisocial behaviour (Hughes et al., 2006).

4. Decoupling Mistrust from Protective Strategies

It may be beneficial to teach children about discrimination in a way that emphasizes protection
without fostering mistrust. Providing opportunities for children to engage in mainstream
activities and form cross-racial friendships has been linked to improved social skills and overall
adjustment (Graham, Taylor, & Ho, 2009).

Racial and Ethnic Identity Theories in Emerging Adults Assessment Test

Part A: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

 1. What are the three main components of racial/ethnic socialization according to Boykin
and Toms (1985)? a) Teaching about culture, preparing for discrimination, providing
mainstream experiences
a. Teaching history, promoting assimilation, fostering competition
b. Emphasizing individualism, preparing for success, minimizing cultural identity
c. None of the above
2. Which of the following is a positive outcome of effective racial/ethnic socialization? a)
Increased antisocial behavior
a. Decreased self-esteem
b. Enhanced academic achievement
c. Heightened feelings of mistrust
3. According to research, preparing children for discrimination can lead to which of the
following outcomes?
a. Improved academic performance
b. Heightened feelings of depression
c. Increased trust in peers
d. Enhanced social skills
4. In the Indian context, which factor is significant for children from marginalized castes or
minority religions?
a. Understanding mainstream culture only
b. Cultural pride and knowledge of their heritage
c. Avoiding interactions with other groups
d. Complete assimilation into the dominant culture

Part B: Short Answer Questions (200 - 500 words)

1. Explain the importance of cultural socialization in the development of a strong ethnic

identity among children.
2. Discuss how experiences of discrimination may vary for children from different cultural
backgrounds in India.
3. Describe how parents can effectively prepare their children for the realities of
discrimination without fostering mistrust.

Part C: Essay Questions (800 - 1000 words)

Evaluate the role of parental socialization in shaping ethnic identity among Indian adolescents.
Discuss the potential benefits and challenges of this socialization in the context of India’s diverse
society.

Section 4: Case Study Analysis

Case Study: A 12-year-old girl named Priya from a lower-caste family in a rural Indian
community is experiencing bullying at school due to her background. Her parents actively teach
her about their cultural heritage and encourage participation in local festivals, but they also
discuss the possibility of facing discrimination.

Questions:

1. Identify the elements of racial/ethnic socialization present in Priya’s upbringing.

2. Discuss how Priya's experiences may impact her identity development.
3. Suggest additional strategies her parents could use to help Priya navigate her challenges
effectively.