Textbook for

Environmental Studies
For Undergraduate Courses
of all Branches of Higher Education

Erach Bharucha
for
University Grants Commission

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 Contents

PREFACE xiii

FOREWORD xv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xvi

UNIT 1: THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES

1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 3

1.1.1 Definition 3
1.1.2 Scope 3
1.1.3 Importance 5

1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 8

1.2.1 Institutions in Environment 9
1.2.2 People in Environment 12

UNIT 2: NATURAL RESOURCES

2.1 INTRODUCTION 16

2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES 20

2.2.1 Natural resources and associated problems 20
2.2.2 Non-renewable resources 22
2.2.3 Renewable resources 22
a. Forest Resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. 23
Timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people
b. Water Resources: Use and over-utilisation of surface and ground water, 26
floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams – benefits and problems.
c. Mineral Resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting 30
and using mineral resources, case studies.
d. Food Resources: World food problems, Changes in landuse by agriculture and 32
grazing, Effects of modern agriculture, Fertilizer/ pesticide problems,
Water logging and salinity
e. Energy Resources: Increasing energy needs, Renewable/ non renewable, 35
Use of Alternate energy sources, Case studies
f. Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man-induced land-slides, 48
soil erosion and desertification.

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 2.3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 50

2.4 EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES 51

UNIT 3: ECOSYSTEMS

3.1 Concept of an ecosystem 54

3.1.1 Understanding ecosystems 55
3.1.2 Ecosystem degradation 55
3.1.3 Resource utilisation 56

3.2 Structure and functions of an ecosystem 56

3.3 Producers, consumers and decomposers 57

3.4 Energy flow in the ecosystem 58

3.4.1 The water cycle 58
3.4.2 The Carbon cycle 59
3.4.3 The Oxygen cycle 60
3.4.4 The Nitrogen cycle 60
3.4.5 The energy cycle 61
3.4.6 Integration of cycles in nature 62

3.5 Ecological succession 62

3.6 Food chains, Food webs and Ecological pyramids 62

3.6.1 The food chains 62
3.6.2 The food webs 63
3.6.3 The ecological pyramids 63

3.7 Introduction, Types, Characteristic features, Structure and functions 63

3.7.1 Forest ecosystem 65
3.7.2 Grassland ecosystem 70
3.7.3 Desert ecosystem 74
3.7.4 Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, oceans) 75

UNIT 4: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION – DEFINITION: GENETIC, SPECIES, ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY 82

4.1.1 Genetic diversity 82
4.1.2 Species diversity 82
4.1.3 Ecosystem diversity 83

4.2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA 84

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 4.3 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY: CONSUMPTIVE, PRODUCTIVE USE, SOCIAL, ETHICAL,
AESTHETIC AND OPTION VALUES 84
4.3.1Consumptive value 85
4.3.2 Productive value 86
4.3.3 Social value 86
4.3.4 Ethical value 88
4.3.5 Aesthetic value 88
4.3.6 Option value 88

4.4 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS 88

4.5 INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION 89

4.6 HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY 90

4.7 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS, POACHING OF WILDLIFE,

MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS 91

4.8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA 94

4.8.1 Common Plant species 94
4.8.2 Common Animal species 99

4.9 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: IN-SITU AND EX-SITU 104

4.9.1 In-situ conservation 104
4.9.2 Ex-situ conservation 108

UNIT 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

5.1 DEFINITION 112

5.2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF: 113

5.2.1 Air Pollution 113
5.2.2 Water Pollution 123
5.2.3 Soil Pollution 131
5.2.4 Marine Pollution 135
5.2.5 Noise Pollution 140
5.2.6 Thermal Pollution 142
5.2.7 Nuclear hazards 143

5.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES

OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 145

5.4 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN POLLUTION PREVENTION 150

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 5.5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES 153

5.6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS, EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES 156

UNIT 6: SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

6.1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 165

6.2 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY 167

6.3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT 168
6.3.1 Water conservation 168
6.3.2 Rain water harvesting 170
6.3.3 Watershed management 171

6.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE; ITS PROBLEMS

AND CONCERNS. CASE STUDIES 172

6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS 173

6.5.1 Resource consumption patterns and the need for their equitable utilisation 173
6.5.2 Equity – Disparity in the Northern and Southern countries 175
6.5.3 Urban – rural equity issues 175
6.5.4 The need for Gender Equity 175
6.5.5 Preserving resources for future generations 176
6.5.6 The rights of animals 177
6.5.7 The ethical basis of environment education and awareness 178
6.5.8 The conservation ethic and traditional value systems of India 181

6.6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION,
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST. CASE STUDIES 182
6.6.1 Climate change 182
6.6.2 Global warming 183
6.6.3 Acid rain 184
6.6.4 Ozone layer depletion 185
6.6.5 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust 186

6.7 WASTELAND RECLAMATION 187

6.8 CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS 189

6.9 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT 193

6.10 AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT 194

6.11 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT 196

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 6.12 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 197

6.13 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT 199

6.14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION 201

6.14.1Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 201
6.14.2 Citizens actions and action groups 202

6.15 PUBLIC AWARENESS 204

6.15.1 Using an Environmental Calendar of Activities 204
6.15.2 What can I do? 205

UNIT 7: HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

7.1 POPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG NATIONS 214

7.1.1 Global population growth 214

7.2 POPULATION EXPLOSION – FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAM 215

7.2.1 Methods of sterilization 217
7.1.2 Urbanization 217

7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH 220

7.3.1 Environmental health 221
7.3.2 Climate and health 223
7.3.3 Infectious diseases 224
7.3.4 Water-related diseases 227
7.3.5 Risks due to chemicals in food 231
7.3.6 Cancer and environment 232

7.4 HUMAN RIGHTS 233

7.4.1 Equity 233
7.4.2 Nutrition, health and human rights 234
7.4.3 Intellectual Property Rights and Community Biodiversity Registers 235

7.5 VALUE EDUCATION 236

7.5.1 Environmental Values 237
7.5.2 Valuing Nature 240
7.5.3 Valuing cultures 241
7.5.4 Social justice 241
7.5.5 Human heritage 242
7.5.6 Equitable use of Resources 242
7.5.7 Common Property Resources 242
7.5.8 Ecological degradation 242

7.6 HIV/AIDS 243

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 7.7 WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE 244

7.8 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH 247

UNIT 8: FIELD WORK

8.1 VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS,

RIVER/FOREST/GRASSLANDS/HILL/MOUNTAIN 250

8.2 VISIT TO A LOCAL POLLUTED SITE 262

8.3 STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, BIRDS 268

8.4 STUDY OF SIMPLE ECOSYSTEMS 270

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 UNIT 1:
The Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies

1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 3

1.1.1 Definition 3
1.1.2 Scope 3
1.1.3 Importance 5

1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 8

1.2.1 Institutions in Environment 9
1.2.2 People in Environment 12

This course on the environment is unlike any other. It is not only a collection
of facts or information about the environment. It is about the way we all
should live. It is expected to give you information about the environment
that will lead to a concern for your own environment. When you develop
this concern, you will begin to act at your own level to protect the
environment we all live in. This is the objective of the course and the
syllabus is a framework on which we must all realign our lives.

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 1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE

1.1.1 Definition

Environmental studies deals with every issue that

affects an organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an
appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science
as its seeks practical answers to making human
civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite re-
sources.
earth’s environmental resources. Thus most tra-
ditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother
Its components include biology, geology, chem-
Nature’ and most traditional societies have
istry, physics, engineering, sociology, health,
learned that respecting nature is vital for their
anthropology, economics, statistics, computers
livelihoods. This has led to many cultural prac-
and philosophy.
tices that helped traditional societies protect and
preserve their natural resources. Respect for
nature and all living creatures is not new to In-
1.1.2 Scope
dia. All our traditions are based on these values.
Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed that all
As we look around at the area in which we live,
forms of life are important for our well being in
we see that our surroundings were originally a
Fourth Century BC.
natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a
mountain, a desert, or a combination of these
Over the past 200 years however, modern soci-
elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have
eties began to believe that easy answers to the
been heavily modified by human beings, in vil-
question of producing more resources could be
lages, towns or cities. But even those of us who
provided by means of technological innovations.
live in cities get our food supply from surround-
For example, though growing more food by
ing villages and these in turn are dependent on
using fertilizers and pesticides, developing bet-
natural landscapes such as forests, grasslands,
ter strains of domestic animals and crops, irri-
rivers, seashores, for resources such as water
gating farmland through mega dams and
for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish. Thus
developing industry, led to rapid economic
our daily lives are linked with our surroundings
growth, the ill effects of this type of develop-
and inevitably affects them. We use water to
ment, led to environmental degradation.
drink and for other day-to-day activities. We
breathe air, we use resources from which food
The industrial development and intensive agri-
is made and we depend on the community of
culture that provides the goods for our increas-
living plants and animals which form a web of
ingly consumer oriented society uses up large
life, of which we are also a part. Everything
amounts of natural resources such as water,
around us forms our environment and our lives
minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc. Non-
depend on keeping its vital systems as intact as
renewable resources, such as minerals and oil
possible.
are those which will be exhausted in the future
if we continue to extract these without a
Our dependence on nature is so great that we
thought for subsequent generations. Renew-
cannot continue to live without protecting the

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 able resources, such as timber and water, are
those which can be used but can be regener-
ated by natural processes such as regrowth or
rainfall. But these too will be depleted if we con-
tinue to use them faster than nature can re-
place them. For example, if the removal of
timber and firewood from a forest is faster than
the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it can-
not replenish the supply. And loss of forest cover
not only depletes the forest of its resources, such
as timber and other non-wood products, but ronment and change the way in which we use
affect our water resources because an intact every resource. Unsustainable utilization can
natural forest acts like a sponge which holds result from overuse of resources, because of
water and releases it slowly. Deforestation leads population increase, and because many of us
to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once are using more resources than we really need.
the rains are over. Most of us indulge in wasteful behaviour pat-
terns without ever thinking about their environ-
Such multiple effects on the environment re- mental impacts. Thus, for all our actions to be
sulting from routine human activities must be environmentally positive we need to look from
appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide a new perspective at how we use resources. For
us with the resources we need in the long-term. every resource we use we must ask ourselves
the following questions:
Our natural resources can be compared with
money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital • What is the rarity of the resource and where
will be reduced to zero. On the other hand, if does it originate?
we use only the interest, it can sustain us over
the longer term. This is called sustainable • Who uses it most intensively and how?
utilisation or development.
• How is it being overused or misused?

Activity 1: • Who is responsible for its improper use –

the resource collector, the middleman, the
Take any article that you use in daily life – end user?
a bucket full of water, or an item of food, a
table, or a book. Trace its components jour- • How can we help to conserve it and pre-
ney backwards from your home to their ori- vent its unsustainable use?
gins as natural resources in our
environment. How many of these compo-
nents are renewable resources and how Activity 2:
many non-renewable?
Try to answer the questions above for one
Understanding and making ourselves more of the components in the article you chose
aware of our environmental assets and prob- in Activity 1. Then answer the following
lems is not enough. We, each one of us, must questions:
become increasingly concerned about our envi-

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 each of us uses also increases, the earth’s re-
source base must inevitably shrink. The earth
cannot be expected to sustain this expanding
level of utilization of resources. Added to this is
misuse of resources. We waste or pollute large
amounts of nature’s clean water; we create
more and more material like plastic that we dis-
card after a single use; and we waste colossal
amounts of food, which is discarded as garbage.
Manufacturing processes create solid waste
• Are you using that resource byproducts that are discarded, as well as chemi-
unsustainably? cals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute
water, and gases that pollute the air. Increasing
• In what ways could you reduce, reuse amounts of waste cannot be managed by natu-
and recycle that resource? ral processes. These accumulate in our environ-
ment, leading to a variety of diseases and other
• Is there an unequal distribution of this adverse environmental impacts now seriously af-
resource so that you are more fortunate fecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to respi-
than many others who have less access ratory diseases, water pollution to
to it? gastro-intestinal diseases, and many pollutants
are known to cause cancer.
Once we begin to ask these questions of our-
selves, we will begin to live lifestyles that are
more sustainable and will support our environ-
ment.

1.1.3 Importance

Environment is not a single subject. It is an inte-

gration of several subjects that include both
Improving this situation will only happen if each
Science and Social Studies. To understand all
of us begins to take actions in our daily lives
the different aspects of our environment we
that will help preserve our environmental re-
need to understand biology, chemistry, physics,
sources. We cannot expect Governments alone
geography, resource management, economics
to manage the safeguarding of the environment,
and population issues. Thus the scope of envi-
nor can we expect other people to prevent
ronmental studies is extremely wide and covers
environmental damage. We need to do it our-
some aspects of nearly every major discipline.
selves. It is a responsibility that each of us must
take on as ones own.
We live in a world in which natural resources
are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the
products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans
and from agriculture and livestock, are all a part
of our life support systems. Without them, life
itself would be impossible. As we keep increas-
ing in numbers and the quantity of resources

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 Activity 3: What happens to it when you throw it away/
where does it go?
• Think of all the things that you do in a
day. List these activities and identify the
main resources used during these ac- Example – Fossil fuels:
tivities. What can you do to prevent
waste, reuse articles that you normally How much do you use? Can you reduce your
throw away, what recycled materials consumption?
can you use?
What effect does it have on the air we breathe?
• Think of the various energy sources you
use everyday. How could you reduce When we leave a motorbike or car running dur-
their use? ing a traffic stop, we do not usually remember
that the fuel we are wasting is a part of a non-
renewable resource that the earth cannot re-
Activity 4: Exercises in self learning about form. Once all the fossil fuels are burnt off, it
the environment will mean the end of oil as a source of energy.
Only if each of us contributes our part in con-
Attempt to assess the level of damage to serving fossil based energy can we make it last
the environment due to your actions that longer on earth.
have occurred during your last working day,
the last week, the last year. Then estimate
the damage you are likely to do in your life- Example – Water:
time if you continue in your present ways.
How much do you really need to use, as against
Use the following examples for the above exer- how much you waste when you:
cise:
(a) Brush your teeth? (b) Have a bath? (c) Wash
Example – Plastic: Plastic bags, plastic ball pens clothes? (d) Wash the scooter or car?

Think about all the articles you use daily that Where did the water come from? What is its
are made from plastic. Plastic plays an impor- actual source? How has it reached you?
tant part in our modern lives.
Where will the waste water go?
Make a list of the plastic articles you usually use.
Do you feel you should change the way you use
How can you reduce the amount of plastic you water? How can you change this so that it is
use? more sustainable?

What effects does plastic have on our environ-

ment? Example – Food:

Where did the plastic come from/ how is it Where has it come from? How is it grown? What
made? chemicals are used in its production? How does
it reach you?

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 How is it cooked? struction of a forest, wetland or other natural
area and do not protest about it, future gen-
How much is wasted? How is the waste dis- erations are being denied the use of these valu-
posed off? able resources and will blame us for these rash
and negligent actions towards the environment.

Example – Paper: Thus the urgent need to protect all living spe-
cies is a concept that we need to understand
What is it made from? and act upon. While individually, we perhaps
cannot directly prevent the extinction of a spe-
Where does it come from and what happens cies, creating a strong public opinion to protect
during manufacture? the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in
which wild species live is an importance aspect
How much do you use and how much do you of sustainable living. There is a close link be-
waste? How can you prevent it from being tween agriculture and the forest, which illus-
wasted? trates its productive value. For crops to be
successful, the flowers of fruit trees and veg-
etables must be pollinated by insects, bats and
Example – Electrical Energy: birds. Their life cycles however frequently require
intact forests.
How much do you use everyday? Where does it
come from?
Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature: The
How do you waste it? How can you conserve aesthetic and recreational values that nature
energy? possesses enlivens our existence on earth. This
is created by developing National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed
Productive value of nature: As scientists make areas. A true wilderness experience has not only
new advances in fields such as biotechnology recreational value but is an incredible learning
we begin to understand that the world’s spe- experience. It brings about an understanding of
cies contain an incredible and uncountable num- the oneness of nature and the fact that we are
ber of complex chemicals. These are the raw entirely dependent upon the intricate function-
materials that are used for developing new ing of ecosystems.
medicines and industrial products and are a
storehouse from which to develop thousands The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect
of new products in the future. The flowering of the living and non-living part of our earth.
plants and insects that form the most species- One can appreciate the magnificence of a moun-
rich groups of living organisms are thus vital for tain, the power of the sea, the beauty of a for-
the future development of man. If we degrade est, and the vast expanse of the desert. It is these
their habitat these species will become extinct. natural vistas and their incredible diversity of
If one sees being sold or used, a product that plant and animal life that has led to the devel-
comes from an illegally killed wild species, if we opment of several philosophies of life. It has also
do not inform the authorities, we become party inspired artists to develop visual arts and writ-
to its extinction. Once they are lost, man can- ers and poets to create their works that vitalize
not bring them back. When we permit the de- our lives.

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 A wilderness experience has exceptional recre- be developed in a small woodlot, a patch of
ational value. This has been described as nature grassland, a pond ecosystem, or be situated
tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is also one as- along an undisturbed river or coastal area. This
pect of adventure tourism. These recreational would bring home to the visitor the importance
facilities not only provide a pleasurable experi- of protecting our dwindling wilderness areas.
ence but are intended to create a deep respect
and love for nature. They are also key tools in
educating people about the fragility of the en- The option values of nature: While we utilise
vironment and the need for sustainable lifestyles. several goods and services of nature and enjoy
its benefits, we
In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens must recognize
are vital to the pschycological and physical health that every activity
of city dwellers. It provides not only an aesthetic that we do in our
and visual appeal but the ability to ensure that daily lives has an
each individual is able to access a certain amount adverse impact
of peace and tranquility. Thus urban environ- on nature’s integ-
mental planners must ensure that these facili- rity. Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off
ties are created in growing urban complexes. and let species of plants and animals become
Another important conservation education fa- extinct on earth, pollute our air and water, de-
cility in urban settings includes the need to set grade land, and create enormous quantities of
up well designed and properly managed zoo- waste, we as a generation will leave nothing
logical parks and aquariums. These have got for future generations. Our present generation
great value in sensitizing school students to wild- has developed its economies and lifestyles on
life. Many young people who frequented zoos unsustainable patterns of life. however, nature
as young children grow up to love wildlife and provides us with various options on how we
become conservationists. utilize its goods and services. This is its option
value. We can use up goods and services greedily
In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a and destroy its integrity and long term values,
botanical garden or a zoo, one concept that can or we can use its resources sustainably and re-
be developed is to create small nature aware- duce our impacts on the environment. The op-
ness areas with interpretation facilities at dis- tion value allows us to use its resources
trict and taluka levels. These areas can be sustainably and preserve its goods and services
developed to mimic natural ecosystems even for the future.
though they could be relatively small in size. Such
nature trails are invaluable assets for creating
conservation education and awareness. They can 1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

As the earth’s natural resources are

dwindling and our environment is
being increasingly degraded by
human activities, it is evident that
something needs to be done. We
often feel that managing all this is
something that the Government
should do. But if we go on endan-
gering our environment, there is no

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 way in which the Government can perform all Practice and promote issues such as saving
these clean-up functions. It is the prevention of paper, saving water, reducing use of plas-
environment degradation in which we must all tics, practicing the 3Rs principle of reduce,
take part that must become a part of all our reuse, recycle, and proper waste disposal.
lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is bet-
ter than cure. To prevent ill-effects on our envi- • Join local movements that support activi-
ronment by our actions, is economically more ties such as saving trees in your area, go on
viable than cleaning up the environment once nature treks, recycle waste, buy environ-
it is damaged. Individually we can play a major mentally friendly products.
role in environment management. We can re-
duce wasting natural resources and we can act • Practice and promote good civic sense such
as watchdogs that inform the Government as no spitting or tobacco chewing, no
about sources that lead to pollution and degra- throwing garbage on the road, no smoking
dation of our environment. in public places, no urinating or defecating
in public places.
This can only be made possible through mass
public awareness. Mass media such as newspa- • Take part in events organised on World
pers, radio, television, strongly influence public Environment Day, Wildlife Week, etc.
opinion. However, someone has to bring this
about. If each of us feels strongly about the • Visit a National Park or Sanctuary, or spend
environment, the press and media will add to time in whatever nature you have near your
our efforts. Politicians in a democracy always home.
respond positively to a strong publicly supported
movement. Thus if you join an NGO that sup-
ports conservation, politicians will make green 1.2.1 Institutions in Environment
policies. We are living on spaceship earth with a
limited supply of resources. Each of us is respon- There have been several Government and Non-
sible for spreading this message to as many government organizations that have led to en-
people as possible. vironmental protection in our country. They have
led to a growing interest in environmental pro-
Suggested further activities for concerned stu- tection and conservation of nature and natural
dents: resources. The traditional conservation practices
that were part of ancient India’s culture have
• Join a group to study nature, such as WWF- however gradually disappeared. Public aware-
I or BNHS, or another environmental group. ness is thus a critical need to further environ-
mental protection. Among the large number of
• Begin reading newspaper articles and peri- institutions that deal with environmental pro-
odicals such as ‘Down to Earth’, WWF-I tection and conservation, a few well-known
newsletter, BNHS Hornbill, Sanctuary maga- organizations include government organisations
zine, etc. that will tell you more about our such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS,
environment. There are also several envi- WWF-I, etc.
ronmental websites.

• Lobby for conserving resources by taking Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),
up the cause of environmental issues dur- Mumbai: the BNHS began as a small society of
ing discussions with friends and relatives. six members in 1883. It grew from a group of

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 shikaris and people from all walks of life into a ence and Environment fortnightly. It is involved
major research organisation that substantially in the publication of material in the form of
influenced conservation policy in the country. books, posters, video films and also conducts
The influence on wildlife policy building, re- workshops and seminars on biodiversity related
search, popular publications and peoples issues.
action have been unique features of the multi-
faceted society. Undoubtedly its major contri-
bution has been in the field of wildlife research. CPR Environmental Education Centre, Ma-
It is India’s oldest conservation research based dras: The CPR EEC was set up in 1988. It con-
NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of ducts a variety of programs to spread
the battle for species and ecosystems. The BNHS environmental awareness and creates an inter-
publishes a popular magazine called Hornbill and est in conservation among the general public. It
also an internationally well-known Journal on focussed attention on NGOs, teachers, women,
Natural History. Its other publications include the youth and children to generally promote con-
Salim Ali Handbook on birds, JC Daniel’s book servation of nature and natural resources. Its
of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of Indian programs include components on wildlife and
Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian Trees. biodiversity issues. CPR EEC also produces a large
One of its greatest scientists was Dr. Salim Ali number of publications.
whose ornithological work on the birds of the
Indian subcontinent is world famous. The BNHS
has over the years helped Government to frame Centre for Environment Education (CEE),
wildlife related laws and has taken up battles Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment Edu-
such as the ‘Save the Silent Valley’ campaign. cation, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989. It has
a wide range of programs on the environment
and produces a variety of educational material.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New CEE’s Training in Environment Education {TEE}
Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in program has trained many environment educa-
Mumbai after which the headquarters were tors.
shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all
over India. The early years focused attention on
wildlife education and awareness. It runs sev- Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environ-
eral programs including the Nature Clubs of In- ment Education and Research (BVIEER),
dia program for school children and works as a Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth
think tank and lobby force for environment and Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD, a
development issues. Masters and Bachelors program in Environmen-
tal Sciences. It also offers an innovative Diploma
in Environment Education for in-service teach-
Center for Science and Environment (CSE), ers. It implements a large outreach programme
New Delhi: Activities of this Center include that has covered over 135 schools in which it
organising campaigns, holding workshops and trains teachers and conducts fortnightly Envi-
conferences, and producing environment related ronment Education Programs. Biodiversity Con-
publications. It published a major document on servation is a major focus of its research
the ‘State of India’s Environment’, the first of initiatives. It develops low cost Interpretation
its kind to be produced as a Citizen’s Report on Centres for Natural and Architectural sites that
the Environment. The CSE also publishes a popu- are highly locale specific as well as a large
lar magazine, ‘Down to Earth’, which is a Sci- amount of innovative environment educational

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 material for a variety of target groups. Its unique Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natu-
feature is that it conducts environment educa- ral History (SACON), Coimbatore: This insti-
tion from primary school level to the postgradu- tution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream that became a
ate level. The BVIEER has produced several EE reality only after his demise. He wished to sup-
aids. It has developed a teacher’s handbook port a group of committed conservation scien-
linked to school curriculum, a textbook for UGC tists on a permanent basis. Initially conceived as
for its undergraduate course on environment. being a wing of the Bombay Natural History
Its Director has developed a CD ROM on India’s Society (BNHS) it later evolved as an indepen-
biodiversity published by Mapin Publishers, dent organisation based at Coimbatore in 1990.
Ahmedabad. It has instituted a variety of field programs that
have added to the country’s information on our
threatened biodiversity.
Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The
Organisation is a Nodal Agency which supports
NGOs in need of funds for their environment Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun:
related activities. Its major program is organising This Institution was established in 1982, as a
and training school teachers to use its locale major training establishment for Forest Officials
specific Environment Education Workbook Pro- and Research in Wildlife Management. Its most
gram. The main targets are linked with sustain- significant publication has been ‘Planning A
able resource use at the village level through Wildlife Protected Area Network for India’
training school children. Its environment edu- (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). The organisation
cation program covers about 500 schools. has over the years added an enormous amount
of information on India’s biological wealth. It
has trained a large number of Forest Depart-
Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO, initially Delhi ment Officials and Staff as Wildlife Managers.
based, is now working from Pune and is active Its [Link]. Program has trained excellent wildlife
in several other parts of India. Kalpavriksh works scientists. It also has an Environment Impact
on a variety of fronts: education and awareness; Assessment (EIA) cell. It trains personnel in
investigation and research; direct action and ecodevelopment, wildlife biology, habitat man-
lobbying; and litigation with regard to environ- agement and Nature interpretation.
ment and development issues. Its activities in-
clude talks and audio-visuals in schools and
colleges, nature walks and outstation camps, Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The Botani-
organising student participation in ongoing cam- cal Survey of India (BSI) was established in 1890
paigns including street demonstrations, push- at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta. How-
ing for consumer awareness regarding organic ever it closed down for several years after 1939
food, press statements, handling green alerts, and was reopened in 1954. In 1952 plans were
and meetings with the city’s administrators. It is made to reorganise the BSI and formulate its
involved with the preparation of site-specific, objectives. By 1955 the BSI had its headquar-
environmental manuals for schoolteachers. ters in Calcutta with Circle Offices at
Kalpavriksh was responsible for developing Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune and Dehra Dun.
India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Between 1962 and 1979, offices were estab-
Plan in 2003. lished in Allahbad, Jodhpur, Port Blair, Itanagar
and Gangtok. The BSI currently has nine regional
centres. It carries out surveys of plant resources
in different regions.

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 Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): The ZSI was in the US in the 1920s. He designed the early
established in1916. Its mandate was to do a policies on wilderness conservation and wildlife
systematic survey of fauna in India. It has over management. In the 1960s Rachel Carson pub-
the years collected ‘type specimens’ on the bases lished several articles that caused immediate
of which our animal life has been studied over worldwide concern on the effects of pesticides
the years. Its origins were collections based at on nature and mankind. She wrote a well-
the Indian Museum at Calcutta, which was es- known book called ‘Silent Spring’ which even-
tablished in 1875. Older collections of the Asi- tually led to a change in Government policy and
atic Society of Bengal, which were made public awareness. EO Wilson is an entomolo-
between 1814 and 1875, as well as those of gist who envisioned that biological diversity was
the Indian Museum made between 1875 and a key to human survival on earth. He wrote ‘Di-
1916 were then transferred to the ZSI. Today it versity of Life’ in 1993, which was awarded a
has over a million specimens! This makes it one prize for the best book published on environ-
of the largest collections in Asia. It has done an mental issues. His writings brought home to the
enormous amount of work on taxonomy and world the risks to mankind due to man made
ecology. It currently operates from 16 regional disturbances in natural ecosystems that are lead-
centers. ing to the rapid extinction of species at the glo-
bal level.

1.2.2 People in Environment There have been a number of individuals who

have been instrumental in shaping the environ-
There are several internationally known environ- mental history in our country. Some of the well-
mental thinkers. Among those who have made known names in the last century include
landmarks, the names that are usually men- environmentalists, scientists, administrators, le-
tioned are Charles Darwin, Ralph Emerson, gal experts, educationists and journalists. Salim
Henry Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopald, Rachel Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in
Carson and EO Wilson. Each of these thinkers India and with the Bombay Natural History So-
looked at the environment from a completely ciety (BNHS). He also wrote several great books
different perspective. Charles Darwin wrote including the famous ‘Book of Indian Birds’. His
the ‘Origin of Species’, which brought to light autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should be
the close relationship between habitats and spe- read by every nature enthusiast. He was our
cies. It brought about a new thinking of man’s country’s leading conservation scientist and in-
relationship with other species that was based fluenced environmental policies in our country
on evolution. Alfred Wallace came to the same for over 50 years. Indira Gandhi as PM has
conclusions during his work. Ralph Emerson played a highly significant role in the preserva-
spoke of the dangers of commerce to our envi- tion of India’s wildlife. It was during her period
ronment way back in the 1840s. Henry as PM, that the network of PAs grew from 65
Thoreau in the 1860s wrote that the wilder- to 298! The Wildlife Protection Act was formu-
ness should be preserved after he lived in the lated during the period when she was PM and
wild for a year. He felt that most people did not the Indian Board for Wildlife was extremely ac-
care for nature and would sell it off for a small tive as she personally chaired all its meetings.
sum of money. John Muir is remembered as India gained a name for itself by being a major
having saved the great ancient sequoia trees in player in CITES and other International Environ-
California’a forests. In the 1890s he formed the mental Treaties and Accords during her tenure.
Sierra club, which is a major conservation NGO BNHS frequently used her good will to get con-
in the USA. Aldo Leopald was a forest official servation action initiated by the Government.

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 S P Godrej was one of India’s greatest support- local people for guarding their forest resources.
ers of wildlife conservation and nature aware- His fight to prevent the construction of the Tehri
ness programs. Between 1975 and 1999, SP Dam in a fragile earthquake prone setting is a
Godrej received 10 awards for his conservation battle that he continues to wage. The Garhwal
activities. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan Hills will always remember his dedication to the
in 1999. His friendship with people in power cause for which he has walked over 20 thou-
combined with his deep commitment for con- sand kilometers.
servation led to his playing a major advocacy
role for wildlife in India. M S Swaminathan is
one of India’s foremost agricultural scientists and
has also been concerned with various aspects
of biodiversity conservation both of cultivars and
wild biodiversity. He has founded the MS
Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai,
which does work on the conservation of bio-
logical diversity. Madhav Gadgil is a well-
known ecologist in India. His interests range
from broad ecological issues such as develop-
ing Community Biodiversity Registers and con-
serving sacred groves to studies on the behaviour
of mammals, birds and insects. He has written
several articles, published papers in journals and
is the author of 6 books. M C Mehta is un-
doubtedly India’s most famous environmental
lawyer. Since 1984, he has filed several Public
Interest Litigations for supporting the cause of
environmental conservation. His most famous
and long drawn battles supported by the Su-
preme Court include protecting the Taj Mahal,
cleaning up the Ganges River, banning inten-
sive shrimp farming on the coast, initiating Gov-
ernment to implement environmental education
in schools and colleges, and a variety of other
conservation issues. Anil Agarwal was a jour-
nalist who wrote the first report on the ‘State
of India’s Environment’ in 1982. He founded the
Center for Science and Environment which is
an active NGO that supports various environ-
mental issues. Medha Patkar is known as one
of India’s champions who has supported the
cause of downtrodden tribal people whose en-
vironment is being affected by the dams on the
Narmada river. Sunderlal Bahugna’s Chipko
Movement has become an internationally well-
known example of a highly successful conser-
vation action program through the efforts of

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 UNIT 5:
Pollution

5.1 DEFINITION 112

5.2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF: 113

5.2.1 Air Pollution 113
5.2.2 Water Pollution 123
5.2.3 Soil Pollution 131
5.2.4 Marine Pollution 135
5.2.5 Noise Pollution 140
5.2.6 Thermal Pollution 142
5.2.7 Nuclear hazards 143

5.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES

OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 145

5.4 ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS IN POLLUTION PREVENTION 150

5.5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES 153

5.6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS, EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES 156

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 ‘We spray our elms, and the following spring, book has inspired controversy and has initiated
trees are silent of robin song, not because a major change in thinking about the safety of
we sprayed the robins directly but because using pesticides and other toxic chemicals.
the poison traveled step by step through the
now familiar elm-earthworm-robin cycle’
– Rachael Carson 5.1 DEFINITION

This quotation appeared in Rachael Carson’s Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in
book entitled Silent Spring. In the years follow- our surroundings that have harmful effects on
ing the publication of Silent Spring in 1962, the plants, animals and human beings. This occurs

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 when only short-term economic gains are made 5.2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEA-
at the cost of the long-term ecological benefits SURES OF POLLUTION
for humanity. No natural phenomenon has led
to greater ecological changes than have been 5.2.1 Air Pollution
made by mankind. During the last few decades
we have contaminated our air, water and land History of air pollution: The origin of air pol-
on which life itself depends with a variety of lution on the earth can be traced from the times
waste products. when man started using firewood as a means
of cooking and heating. Hippocrates has men-
Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous sub- tioned air pollution in 400 BC. With the discov-
stances present in greater than natural abun- ery and increasing use of coal, air pollution
dance produced due to human activity, which became more pronounced especially in urban
have a detrimental effect on our environment. areas. It was recognized as a problem 700 years
The nature and concentration of a pollutant ago in London in the form of smoke pollution,
determines the severity of detrimental effects which prompted King Edward I to make the first
on human health. An average human requires antipollution law to restrict people from using
about 12 kg of air each day, which is nearly 12 coal for domestic heating in the year 1273. In
to15 times greater than the amount of food we the year 1300 another Act banning the use of
eat. Thus even a small concentration of pollut- coal was passed. Defying the law led to imposi-
ants in the air becomes more significant in com- tion of capital punishment. In spite of this air
parison to the similar levels present in food. pollution became a serious problem in London
Pollutants that enter water have the ability to during the industrial revolution due to the use
spread to distant places especially in the marine of coal in industries. The earliest recorded ma-
ecosystem. jor disaster was the ‘London Smog’ that occurred
in 1952 that resulted in more than 4000 deaths
From an ecological perspective pollutants can due to the accumulation of air pollutants over
be classified as follows: the city for five days.

Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These In Europe, around the middle of the 19th cen-
can be rapidly broken down by natural pro- tury, a black form of the Peppered moth was
cesses. Eg: domestic sewage, discarded veg- noticed in industrial areas. Usually the normal
etables, etc. Peppered moth is well camouflaged on a clean
lichen covered tree. However the peppered pat-
Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: Pol- tern was easily spotted and picked up by birds
lutants that remain in the environment for many on the smoke blackened bark of trees in the
years in an unchanged condition and take de- industrial area, while the black form remained
cades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT and most well camouflaged. Thus while the peppered
plastics. patterned moths were successful in surviving in
clean non-industrial areas, the black coloured
Non-degradable pollutants: These cannot be moths were successful in industrial areas. With
degraded by natural processes. Once they are the spread of industrialization, it has been ob-
released into the environment they are difficult served that the black forms are not only see in
to eradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg: Peppered moth, but also in many other moths.
toxic elements like lead or mercury. This is a classic case of pollution leading to ad-
aptation.

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 Air pollution began to increase in the beginning Temperature declines with altitude in the tro-
of the twentieth century with the development posphere. At the top of the troposphere tem-
of the transportation systems and large-scale use peratures abruptly begin to rise. This boundary
of petrol and diesel. The severe air quality prob- where this temperature reversal occurs is called
lems due to the formation of photochemical the tropopause.
smog from the combustion residues of diesel
and petrol engines were felt for the first time in The tropopause marks the end of the tropo-
Los Angeles. Pollution due to auto-exhaust re- sphere and the beginning of the stratosphere,
mains a serious environmental issue in many the second layer of the atmosphere. The strato-
developed and developing countries including sphere extends from 17 to 48 kilometers above
India. the earth’s surface. While the composition of
the stratosphere is similar to that of the tropo-
The Air Pollution Control Act in India was passed sphere it has two major differences. The vol-
in 1981 and the Motor Vehicle Act for control- ume of water vapour here is about 1000 times
ling the air pollution, very recently. These laws less while the volume of ozone is about 1000
are intended to prevent air from being polluted. times greater. The presence of ozone in the
stratosphere prevents about 99 percent of the
The greatest industrial disaster leading to seri- sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation from reach-
ous air pollution took place in Bhopal where ing the earth’s surface thus protecting humans
extremely poisonous methyl isocyanide gas was from cancer and damage to the immune sys-
accidentally released from the Union Carbide’s tem. This layer does not have clouds and hence
pesticide manufacturing plant on the night of airplanes fly in this layer as it creates less turbu-
December 3rd 1984. The effects of this disaster lence. Temperature rises with altitude in the
on human health and the soil are felt even to- stratosphere until there is another reversal. This
day. point is called the stratopause and it marks the
end of the stratosphere and the beginning of
the atmosphere’s next layer, the mesosphere.
Structure of the atmosphere
In the mesosphere the temperature decreases
The atmosphere is normally composed of 79 with altitude falling up to –110 oC at the top.
percent nitrogen, 20 percent oxygen and one Above this is a layer where ionization of the
percent as a mixture of carbon dioxide, water gases is a major phenomenon, thus increasing
vapour and trace amounts of several other gases the temperature. This layer is called the ther-
such as neon, helium, methane, krypton, hy- mosphere. Only the lower troposphere is rou-
drogen and xenon. The general structure of the tinely involved in our weather and hence air
atmosphere has several important features that pollution. The other layers are not significant in
have relevance to environmental problems. The determining the level of air pollution.
atmosphere is divided into several layers.

The innermost layer the troposphere extends 17 Types and sources of Air Pollution
kilometers above sea level at the equator and
about 8 kilometers over the poles. It contains What is air pollution?
about 75 percent of the mass of the earth’s air. Air pollution occurs due to the presence of un-
The fragility of this layer is obvious from the fact desirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in
that if the earth were an apple this particular quantities that are harmful to human health and
layer would be no thicker than an apple’s skin. the environment. Air may get polluted by natu-

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 ral causes such as volcanoes, which release ash, Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts.
dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they are in-
that are occasionally naturally caused by light- volved in the production of secondary air pol-
ning. However, unlike pollutants from human lutants such as ozone.
activity, naturally occurring pollutants tend to
remain in the atmosphere for a short time and Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds con-
do not lead to permanent atmospheric change. sisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They ei-
ther evaporate from fuel supplies or are
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identi- remnants of fuel that did not burn completely.
fiable sources are produced both by natural Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when
events (for example, dust storms and volcanic it rains and run into surface water. They cause
eruptions) and human activities (emission from an oily film on the surface and do not as such
vehicles, industries, etc.). These are called pri- cause a serious issue until they react to form
mary pollutants. There are five primary pollut- secondary pollutants. Using higher oxygen con-
ants that together contribute about 90 percent centrations in the fuel-air mixture and using
of the global air pollution. These are carbon valves to prevent the escape of gases, fitting of
oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides, sulfur catalytic converters in automobiles, are some of
oxides, volatile organic compounds (mostly hy- the modifications that can reduce the release
drocarbons) and suspended particulate matter. of hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.

Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for
when certain chemical reactions take place example, smoke particles from fires, bits of as-
among the primary pollutants are called second- bestos, dust particles and ash from industries)
ary pollutants. Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, car- dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of
bonic acid, etc. particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic
(cancer causing) effects of asbestos, dust par-
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odorless and ticles and ash from industrial plants that are dis-
toxic gas produced when organic materials such persed into the atmosphere. Repeated exposure
as natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely to particulates can cause them to accumulate
burnt. Vehicular exhausts are the single largest in the lungs and interfere with the ability of the
source of carbon monoxide. The number of ve- lungs to exchange gases.
hicles has been increasing over the years all over
the world. Vehicles are also poorly maintained Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely
and several have inadequate pollution control unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High
equipment resulting in release of greater lead levels have been reported in the ambient
amounts of carbon monoxide. Carbon monox- air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the
ide is however not a persistent pollutant. Natu- primary source of airborne lead emissions in In-
ral processes can convert carbon monoxide to dian cities.
other compounds that are not harmful. There-
fore the air can be cleared of its carbon monox- Pollutants are also found indoors from infiltra-
ide if no new carbon monoxide is introduced tion of polluted outside air and from various
into the atmosphere. chemicals used or produced inside buildings.
Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are equally
Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur contain- harmful.
ing fossil fuels are burnt.

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 Types of particulates

Term Meaning Examples

Aerosol General term for particles suspended in air Sprays from pressurized cans

Mist Aerosol consisting of liquid droplets Sulfuric acid mist

Dust Aerosol consisting of solid particles that are blown into Dust storm
the air or are produced from larger particles by grinding
them down

Smoke Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a mixture of solid Cigarette smoke, smoke
and liquid particles produced by chemical reaction such from burning garbage
as fires

Fume Generally means the same as smoke but often applies Zinc/lead fumes
specifically to aerosols produced by condensation of hot
vapors of metals.

Plume Geometrical shape or form of the smoke coming out of

a chimney

Fog Aerosol consisting of water droplets

Smog Term used to describe a mixture of smoke and fog.

What happens to pollutants in the atmo- Topography

sphere? Normally as the earth’s surface becomes
Once pollutants enter the troposphere they are warmed by sunlight the layer of air in contact
transported downwind, diluted by the large vol- with the ground is also heated by convection.
ume of air, transformed through either physical This warmer air is less dense than the cold air
or chemical changes or are removed from the above it, so it rises. Thus pollutants produced in
atmosphere by rain during which they are at- the surface layer are effectively dispersed.
tached to water vapour that subsequently forms
rain or snow that falls to the earth’s surface. However on a still evening, the process is re-
The atmosphere normally disperses pollutants versed. An hour or two before sunset after a
by mixing them in the very large volume of air sunny day, the ground starts to lose heat and
that covers the earth. This dilutes the pollutants the air near the ground begins to cool rapidly.
to acceptable levels. The rate of dispersion how- Due to the absence of wind, a static layer of
ever varies in relation to the following aspects: cold air is produced as the ground cools. This in
turn induces condensation of fog. The morning
sun cannot initially penetrate this fog layer. The

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 cold air being dense cannot rise and is trapped other industrial establishments. This used to lead
by the warm air above. It cannot move out of to the generation of high levels of smoke con-
the area due to the surrounding hills. The topo- taining sulphur oxides. Due to a sudden adverse
graphic features resemble a closed chemical re- meteorological condition air pollutants like
actor in which the pollutants are trapped. This smoke and sulphur oxides started to build-up in
condition often continues through the cool night the atmosphere. The white fog accumulated
and reaches its maximum intensity before sun- over the city turned black forming a ‘pea-soup’
rise. When the morning sun warms the ground smog with almost zero visibility. Within two days
the air near the ground also warms up and rises of the formation of this smog, people started
within an hour or two. This may be broken up suffering from acute pulmonary disorders which
by strong winds. In cold regions this situation caused irritation of bronchi, cough, nasal dis-
can persist for several days. Such a situation is charges, sore throat, vomiting and burning sen-
known as smog (smoke + fog). sations in the eyes. This event lead to several
deaths.

Meteorological conditions
The velocity of the wind affects the dispersal of
pollutants. Strong winds mix polluted air more
rapidly with the surrounding air diluting the
pollutants rapidly. When wind velocity is low
mixing takes place and the concentration of
pollutants remains high.

The most well known example is that of the

‘London Smog’ that occurred in 1952. The city
used large quantities of sulphur containing coal
for domestic heating that released smoke, along
with smoke from thermal power plants and

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 When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are piratory diseases are especially vulnerable to air
transported by prevailing winds they form sec- pollution.
ondary pollutants such as nitric acid vapour,
droplets of sulfuric acid and particles of sulphate Cigarette smoking is responsible for the great-
and nitrate salts. These chemicals descend on est exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to
the earth’s surface in two forms: wet (as acidic air containing even 0.001 percent of carbon
rain, snow, fog and cloud vapour) and dry (as monoxide for several hours can cause collapse,
acidic particles). The resulting mixture is called coma and even death. As carbon monoxide re-
acid deposition, commonly called acid rain. mains attached to hemoglobin in blood for a
long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxy-
Acid deposition has many harmful effects espe- gen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs per-
cially when the pH falls below 5.1 for terrestrial ception and thinking, slows reflexes and causes
systems and below 5.5 for aquatic systems. It headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea.
contributes to human respiratory diseases such Carbon monoxide in heavy traffic causes head-
as bronchitis and asthma, which can cause pre- aches, drowsiness and blurred vision.
mature death. It also damages statues, build-
ings, metals and car finishes. Acid deposition Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues.
can damage tree foliage directly but the most Chronic exposure causes a condition similar to
serious effect is weakening of trees so they be- bronchitis. It also reacts with water, oxygen and
come more susceptible to other types of dam- other material in the air to form sulfur-contain-
age. The nitric acid and the nitrate salts in acid ing acids. The acids can become attached to
deposition can lead to excessive soil nitrogen particles which when inhaled are very corrosive
levels. This can over stimulate growth of other to the lung.
plants and intensify depletion of other impor-
tant soil nutrients such as calcium and magne- Nitrogen oxides especially NO2 can irritate the
sium, which in turn can reduce tree growth and lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis
vigour. and also increase susceptibility to respiratory
infections such as influenza or common colds.

Effects of air pollution on living organisms Suspended particles aggravate bronchitis and
asthma. Exposure to these particles over a long
Our respiratory system has a number of mecha- period of time damages lung tissue and con-
nisms that help in protecting us from air pollu- tributes to the development of chronic respira-
tion. The hair in our nose filters out large tory disease and cancer.
particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of the
upper respiratory tract captures smaller particles Many volatile organic compounds such as (ben-
and dissolves some gaseous pollutants. When zene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates
the upper respiratory system is irritated by pol- (such as lead, cadmium) can cause mutations,
lutants sneezing and coughing expel contami- reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone,
nated air and mucus. Prolonged smoking or a component of photochemical smog causes
exposure to air pollutants can overload or break- coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and irrita-
down these natural defenses causing or con- tion of the eye, nose and the throat.
tributing to diseases such as lung cancer,
asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Eld-
erly people, infants, pregnant women and
people with heart disease, asthma or other res-

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 Effects on plants centration can produce dramatic effects on life
on earth.
When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores
they damage the leaves of crop plants. Chronic The total amount of ozone in a ‘column’ of air
exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break from the earth’s surface upto an altitude of 50
down the waxy coating that helps prevent ex- km is the total column ozone. This is recorded
cessive water loss and leads to damage from in Dobson Units (DU), a measure of the thick-
diseases, pests, drought and frost. Such expo- ness of the ozone layer by an equivalent layer
sure interferes with photosynthesis and plant of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and
growth, reduces nutrient uptake and causes pressure at sea level. This means that 100
leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off alto- DU=1mm of pure ozone gas at normal tempera-
gether. At a higher concentration of sulphur ture and pressure at sea level.
dioxide majority of the flower buds become stiff
and hard. They eventually fall from the plants, Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms
as they are unable to flower. instead of two. It is produced naturally from the
photodissociation of oxygen gas molecules in
Prolonged exposure to high levels of several air the atmosphere. The ozone thus formed is con-
pollutants from smelters, coal burning power stantly broken down by naturally occurring pro-
plants and industrial units as well as from cars cesses that maintain its balance in the ozone
and trucks can damage trees and other plants. layer. In the absence of pollutants the creation
and breakdown of ozone are purely governed
by natural forces, but the presence of certain
Effects of air pollution on materials pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of
ozone. Though it was known earlier that ozone
Every year air pollutants cause damage worth shows fluctuations in its concentrations which
billions of rupees. Air pollutants break down may be accompanied sometimes with a little
exterior paint on cars and houses. All around ozone depletion, it was only in 1985 that the
the world air pollutants have discoloured irre- large scale destruction of the ozone also called
placeable monuments, historic buildings, marble the Ozone Hole came into limelight when some
statues, etc. British researchers published measurements
about the ozone layer.

Effects of air pollution on the stratosphere Soon after these findings a greater impetus was
given to research on the ozone layer, which
The upper stratosphere consists of considerable convincingly established that CFC’s were lead-
amounts of ozone, which works as an effective ing to its depletion. These CFCs (chloro-fluro-
screen for ultraviolet light. This region called the carbons) are extremely stable, non-flammable,
ozone layer extends up to 60 kms above the non-toxic and harmless to handle. This makes
surface of the earth. Though the ozone is them ideal for many industrial applications like
present upto 60 kms its greatest density remains aerosols, air conditioners, refrigerators and fire
in the region between 20 to 25 kms. The ozone extinguishers. Many cans, which give out foams
layer does not consist of solely ozone but a mix- and sprays, use CFCs. (eg: perfumes, room fresh-
ture of other common atmospheric gases. In the eners, etc.) CFCs are also used in making foams
most dense ozone layer there will be only one for mattresses and cushions, disposable
ozone molecule in 100,000 gas molecules. Styrofoam cups, glasses, packaging material for
Therefore even small changes in the ozone con- insulation, cold storage etc. However their sta-

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 bility also gives them a long life span in the at- increased ultra-violet radiation. It weakens the
mosphere. immune system by suppressing the resistance
of the whole body to certain infections like
Halons are similar in structure to the CFCs but measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases
contain bromine atoms instead of chlorine. They that elicit rash and parasitic diseases such as
are more dangerous to the ozone layer than malaria introduced through the skin.
CFCs. Halons are used as fire extinguishing
agents as they do not pose a harm to people Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects
and equipment exposed to them during fire the ability of plants to capture light energy dur-
fighting. ing the process of photosynthesis. This reduces
the nutrient content and the growth of plants.
The CFCs and the halons migrate into the up- This is seen especially in legumes and cabbage.
per atmosphere after they are released. As they
are heavier than air they have to be carried by Plant and animal planktons are damaged by ul-
air currents up to just above the lower atmo- tra-violet radiation. In zooplanktons (microscopic
sphere and then they slowly diffuse into the animals) the breeding period is shortened by
upper atmosphere. This is a slow process and changes in radiation. As planktons form the basis
can take as long as five to fifteen years. In the of the marine food chain a change in their num-
stratosphere unfiltered UV-radiation severs the ber and species composition influences fish and
chemical bonds releasing chlorine from the rest shell fish production.
of the CFC. This attacks the ozone molecule
resulting in its splitting into an oxygen molecule Effect on materials: Increased UV radiation
and an oxygen atom. damages paints and fabrics, causing them to
fade faster.
Despite the fact that CFCs are evenly distribute
over the globe, the ozone depletion is especially Effect on climate: Atmospheric changes in-
pronounced over the South Pole due to the ex- duced by pollution contribute to global warm-
treme weather conditions in the Antarctic at- ing, a phenomenon which is caused due to the
mosphere. The presence of the ice crystals increase in concentration of certain gases like
makes the Cl-O bonding easier. The ozone layer carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane and
over countries like Australia, New Zealand, South CFCs. Observations of the earth have shown
Africa and parts of South America is also de- beyond doubt that atmospheric constituents
pleted. such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrogen oxides and Chloro Fluro Carbons trap
India has signed the Montreal Protocol in 1992, heat in the form of infra-red radiation near the
which aims to control the production and con- earth’s surface. This is known as the ‘Green-
sumption of Ozone Depleting Substances. house Effect’. The phenomenon is similar to
what happens in a greenhouse. The glass in a
greenhouse allows solar radiation to enter which
Ozone depletion-What does it do? is absorbed by the objects inside. These objects
radiate heat in the form of terrestrial radiation,
Changes in the ozone layer have serious impli- which does not pass out through the glass. The
cations for mankind. heat is therefore trapped in the greenhouse in-
creasing the temperature inside and ensuring
Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract, the luxuriant growth of plants.
aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by

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 Green House Effect

There could be several adverse effects of global ane are trapped beneath the frozen soil of
warming. Alaska. When the permafrost melts the
methane that will be released can acceler-
• With a warmer earth the polar ice caps will ate the process of global warming.
melt causing a rise in ocean levels and flood-
ing of coastal areas.
Control measures for air pollution
• In countries like Bangladesh or the Maldives
this would be catastrophic. If the sea level Air pollution can be controlled by two funda-
rises by 3m., Maldives will disappear com- mental approaches: preventive techniques and
pletely beneath the waves. effluent control.

• The rise in temperature will bring about a One of the effective means of controlling air
fall in agricultural produce. pollution is to have proper equipment in
place. This includes devices for removal of pol-
• Changes in the distribution of solar energy lutants from the flue gases though scrubbers,
can bring about changes in habitats. A pre- closed collection recovery systems through
viously productive agricultural area will suf- which it is possible to collect the pollutants
fer severe droughts while rains will fall in before they escape, use of dry and wet collec-
locations that were once deserts. This could tors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, etc.
bring about changes in the species of natu- Providing a greater height to the stacks can
ral plants, agricultural crops, insects, live- help in facilitating the discharge of pollutants
stock and micro-organisms. as far away from the ground as possible. Indus-
tries should be located in places so as to mini-
• In the polar regions temperature rises mize the effects of pollution after considering
caused by global warming would have di- the topography and the wind directions.
sastrous effects. Vast quantities of meth- Substitution of raw material that causes more

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 pollution with those that cause less pollution can It is alarming to note that residential locations
be done. in India are fast outpacing industrial locations in
air pollution implying that vehicular fumes are
responsible for this trend. The Supreme Court’s
Air pollution in India order of April 5, 2002 has directed the Central
Government for an action plan for other pol-
The World health Organization (WHO) which luted cities. Absence of any local initiatives for
rates only mega cities of the world has rated action and delay in air pollution control mea-
Delhi the fourth most polluted city ion the world. sures will only make the situation worse.
However compared to other cities in India, Delhi
is not at the top of the list of polluted cities. Our The Supreme Court also played a vital role pro-
country has several pollution hotspots. The re- tecting the Taj Mahal. Being exposed to sulphur
cent release from the Central Pollution Control dioxide and suspended particulate matter, the
Board (CPCB), Parivesh, January 2003 states that Taj had contracted ‘marble cancer’, a fungal
Ahmedabad’s air is most noxious flowed by growth that corroded its surface giving it a yel-
Kanpur, Solapur and Lucknow with small par- lowish tinge. The SPM deposits blackened it. Shri
ticulate levels (PM10) 3-4 times the standard of MC Mehta an environmental lawyer filed a pub-
60 microgram per cubic meter (mg/m3). The re- lic interest litigation in 1984 expressing concern
port has ranked 29 cities according to Respi- over the havoc the polluting units in Agra were
rable Particulate Matter (RSPM) levels recorded wreaking on the Taj Mahal. Twelve years later
during the year 2000. This report thus confirms the Supreme Court ordered 292 industries in
the fact that Indian cities show high particulate the vicinity to either adopt pollution control
pollution with 14 cities hitting critical levels. measures or shut down. It also made it manda-
tory for these units to either switch over to eco-
Nitrogen dioxide levels in most major cities are friendly fuels like natural gas or shift out of the
generally close to the acceptable annual stan- area.
dard of 60 mg/m3. However sharp increases have
been noticed in a few cities with heavy vehicu-
lar traffic and density as in a few locations in Air quality monitoring
Kolkata and Delhi indicating stronger impact of India does not presently have a well established
traffic. The CPCB indicates vehicles as one of system of monitoring air pollution. When air
the predominant sources of air pollution. How- quality monitoring began in India in the late
ever the impact of hard measures implemented 1960s planners focused only on a few pollut-
in Delhi over the last few years such as intro- ants namely sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and
duction of Euro II standards, lowering the sul- suspended particulate matter. Other pollutants
phur content in fuel to 500 ppm and such as carbon monoxide and lead were moni-
implementing Compressed Natural Gas program tored only on a limited scale. The threat from
has succeeded in improving the quality of air. other air toxins such as benzene, ozone, other
Rapid urbanization of smaller cities especially small particulates is not known as these are not
those situated near the big commercial centers monitored at all. A database on ambient air
have an enormous increase in traffic load espe- quality in Indian cities has been prepared by the
cially in the most polluted segment such as two monitoring networks of the National Environ-
and three wheelers and diesel vehicles combined mental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
with poor quality fuel contribute to the deterio- Nagpur. The Central Pollution Control Board
rating air quality in a big way. (CPCB) initiated its own national Ambient Air
Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) program in 1985.

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 Ambient air quality standards in India developed by the Central Pollution Control Board

Area Category SPM µg/m3 SO2 µg/m3 Co µg/m3 NOx µg/m3

Industrial and mixed use 500 120 5000 120

Residential and rural 200 80 2000 80

Sensitive 100 3 1000 30

Data to the NAAQM is supplied by the respec- Air quality management as a well-defined pro-
tive state pollution control boards, which is then gram has yet to emerge in India. We need a
transmitted to the CPCB. Experts feel that the much more strengthened air quality manage-
present air quality-monitoring network cannot ment with continuous monitoring of air if we
capture the true profile of urban air pollution are to have a better quality of air. This would
due to the lack of adequate monitoring stations. also need an integrated approach with strict air
Moreover critical toxins have still not been in- pollution control laws. Some of the suggestions
cluded in the list of pollutants to be monitored. for doing this include:

• Putting a greater emphasis on pollution pre-

Legal aspects of air pollution control in India vention rather than control
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
was legislated in 1981. The Act provided for • Reducing the use of fossil fuels
prevention, control and abatement of air pollu-
tion. In areas notified under this Act no indus- • Improving the quality of vehicular fuel
trial pollution causing activity could come up
without the permission of the concerned State • Increasing the use of renewable energy
Pollution Control Board. But this Act was not
strong enough to play a precautionary or a cor-
rective role. After the Bhopal disaster, a more 5.2.2 Water Pollution
comprehensive Environment Protection Act
(EPA) was passed in 1986. This Act for the first Our liquid planet glows like a soft blue sap-
time conferred enforcement agencies with nec- phire in the hard-edged darkness of space.
essary punitive powers to restrict any activity that There is nothing else like it in the solar sys-
can harm the environment. To regulate vehicu- tem. It is because of water.
lar pollution the Central Motor Vehicles Act of – John Todd
1939 was amended in 1989. Following this
amendment the exhaust emission rules for ve- Introduction: Water is the essential element
hicle owners were notified in 1990 and the mass that makes life on earth possible. Without wa-
emission standards for vehicle manufacturers ter there would be no life. We usually take wa-
were enforced in 1991 for the first time. The ter for granted. It flows from our taps when they
mass emission norms have been further revised are turned on. Most of us are able to bathe when
for 2000. we want to, swim when we choose and water

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 our gardens. Like good health we ignore water India receives most of her rainfall during the
when we have it. months of June to September due to the sea-
sonal winds and the temperature differences
Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered between the land and the sea. These winds blow
by water only a tiny fraction of this water is avail- from the opposite directions in the different sea-
able to us as fresh water. About 97% of the sons. They blow into India from the surround-
total water available on earth is found in oceans ing oceans during the summer season and blow
and is too salty for drinking or irrigation. The out from the subcontinent to the oceans during
remaining 3% is fresh water. Of this 2.997% is the winter. The monsoon in India is usually rea-
locked in ice caps or glaciers. Thus only 0.003% sonably stable but varies geographically. In some
of the earth’ total volume of water is easily avail- years the commencement of the rains may be
able to us as soil moisture, groundwater, water delayed considerably over the entire country or
vapour and water in lakes, streams, rivers and a part of it. The rains may also terminate earlier
wetlands. than usual. They may be heavier than usual over
one part than over another. All these may cause
In short if the world’s water supply were only local floods or drought. However in India even
100 litres our usable supply of fresh water would areas that receive adequate rainfall during the
be only about 0.003 litres (one-half teaspoon). monsoon suffer from water shortages in the post
This makes water a very precious resource. The monsoon period due to lack of storage facili-
future wars in our world may well be fought ties.
over water. By the middle of this century, al-
most twice as many people will be trying to share When the quality or composition of water
the same amount of fresh water the earth has changes directly or indirectly as a result of
today. As freshwater becomes more scarce ac- man’s activities such that it becomes unfit
cess to water resources will be a major factor in for any purpose it is said to be polluted.
determining the economic growth of several
countries around the world. Point sources of pollution: When a source of
pollution can be readily identified because it has
Water availability on the planet: Water that a definite source and place where it enters the
is found in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands and water it is said to come from a point source.
artificial reservoirs is called surface water. Wa- Eg. Municipal and Industrial Discharge Pipes.
ter that percolates into the ground and fills the
pores in soil and rock is called groundwater. When a source of pollution cannot be readily
Porous water-saturated layers of sand, gravel identified, such as agricultural runoff, acid rain,
or bedrock through which ground water flows etc, they are said to be non-point sources of
are called aquifers. Most aquifers are replen- pollution.
ished naturally by rainfall that percolates down-
ward through the soil and rock. This process is
called natural recharge. If the withdrawal rate
of an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge rate,
the water table is lowered. Any pollutant that is
discharged onto the land above is also pulled
into the aquifer and pollutes the groundwater
resulting in polluted water in the nearby wells.

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 Sources of Pollution

Causes of water pollution degrade these wastes. In the process this de-
grades water quality. The amount of oxygen
There are several classes of common water pol- required to break down a certain amount of
lutants. These are disease-causing agents organic matter is called the biological oxygen
(pathogens) which include bacteria, viruses, pro- demand (BOD). The amount of BOD in the wa-
tozoa and parasitic worms that enter water from ter is an indicator of the level of pollution. If too
domestic sewage and untreated human and much organic matter is added to the water all
animal wastes. Human wastes contain concen- the available oxygen is used up. This causes fish
trated populations of coliform bacteria such as and other forms of oxygen dependent aquatic
Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis. These life to die. Thus anaerobic bacteria (those that
bacteria normally grow in the large intestine of do not require oxygen) begin to break down
humans where they are responsible for some the wastes. Their anaerobic respiration produces
food digestion and for the production of vita- chemicals that have a foul odour and an un-
min K. These bacteria are not harmful in low pleasant taste that is harmful to human health.
numbers. Large amounts of human waste in
water, increases the number of these bacteria A third class of pollutants are inorganic plant
which cause gastrointestinal diseases. Other nutrients. These are water soluble nitrates and
potentially harmful bacteria from human wastes phosphates that cause excessive growth of al-
may also be present in smaller numbers. Thus gae and other aquatic plants. The excessive
the greater the amount of wastes in the water growth of algae and aquatic plants due to added
the greater are the chances of contracting dis- nutrients is called eutrophication. They may in-
eases from them. terfere with the use of the water by clogging
water intake pipes, changing the taste and
Another category of water pollutants is oxy- odour of water and cause a buildup of organic
gen depleting wastes. These are organic matter. As the organic matter decays, oxygen
wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxy- levels decrease and fish and other aquatic spe-
gen requiring) bacteria. Large populations of cies die.
bacteria use up the oxygen present in water to

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 The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is One of the effects of accumulation of high lev-
often many times more than is actually required els of pesticides such as DDT is that birds lay
by the plants. The chemicals in fertilizers and eggs with shells that are much thinner than
pesticides pollute soil and water. While excess normal. This results in the premature breaking
fertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides cause of these eggs, killing the chicks inside. Birds of
bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Pesti- prey such as hawks, eagles and other fish eat-
cides which enter water bodies are introduced ing birds are affected by such pollution. Al-
into the aquatic food chain. They are then ab- though DDT has been banned in India for
sorbed by the phytoplanktons and aquatic agricultural use and is to be used only for ma-
plants. These plants are eaten by the herbivo- laria eradication, it is still used in the fields as it
rous fish which are in turn eaten by the carnivo- is cheap.
rous fish which are in turn eaten by the water
birds. At each link in the food chain these chemi- A fourth class of water pollutants is water
cals which do not pass out of the body are ac- soluble inorganic chemicals which are acids,
cumulated and increasingly concentrated salts and compounds of toxic metals such as
resulting in biomagnification of these harmful mercury and lead. High levels of these chemi-
substances. cals can make the water unfit to drink, harm

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 fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields turbines, the steam is condensed into water af-
and accelerate corrosion of equipment that use ter it leaves the turbines. This condensation is
this water. done by taking water from a water body to ab-
sorb the heat. This heated water, which is at
Another cause of water pollution is a variety of least 15oC higher than the normal is discharged
organic chemicals, which include oil, gasoline, back into the water body. The warm water not
plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent only decreases the solubility of oxygen but
and many other chemicals. These are harmful changes the breeding cycles of various aquatic
to aquatic life and human health. They get into organisms.
the water directly from industrial activity either
from improper handling of the chemicals in in- Oil is washed into surface water in runoff from
dustries and more often from improper and il- roads and parking lots which also pollutes
legal disposal of chemical wastes. groundwater. Leakage from underground tanks

Sediment of suspended matter is another

class of water pollutants. These are insoluble par- CASE STUDY
ticles of soil and other solids that become sus-
pended in water. This occurs when soil is eroded One of the worst oil spill disasters that have
from the land. High levels of soil particles sus- occurred is that of the Exxon Valdez. On 24th
pended in water, interferes with the penetra- march 1989 the Exxon Valdez, a tanker more
tion of sunlight. This reduces the photosynthetic than three football fields wide went off
activity of aquatic plants and algae disrupting course in a 16 kilometer wide channel in
the ecological balance of the aquatic bodies. Prince William Sound near Valdez in Alaska.
When the velocity of water in streams and riv- It hit submerged rocks, creating an environ-
ers decreases the suspended particles settle mental disaster. The rapidly spreading oil slick
down at the bottom as sediments. Excessive coated more than 1600 kilometers of shore-
sediments that settle down destroys feeding and line killing between 300,000 and 645,000
spawning grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, water birds and a large number of sea ot-
artificial reservoirs etc. ters, harbor seals, whales and fishes. Exxon
spent $ 2.2. billion directly on the clean-up
Water soluble radioactive isotopes are yet operations. However some results of the
another source of water pollution. These can cleanup effort showed that where high pres-
be concentrated in various tissues and organs sure jets of hot water were used to clean
as they pass through food chains and food webs. beaches coastal plants and animals that had
Ionizing radiation emitted by such isotopes can survived the spill were killed. Thus it did more
cause birth defects, cancer and genetic dam- harm than good. Exxon pleaded guilty in
age. 1991 and agreed to pay the Federal Gov-
ernment and the state of Alaska $ 1 billion
Hot water let out by power plants and indus- in fines and civil damages. This $8.5 billion
tries that use large volumes of water to cool the accident might have been prevented if Exxon
plant result in rise in temperature of the local had spent only $22.5 million to fit the tanker
water bodies. Thermal pollution occurs when with a double hull-one inside the other. Such
industry returns the heated water to a water double hulled vessels would be less likely to
source. Power plants heat water to convert it rupture and spill their contents. The spill high-
into steam, to drive the turbines that generate lighted the need for marine pollution pre-
electricity. For efficient functioning of the steam vention.

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 is another source of pollution. Accidental oil spills • Leakage from underground storage tanks
from large transport tankers at sea have been containing gasoline and other hazardous
causing significant environmental damage. substances

Though accidents such as the Exxon Valdez get • Leachate from landfills
worldwide attention, much more oil is released
as a result of small, regular releases from other • Poorly designed and inadequately main-
less visible sources. Nearly two thirds of all ma- tained septic tanks
rine oil pollution comes from three sources: run-
off from streets, improper discharge of • Mining wastes
lubricating oil from machines or automobile
crankcases and intentional oil discharges that Severe cases of arsenic poisoning from contami-
occur during the loading and unloading of tank- nated groundwater have been reported from
ers. Oil tankers often use sea water as ballast to West Bengal in what is known today as the worst
stabilize the ship after they have discharged their case of groundwater pollution. The School of
oil. This oil contaminated water is then dis- Environmental Sciences, Jadhavpur University,
charged back into the sea when the tanker is West Bengal has been involved in the task of
refilled. surveying the magnitude of the arsenic prob-
lem in West Bengal for the last fourteen years.
Groundwater pollution: While oil spills are According to a report in the Down to Earth (Vol.
highly visible and often get a lot of media at- 11, No.22), arsenic poisoning was first noticed
tention, a much greater threat to human life by K C Saha, former professor of dermatology
comes from our groundwater being polluted at the School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata when
which is used for drinking and irrigation. While he began to receive patients with skin lesions
groundwater is easy to deplete and pollute it that resembled the symptoms of leprosy which
gets renewed very slowly and hence must be was in reality not leprosy. Since all the patients
used judiciously. Groundwater flows are slow were from the district of 24-Parganas, Saha
and not turbulent hence the contaminants are along with others began to look for the cause
not effectively diluted and dispersed as com- and found it to be arsenic toxicity. Thus ground-
pared to surface water. Moreover pumping water arsenic contamination in West Bengal was
groundwater and treating it is very slow and first reported in a local daily newspaper in De-
costly. Hence it is extremely essential to prevent cember 1983 when 63 people from three vil-
the pollution of groundwater in the first place. lages located in different districts were identified
Ground water is polluted due to: by health officials as suffering from arsenic poi-
soning.
• Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treated
waste water and garbage There are two theories that have been put forth
to explain this unusually high content of arsenic
• Industrial waste storage located above or in groundwater. One group of researchers sug-
near aquifers gested that the cause is natural while the other
stated that the cause is man-made.
• Agricultural practices such as the applica-
tion of large amounts of fertilizers and pes- According to the first hypothesis, arsenic prob-
ticides, animal feeding operations, etc. in ably originates in the Himalayan headwaters of
the rural sector the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers and has
been lying undisturbed beneath the surface of

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 the region’s deltas for thousands of years in the ment and drinking water supply schemes based
thick layers of fine alluvial mud across the banks on groundwater there were no reported cases
of these rivers. Most of the arsenic affected ar- of arsenic poisoning.
eas of West Bengal lie in the alluvial plains
formed in the quarternary period (last 1.6 mil- Arsenicosis or arsenic toxicity develops after two
lion years).The Purulia district of West Bengal is to five years of exposure to arsenic contaminated
part of the extensive area of the Precambrian drinking water depending on the amount of
era (last 570 million year) having metamorphic water consumption and the arsenic concentra-
rocks and granites with widespread sulphide tion in water. Initially the skin begins to darken
mineralisation. Researchers from the UK based (called diffuse melanosis) which later leads to
British Geological Survey (BGS) suggested that spotted melanosis when darkened sports begin
their position close to where the river Ganga to appear on the chest, back and limbs. At a
enters Bangladesh (geologically) may be the pri- later stage leucomelanosis sets in and the body
mary source of arsenic in the Bengal alluvium. begins to show black and white spots. In the
According to David Kinniburgh project leader middle stage of arsenicosis the skin in parts be-
with BGS the main factor is time. The mud in comes hard and fibrous. Rough, dry skin with
these areas is thicker, wider and flatter than al- nodules on hands or the soles of feet indicate
most anywhere else on earth. It can thus take severe toxicity. This can lead to the formation
hundreds or thousands of years for underground of gangrene and cancer. Arsenic poisoning
water to percolate through the mud before brings with it other complications such as liver
reaching the sea and thus it absorbs arsenic for and spleen enlargement, cirrhosis of the liver,
a long period. diabetes, goiter and skin cancers.

Other researchers feel that the excess amount

of arsenic in groundwater can be contributed The state of India’s rivers
to by the high rate of groundwater extraction.
Their hypothesis called the pyrite oxidation the- India has always had a tradition of worshipping
sis describes how arsenic can get mobilized in rivers. Most of the rivers in India are named af-
the groundwater. In this hypothesis arsenic is ter gods, goddesses or saints. However a large
assumed to be present in certain minerals (py- majority of the Indian population including those
rites) that are deposited within the aquifer sedi- who worship the rivers do not think twice be-
ments. Due to the lowering of the water table fore polluting a river. Urbanization, industrial-
below the deposits, arseno-pyrite which is oxi- ization, excess withdrawal of water, agricultural
dized in a zone of the aquifer called the Vadose run-off, improper agricultural practices and vari-
zone releases arsenic as arsenic adsorbed on iron ous religious and social practices all contribute
hydroxide. During the subsequent recharge pe- to river pollution in India. Every single river in
riod, iron hydroxide releases arsenic into ground- India be it the Ganga, Yamuna, Cauvery or the
water. This theory is supported by two Krishna have their own share of problems due
arguments. The first is the intensive irrigation to pollution. Waters from the Ganga and the
development in West Bengal using deep tube Yamuna are drawn for irrigation through the
wells and shallow tube wells. This method of network of canals as soon as these rivers reach
extraction, which was exactly in the 20m to the plains reducing the amount of water that
100m below ground level ensured, increased flows downstream. What flows in the river is
contribution of groundwater to irrigation. The water from small nalas, and streams that carry
other argument that supports the pyrite oxida- with them sewage and industrial effluents. The
tion theory is that prior to irrigation develop- residual freshwater, is unable to dilute the pol-

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 lutants and the rivers turn into stinking sewers. riverfront development, afforestation and solid
In spite of data from scientifically competent waste management.
studies conducted by the Central Pollution Con-
trol Board (CPCB), the Government has not been
able to tackle this issue. Sewage and municipal Control measures for preventing water
effluents account for 75% of the pollution load pollution
in rivers while the remaining 25% is from in-
dustrial effluents and non-point pollution While the foremost necessity is prevention, set-
sources. ting up effluent treatment plants and treating
waste through these can reduce the pollution
In 1985, India launched the Ganga Action plan load in the recipient water. The treated effluent
(GAP) the largest ever river clean-up operation can be reused for either gardening or cooling
in the country. The plan has been criticized for, purposes wherever possible. A few years ago a
overspending and slow progress. The GAP Phase new technology called the Root Zone Process
II in 1991 included cleaning operations for the has been developed by Thermax. This system
tributaries of the Ganga, ie; the Yamuna, Gomti involves running contaminated water through
and the Damodar. Thus the Yamuna Action Plan the root zones of specially designed reed beds.
(YAP), Gomti Action Plan and the Damodar Ac- The reeds, which are essentially wetland plants
tion plan were added. have the capacity to absorb oxygen from the
surrounding air through their stomatal openings.
In 1995 the National River Conservation plan The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem
was launched. Under this all the rivers in India of the reeds into the hollow roots where it en-
were taken up for clean-up operations. In most ters the root zone and creates conditions suit-
of these plans, attempts have been made to tap able for the growth of numerous bacteria and
drains, divert sewage to sewage treatment fungi. These micro-organisms oxidize impurities
plants before letting out the sewage into the in the wastewaters, so that the water which fi-
rivers. The biggest drawback of these river clean- nally comes out is clean.
ing programs was that they failed to pin respon-
sibilities as to who would pay for running the
treatment facilities in the long run. With the
power supply being erratic and these plants
being heavily dependent on power, most of
these facilities lie underutilized. Moreover the
problem of river pollution due to agricultural run-
off has not been addressed in these programs.
NRCP is scheduled to be completed by March
2005. The approved cost for the plan is Rs.
772.08 crores covering 18 rivers in 10 states in-
cluding 46 towns. The cost is borne entirely by
the Central Government and the Ministry of
Environment and Forests is the nodal agency that
co-ordinates and monitors the plan. Under this
plan the major activities include treating the
pollution load from sewer systems of towns and Water Pollution
cities, setting up of Sewage treatment plants,
electric crematoria, low cost sanitation facilities,

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 5.2.3 Soil Pollution deeper layers. The roots of most plants are found
in these two upper layers. As long as these lay-
Introduction: We can no more manufacture a ers are anchored by vegetation soil stores wa-
soil with a tank of chemicals than we can invent ter and releases it in a trickle throughout the
a rain forest or produce a single bird. We may year instead of in a force like a flood. These two
enhance the soil by helping its processes along, top layers also contain a large amount of bacte-
but we can never recreate what we destroy. The ria, fungi, earthworms and other small insects
soil is a resource for which there is no substi- that form complex food webs in the soil that
tute. (Environmental historian Donald Worster help recycle soil nutrients and contribute to soil
reminds us that fertilizers are not a substitute fertility.
for fertile soil).
The B horizon often called the subsoil contains
Soil is a thin covering over the land consisting of less organic material and fewer organisms than
a mixture of minerals, organic material, living the A horizon. The area below the subsoil is
organisms, air and water that together support called the C horizon and consists of weathered
the growth of plant life. Several factors contrib- parent material. This parent material does not
ute to the formation of soil from the parent contain any organic materials. The chemical
material. This includes mechanical weathering composition of the C-horizon helps to determine
of rocks due to temperature changes and abra- the pH of the soil and also influences the soil’s
sion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical rate of water absorption and retention.
weathering activities and lichens. Climate and
time are also important in the development of Soils vary in their content of clay (very fine par-
soils. Extremely dry or cold climates develop soils ticles), silt (fine particles), sand (medium size
very slowly while humid and warm climates de- particles) and gravel (coarse to very coarse par-
velop them more rapidly. Under ideal climatic ticles). The relative amounts of the different sizes
conditions soft parent material may develop into and types of mineral particles determine soil
a centimeter of soil within 15 years. Under poor texture. Soils with approximately equal mixtures
climatic conditions a hard parent material may of clay, sand, silt and humus are called loams.
require hundreds of years to develop into soil.

Mature soils are arranged in a series of zones Causes of soil degradation

called soil horizons. Each horizon has a distinct
texture and composition that varies with differ- Erosion
ent types of soils. A cross sectional view of the Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of
horizons in a soil is called a soil profile. surface litter and topsoil from one place to an-
other. While erosion is a natural process often
The top layer or the surface litter layer called caused by wind and flowing water it is greatly
the O horizon consists mostly of freshly fallen accelerated by human activities such as farm-
and partially decomposed leaves, twigs, animal ing, construction, overgrazing by livestock, burn-
waste, fungi and other organic materials. Nor- ing of grass cover and deforestation.
mally it is brown or black.
Loss of the topsoil makes a soil less fertile and
The uppermost layer of the soil called the A reduces its water holding capacity. The topsoil,
horizon consists of partially decomposed organic which is washed away, also contributes to wa-
matter (humus) and some inorganic mineral ter pollution clogging lakes, increasing turbidity
particles. It is usually darker and looser than the of the water and also leads to loss of aquatic

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 life. For one inch of topsoil to be formed it nor- the purpose of soil and water conservation. They
mally requires 200-1000 years depending upon are most effective on gentle slopes and in areas
the climate and soil type. Thus if the topsoil of low to medium rainfall. These bunds are sta-
erodes faster than it is formed the soil becomes bilized by fast growing tree species and grasses.
a non-renewable resource. In areas of steep slopes where the bunds are
not possible, continuous contour benches (CCBs)
Thus it is essential that proper soil conservation made of stones are used for the same purpose.
measures are used to minimize the loss of top
soil. There are several techniques that can pro- Gradonies can also be used to convert waste-
tect soil from erosion. Today both water and lands into agricultural lands. In this narrow
soil are conserved through integrated treatment trenches with bunds on the downstream side
methods. Some of the most commonly em- are built along contours in the upper reaches of
ployed methods include the two types of treat- the catchment to collect run-off and to conserve
ment that are generally used. moisture from the trees or tree crops. The area
between the two bunds is use for cultivation of
• Area treatment which involves treating the crops after development of fertile soil cover.
land
Some of the ways in which this can be achieved
• Drainage line treatment which involves are:
treating the natural water courses (nalas)
Live check dams which barriers created by
planting grass, shrubs and trees across the gul-
Continuous contour trenches can be used to lies can be used for this purpose.
enhance infiltration of water reduce the run-
off and check soil erosion. These are actually A bund constructed out of stones across the
shallow trenches dug across the slope of the stream can also be used for conserving soil and
land and along the contour lines basically for water.

Area Treatment

Purpose Treatment Measure Effect

Reduces the impact of Develop vegetative cover on the Minimum disturbance and
rain drops on the soil non arable land displacement of soil particles

Infiltration of water Apply water infiltration measures on In situ soil and moisture conservation
where it falls the area

Minimum surface run off Store surplus rain water by constructing Increased soil moisture in the area,
bunds, ponds in the area facilitate ground water recharge

Ridge to valley sequencing Treat the upper catchment first and then Economically viable, less risk
proceed towards the outlet of damage and longer life of
structures of the lower catchments

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 Drainage line treatment

Purpose Treatment measure Effect

Stop further deepening Plug the gullies at formation Stops erosion, recharges
of gullies and retain groundwater at the
sediment run-off upper level.

Reduce run-off velocity, Crate temporary barriers in nalas Delayed flow and
pass cleaner water to the increased groundwater
downstream side recharge

Minimum sedimentation Use various methods to treat the catchments

in the storage basins

Low construction cost Use local material and skills for constructing Structures are locally
the structures maintained

An Earthen checkbund is constructed out of and is expected to rise even higher. Fertilizers
local soil across the stream to check soil erosion are very valuable as they replace the soil nutri-
and flow of water. ents used up by plants. The three primary soil
nutrients often in short supply are potassium,
A Gabion structure is a bund constructed of phosphorus and nitrogen compounds. These are
stone and wrapped in galvanized chainlink. commonly referred to as macronutrients. Cer-
tain other elements like boron, zinc and man-
A Gabion structure with ferrocement imper- ganese are necessary in extremely small amounts
vious barrier has a one inch thick impervious and are known as micronutrients. When crops
wall of ferrocement at the center of the struc- are harvested a large amount of macronutrients
ture which goes below the ground level upto and a small amount of micronutrients are re-
the hard strata. This ferrocement partition sup- moved with the crops. If the same crop is grown
ported by the gabion portion is able to retain again depleted levels of thee nutrients can re-
the water and withstand the force of the runoff sult in decreased yields. These necessary nutri-
water. ents can be returned to the soil through the
application of fertilizers. In addition to fertilizers
An Underground bandhara is an under- a large amount of pesticides (chemicals used to
ground structure across a nalla bed to func- kill or control populations of unwanted fungi,
tion as a barrier to check the ground water animals or plants often called pests) are also used
movement. to ensure a good yield. Pesticides can be subdi-
vided into several categories based on the kinds
Excess use of fertilizers: Approximately 25 of organisms they are used to control. Insecti-
percent of the world’s crop yield is estimated to cides are used to control insect populations while
be directly attributed to the use of chemical fer- fungicides are used to control unwanted fungal
tilizers. The use of chemical fertilizes has in- growth. Mice and rats are killed by rodenticides
creased significantly over the last few decades while plant pests are controlled by herbicides.

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 Problems with pesticide use case of insecticides like DDT have been proved
Pesticides not only kill the pests but also a large to be disastrous. DDT is a well known case of
variety of living things including humans. They biomagnification in ecosystems. DDT interferes
may be persistent or non-persistent. Persistent with the production of normal eggshells in birds
pesticides once applied are effective for a long making them fragile.
time. However as they do not break down eas-
ily they tend to accumulate in the soil and in the Other problems associated with insecticides is
bodies of animals in the food chain. the ability of insect populations to become re-
sistant to them thus rendering them useless in a
For example, DDT which was one of the first couple of generations. Most pesticides kill ben-
synthetic organic insecticide to be used was eficial as well as pest species. They kill the preda-
thought to be the perfect insecticide. During the tor as well as the parasitic insects that control
first ten years of its use (1942-1952) DDT is es- the pests. Thus the pest species increase rapidly
timated to have saved about five million lives following the use of a pesticide as there are no
primarily because of its use to control disease natural checks to their population growth. The
carrying mosquitoes. However after a period of short term and the long-term health effects to
use many mosquitoes and insects became tol- the persons using the pesticide and the public
erant of DDT, thus making it lose its effective- that consumes the food grown by using the
ness. DDT in temperate regions of the world pesticides are also major concerns. Exposure to
has a half life (the amount of time required for small quantities of pesticides over several years
half of the chemical to decompose) of 10 to 15 can cause mutations, produce cancers, etc.
years. This means that if 100 kilograms of DDT
were to be sprayed over an area, 50 kilograms Thus the question that comes to mind is that if
would still be present in the area 10 to 15 years pesticides have so many drawbacks then why
later. The half-life of DDT varies according to are they used so extensively and what are the
the soil type, temperature, kind of soil organ- substitutes for them? There are three main rea-
isms present and other factors. In tropical parts sons for the use of pesticides. Firstly the use of
of the world the half life may be as short as six pesticides in the short term has increased the
months. The use of DDT has been banned in amount of food that can be grown in many parts
some countries. India still however permits the of the world as the damage by pests is de-
use of DDT though for purposes of mosquito creased. The second reason for its extensive use
control only. Persistent pesticides become at- is base on an economic consideration. The in-
tached to small soil particles which are easily creased yields more than compensates the
moved by wind and water to different parts thus farmer for cost of pesticides. Thirdly current
affecting soils elsewhere. Persistent pesticides health problems especially in developing coun-
may also accumulate in the bodies of animals, tries due to mosquitoes are impossible to con-
and over a period of time increase in concen- trol without insecticides.
tration if the animal is unable to flush them out
of its system thus leading to the phenomenon However more and more farmers are increas-
called bioaccumulation. When an affected ani- ingly opting to replace chemical fertilizers and
mal is eaten by another carnivore these pesti- use different methods of controlling pests with-
cides are further concentrated in the body of out affecting their yield. Thus several different
the carnivore. This phenomenon of acquiring approaches that have slightly varying and over-
increasing levels of a substance in the bodies of lapping goals have been developed. Alternative
higher trophic level organisms is known as agriculture is the broadest term that is used that
biomagnification. This process especially in the includes all non-traditional agricultural methods

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 and encompasses sustainable agriculture, or- commonly used biopesticides are Bacillus
ganic agriculture, alternative uses of traditional thuringiensis (Bt), neem (Azadirachta indica) and
crops, alternative methods for raising crops, etc. trichogramma. Although they are available in
the market they are yet to become market
Sustainable agriculture advocates the use of favourites.
methods to produce adequate safe food in an
economically viable manner while maintaining
the state of the ecosystem. Organic agriculture Excess salts and water
advocates avoiding the use of chemical fertiliz- Irrigated lands can produce crop yields much
ers and pesticides. A wide variety of techniques higher than those that only use rainwater. How-
can be used to reduce this negative impact of ever this has its own set of ill effects. Irrigation
agriculture. Leaving crop residue on the soil and water contains dissolved salts and in dry climates
incorporating it into the soil reduces erosion and much of the water in the saline solution evapo-
increase soil organic matter. Introduction of or- rates leaving its salts such as sodium chloride in
ganic matter into the soil also makes compac- the topsoil. The accumulation of these salts is
tion less likely. Crop rotation is an effective way called salinization, which can stunt plant growth,
to enhance soil fertility, reduce erosion and con- lower yields and eventually kill the crop and ren-
trol pests. There have been arguments both for der the land useless for agriculture. These salts
and against organic farming. Critics argue that can be flushed out of the soil by using more
organic farming cannot produce the amount of water. This practice however increases the cost
food required for today’s population and it is of crop production and also wastes enormous
economically viable only in certain conditions. amounts of water. Flushing salts can also make
However supporters for organic farming feel the downstream irrigation water saltier.
that of the hidden costs of soil erosion and pol-
lution are taken into account it is a viable ap- Another problem with irrigation is water log-
proach. Besides organic farmers do not have to ging. This occurs when large amounts of water
spend on fertilizers and pesticides and also get is used to leach the salts deeper into the soil.
a premium price for their products thus making However if the drainage is poor this water ac-
it financially viable for them. cumulates underground gradually raising the
water table. The roots of the plants then get
Another way to reduce these impacts is through enveloped in this saline water and eventually
the use of integrated pest management. This is die.
a technique that uses a complete understand-
ing of all ecological aspects of a crop and the Thus in the long run it is better for us to adopt
particular pests to which it is susceptible to es- sustainable farming practices so as to prevent
tablish pest control strategies that uses no or the degradation of soil.
few pesticides. IPM promotes the use of
biopesticides. Biopesticides are derived from
three sources: microbial, botanical and bio- 5.2.4 Marine Pollution
chemical. Microbial pesticides are micro-organ-
isms such as bacteria, fungus, virus or protozoa Marine pollution can be defined as the intro-
that fight pests through a variety of ways. They duction of substances to the marine environ-
produce toxins specific to the pests and produce ment directly or indirectly by man resulting in
diseases in them. Biochemical pesticides contain adverse effects such as hazards to human health,
several chemicals that affect the reproductive obstruction of marine activities and lowering the
and digestive mechanisms of the pests. The most quality of sea water. While the causes of ma-

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 rine pollution may be similar to that of general • Ships carry many toxic substances such as
water pollution there are some very specific oil, liquefied natural gas, pesticides, indus-
causes that pollute marine waters. trial chemicals, etc. in huge quantities some-
times to the capacity of 350,000 tonnes.
• The most obvious inputs of waste is through Ship accidents and accidental spillages at
pipes directly discharging wastes into the sea therefore can be very damaging to the
sea. Very often municipal waste and sew- marine environment. Shipping channels in
age from residences and hotels in coastal estuaries and at the entrances to ports of-
towns are directly discharged into the sea. ten require frequent dredging to keep them
open. This dredged material that may con-
• Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture tain heavy metals and other contaminants
which are washed off the land by rain, en- are often dumped out to sea.
ter water courses and eventually reach the
sea. • Offshore oil exploration and extraction also
pollute the seawater to a large extent.
• Petroleum and oils washed off from the
roads normally enter the sewage system but
stormwater overflows carry these materials
into rivers and eventually into the seas.

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 Pollution due to organic wastes openings. One way of avoiding the problem of
The amount of oxygen dissolved in the water is disposal of materials collected on the screens is
vital for the plants and animals living in it. to use a device called a comminuter which grinds
Wastes, which directly or indirectly affect the the coarse material into small pieces that can
oxygen concentration, play an important role in then be left in the waste water. After screening
determining the quality of the water. Normally the wastewater passes into a grit chamber. The
the greatest volume of waste discharged to detention time is chosen to be long enough to
watercourses, estuaries and the sea is sewage, allow lighter, organic material to settle. From
which is primarily organic in nature and is de- the grit chamber the sewage passes into a pri-
graded by bacterial activity. Using the oxygen mary settling tank (also called as sedimentation
present in the water these wastes are broken tank) where the flow speed is reduced suffi-
down into stable inorganic compounds. How- ciently to allow most of the suspended solids to
ever as a result of this bacterial activity the oxy- settle out by gravity. If the waste is to undergo
gen concentration in the water is reduced. When only primary treatment it is then chlorinated to
the oxygen concentration falls below 1.5 mg/ destroy bacteria and control odours after which
lit, the rate of aerobic oxidation is reduced and the effluent is released. Primary treatment nor-
their place is taken over by the anaerobic bac- mally removes about 35 percent of the BOD and
teria that can oxidize the organic molecules with- 60 percent of the suspended solids.
out the use of oxygen. This results in end
products such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia Secondary treatment: The main objective of
and methane, which are toxic to many organ- secondary treatment is to remove most of the
isms. This process results in the formation of an BOD. There are three commonly used ap-
anoxic zone which is low in its oxygen content proaches: trickling filters, activated sludge pro-
from which most life disappears except for cess and oxidation ponds. Secondary treatment
anaerobic bacteria, fungi, yeasts and some pro- can remove at least 85 percent of the BOD.
tozoa. This makes the water foul smelling.
A trickling filter consists of a rotating distribu-
Control measures: One way of reducing the tion arm that sprays liquid wastewater over a
pollution load on marine waters is through the circular bed of ‘fist size’ rocks or other coarse
introduction of sewage treatment plants. This materials. The spaces between the rocks allow
will reduce the biological oxygen demand (BOD) air to circulate easily so that aerobic conditions
of the final product before it is discharged to can be maintained. The individual rocks in the
the receiving waters. bed are covered with a layer of slime, which
Various stages of treatment such as primary, consists of bacteria, fungi, algae, etc. which
secondary or advanced can be used depending degrade the waste trickling through the bed.
on the quality of the effluent that is required to This slime periodically slides off individual rocks
be treated. and is collected at the bottom of the filter along
with the treated wastewater and is then passed
Primary treatment: These treatment plants use on to the secondary settling tank where it is re-
physical processes such as screening and sedi- moved.
mentation to remove pollutants that will settle,
float or, that are too large to pass through simple In the activated sludge process the sewage is
screening devices. This includes, stones, sticks, pumped into a large tank and mixed for several
rags, and all such material that can clog pipes. hours with bacteria rich sludge and air bubbles
A screen consists of parallel bars spaced 2 to to facilitate degradation by micro-organisms.
7cms apart followed by a wire mesh with smaller The water then goes into a sedimentation tank

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 where most of the microorganisms settle out as Pollution due to oil: Oil pollution of the sea
sludge. This sludge is then broken down in an normally attracts the greatest attention because
anaerobic digester where methane-forming of its visibility. There are several sources though
bacteria slowly convert the organic matter into which the oil can reach the sea.
carbon dioxide, methane and other stable end
products. The gas produced in the digester is
60 percent methane, which is a valuable fuel Tanker operations
and can be put to many uses within the treat- Half the world production of crude oil which is
ment plant itself. The digested sludge, which is close to three billion tones a year is transported
still liquid, is normally pumped out onto sludge by sea. After a tanker has unloaded its cargo of
drying beds where evaporation and seepage oil it has to take on seawater as ballast for the
remove the water. This dried sludge is poten- return journey. This ballast water is stored in the
tially a good source of manure. Activated sludge cargo compartments that previously contained
tanks use less land area than trickling filters with the oil. During the unloading of the cargo a cer-
equivalent performance. They are also less ex- tain amount of oil remains clinging to the walls
pensive to construct than trickling filters and of the container and this may amount to 800
have fewer problems with flies and odour and tonnes in a 200,000 tonne tanker. The ballast
can also achieve higher rates of BOD removal. water thus becomes contaminated with this oil.
Thus although the operating costs are a little When a fresh cargo of oil is to be loaded, these
higher due to the expenses incurred on energy compartments are cleaned with water, which
for running pumps and blowers they are pre- discharges the dirty ballast along with the oil
ferred over trickling filters. into the sea. Two techniques have substantially
reduced this oil pollution. In the load-on-top
Oxidation ponds are large shallow ponds ap- system, the compartments are cleaned by high
proximately 1 to 2 metres deep where raw or pressure jets of water. The oily water is retained
partially treated sewage is decomposed by mi- in the compartment until the oil floats to the
croorganisms. They are easy to build and man- top. The water underneath that contains only a
age and accommodate large fluctuations in flow little oil is then discharged into the sea and the
and can provide treatment at a much lower cost. oil is transferred to a slop tank. At the loading
They however require a large amount of land terminal, fresh oil is loaded on top of the oil in
and hence can be used where land is not a limi- the tank and hence the name of the technique.
tation. In the second method called ‘crude oil wash-
ing’, the clingage is removed by jets of crude oil
Advanced sewage treatment: This involves a while the cargo is being unloaded. Some mod-
series of chemical and physical process that re- ern tankers have segregated ballast where the
moves specific pollutants left in the water after ballast water does not come in contact with the
primary and secondary treatment. Sewage treat- oil. Thus with the introduction of these new
ment plant effluents contain nitrates and phos- methods of deballasting, the amount of oil en-
phates in large amounts. These contribute to tering the sea has been considerably reduced.
eutrophication. Thus advanced treatment plants
are designed to specifically remove these con-
taminants. Advanced treatment plants are very Dry docking
expensive to build and operate and hence are All ships need periodic dry docking for servic-
rarely used. ing, repairs, cleaning the hull, etc. During this
period when the cargo compartments are to

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 completely emptied, residual oil finds its way into pressure steam or dispersants after which the
the sea. surface must be hosed down.

Effects of marine pollution: Apart from caus-

Bilge and fuel oils ing eutrophication a large amount of organic
As ballast tanks take up valuable space, addi- wastes can also result in the development of
tional ballast is sometimes carried in empty fuel red tides. These are phytoplankton blooms of
tanks. While being pumped overboard it carries such intensity that the area is discolored. Many
oil into the sea. Individually the quantity of oil important commercially important marine spe-
released may be small but it becomes a consid- cies are also killed due to clogging of gills or
erable amount when all the shipping operations other structures.
are taken into consideration.
When liquid oil is spilled on the sea it spreads
over the surface of the water to form a thin film
Tanker accidents called an oil slick. The rate of spreading and the
A large number of oil tanker accidents happen thickness of the film depends on the sea tem-
every year. Sometimes this can result in major perature and the nature of the oil.
disasters such as that of the Exxon Valdez de-
scribed in the section on water pollution. Oil slicks damage marine life to a large extent.
Salt marshes, mangrove swamps are likely to
trap oil and the plants, which form the basis for
Offshore oil production these ecosystems thus suffer. For salt marsh
Oil that is extracted from the seabed contains plants, oil slicks can affect the flowering, fruit-
some water. Even after it is passed through oil ing and germination.
separators the water that is discharged contains
some oil, which adds to marine pollution. Drill- If liquid oil contaminates a bird’s plumage its
ing muds which are pumped down oil wells water repellent properties are lost. Water thus
when it is being drilled normally contain 70 to penetrates the plumage and displaces the air
80 percent of oil. They are dumped on the sea- trapped between the feathers and the skin. This
bed beneath the platform thus heavily contami- air layer is necessary as it provides buoyancy and
nating the water. Uncontrolled release of oil thermal insulation. With this loss the plumage
from the wells can be catastrophic events re- becomes water logged and the birds may sink
sulting in oil pollution. and drown. Even if this does not happen loss of
thermal insulation results in exhaustion of food
Control measures for oil pollution: Cleaning reserves in an attempt to maintain body tem-
oil from surface waters and contaminated perature often followed by death. Birds often
beaches is a time consuming labour intensive clean their plumage by preening and in the pro-
process. The natural process of emulsification cess consume oil which depending on its toxic-
of oil in the water can be accelerated through ity can lead to intestinal, renal or liver failure.
the use of chemical dispersants which can be
sprayed on the oil. A variety of slick-lickers in Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed create an-
which a continuous belt of absorbent material oxic conditions and result in the production of
dips through the oil slick and is passed through toxic sulphides in the bottom sediment thus
rollers to extract the oil have been designed. eliminating the benthic fauna.
Rocks, harbour walls can be cleaned with high-

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 Fish and shellfish production facilities can also There are several sources of noise pollution that
be affected by oil slicks. The most important contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise
commercial damage can however also come pollution. Noise emanating from factories, ve-
from tainting which imparts an unpleasant hicles, playing of loudspeakers during various
flavour to fish and seafood and is detectable at festivals can contribute to outdoor noise pollu-
extremely low levels of contamination. This re- tion while loudly played radio or music systems,
duces the market value of seafood. and other electronic gadgets can contribute to
indoor noise pollution. A study conducted by
researchers from the New Delhi based National
5.2.5 Noise Pollution Physical Laboratory show that noise generated
by firecrackers (presently available in the mar-
Noise may not seem as harmful as the contami- ket) is much higher than the prescribed levels.
nation of air or water but it is a pollution prob- The permitted noise level is 125 decibels, as per
lem that affects human health and can the Environment (Protection) (second amend-
contribute to a general deterioration of envi- ment) Rules, 1999.
ronmental quality.
The differences between sound and noise is of-
Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not ten subjective and a matter of personal opin-
all sound is noise. What may be considered as ion. There are however some very harmful
music to one person may be noise to another. It effects caused by exposure to high sound lev-
is not a substance that can accumulate in the els. These effects can range in severity from
environment like most other pollutants. Sound being extremely annoying to being extremely
is measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’. painful and hazardous.

Decibel levels of common sounds Effects of noise pollution on physical health

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise

dB Environmental Condition
is physical damage to the ear and the tempo-
0 Threshold of hearing rary or permanent hearing loss often called a
10 Rustle of leaves temporary threshold shift (TTS). People suffer-
20 Broadcasting studio ing from this condition are unable to detect
weak sounds. However hearing ability is usually
30 Bedroom at night
recovered within a month of exposure. In
40 Library
Maharashtra people living in close vicinity of
50 Quiet office Ganesh mandals that play blaring music for ten
60 Conversational speech (at 1m) days of the Ganesh festival are usually known
70 Average radio to suffer from this phenomenon. Permanent
74 Light traffic noise loss, usually called noise induced permanent
threshold shift (NIPTS) represents a loss of hear-
90 Subway train
ing ability from which there is no recovery.
100 Symphony orchestra
110 Rock band Below a sound level of 80 dBA haring loss does
120 Aircraft takeoff not occur at all. However temporary effects are
146 Threshold of pain noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130
dBA. About 50 percent of the people exposed

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 to 95 dBA sound levels at work will develop Permitted noise levels
NIPTS and most people exposed to more than
105 dBA will experience permanent hearing loss Ambient Noise Levels dB
to some degree. A sound level of 150 dBA or
more can physically rupture the human eardrum. Zone Day-time Night-time

Silent Zone 50 40
The degree of hearing loss depends on the du-
Residential Zone 55 45
ration as well as the intensity of the noise. For
example, 1hour of exposure to a 100 dBA sound Commercial Zone 65 55
level can produce a TTS that may last for about Industrial Zone 70 70
one day. However in factories with noisy ma-
chinery workers are subjected to high sound
A standard safe time limit has been set for ex-
levels for several hours a day. Exposure to 95
posure to various noise levels. Beyond this ‘safe’
dBA for 8 hours everyday for over a period of
time continuing exposure over a period of a year
10 years may cause about 15 dBA of NIPTS. In
will lead to hearing loss.
addition to hearing losses excessive sound lev-
els can cause harmful effects on the circulatory
system by raising blood pressure and altering
pulse rates. Duration dBA

8 hours 90

Effects of noise pollution on mental health: 4 hours 93

2 hours 96
Noise can also cause emotional or psychologi- 1 hour 99
cal effects such as irritability, anxiety and stress.
30 minutes 102
Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are
significant health effects of noise. It has been 15 minutes 105
observed that the performance of school chil- 7 minutes 108
dren is poor in comprehension tasks when
4 minutes 111
schools are situated in busy areas of a city and
suffer from noise pollution. 2 minutes 114
1 minute 117
As noise interferes with normal auditory com- 30 seconds 120
munication, it may mask auditory warning sig-
Instantaneous rupture of membrane 150
nals and hence increases the rate of accidents
especially in industries. It can also lead to low-
ered worker efficiency and productivity and
higher accident rates on the job. Noise Control techniques

Thus noise is just more than a mere nuisance or There are four fundamental ways in which noise
annoyance. It definitely affects the quality of life. can be controlled: Reduce noise at the source,
It is thus important to ensure mitigation or con- block the path of noise, increase the path length
trol of noise pollution. and protect the recipient. In general, the best
control method is to reduce noise levels at the
source.

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 Source reduction can be done by effectively distance from the noise source. Increasing the
muffling vehicles and machinery to reduce the path length between the source and the recipi-
noise. In industries noise reduction can be done ent offers a passive means of control. Munici-
by using rigid sealed enclosures around machin- pal land-use ordinances pertaining to the
ery lined with acoustic absorbing material. Iso- location of airports make use of the attenuat-
lating machines and their enclosures from the ing effect of distance on sound levels. Use of
floor using special spring mounts or absorbent earplugs and earmuffs can protect individuals
mounts and pads and using flexible couplings effectively from excessive noise levels. Specially
for interior pipelines also contribute to reducing designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level
noise pollution at the source. reaching the eardrum by as much as 40 dBA.
However very often workers tend not to wear
However one of the best methods of noise them on a regular basis despite company re-
source reduction is regular and thorough main- quirements for their use.
tenance of operating machinery. Noise levels at
construction sites can be controlled using proper
construction planning and scheduling tech- 5.2.6 Thermal Pollution
niques. Locating noisy air compressors and other
equipment away from the site boundary along Sources: The discharge of warm water into a
with creation of temporary barriers to physically river is usually called a thermal pollution. It
block the noise can help contribute to reducing occurs when an industry removes water from a
noise pollution. Most of the vehicular noise source, uses the water for cooling purposes and
comes from movement of the vehicle tires on then returns the heated water to its source.
the pavement and wind resistance. However Power plants heat water to convert it into steam,
poorly maintained vehicles can add to the noise to drive the turbines that generate electricity.
levels. Traffic volume and speed also have sig- For efficient functioning of the steam turbines,
nificant effects on the overall sound. For example the steam is condensed into water after it leaves
doubling the speed increases the sound levels the turbines. This condensation is done by tak-
by about 9 dBA and doubling the traffic volume ing water from a water body to absorb the heat.
(number of vehicles per hour) increases sound This heated water, which is at least 15oC higher
levels by about 3 dBA. A smooth flow of traffic than the normal is discharged back into the
also causes less noise than does a stop-and-go water body.
traffic pattern. Proper highway planning and
design are essential for controlling traffic noise. Effects: The warmer temperature decreases the
Establishing lower speed limits for highways that solubility of oxygen and increases the metabo-
pass through residential areas, limiting traffic lism of fish. This changes the ecological balance
volume and providing alternative routes for truck of the river. Within certain limits thermal addi-
traffic are effective noise control measures. The tions can promote the growth of certain fish
path of traffic noise can also be blocked by con- and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of
struction of vertical barriers alongside the high- a power plant. However sudden changes in tem-
way. Planting of trees around houses can also perature caused by periodic plant shutdowns
act as effective noise barriers. In industries dif- both planned and unintentional can change re-
ferent types of absorptive material can be used sult in death of these fish that are acclimatized
to control interior noise. Highly absorptive inte- to living in warmer waters.
rior finish material for walls, ceilings and floors
can decrease indoor noise levels significantly. Tropical marine animals are generally unable to
Sound levels drop significantly with increasing withstand a temperature increase of 2 to 30C

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 and most sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are topes. Approximately 17 % of the electrical
eliminated at temperatures above 370C. This energy generated in the world comes from
results in a change in the diversity of fauna as nuclear power plants. However on the other
only those species that can live in warmer wa- hand it is impossible to forget the destruction
ter survive. that nuclear bombs caused the cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The radioactive wastes
Control measures: Thermal pollution can be from nuclear energy have caused serious envi-
controlled by passing the heated water through ronmental damage.
a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves
the condenser. The heat is dissipated into the Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of
air and the water can then be discharged into the atom. The resulting energy can be used for
the river or pumped back to the plant for reuse a variety of purposes. The first controlled fission
as cooling water. There are several ways in which of an atom was carried out in Germany in 1938.
thermal pollution can be reduced. One method However the United States was the first coun-
is to construct a large shallow pond. Hot water try to develop an atomic bomb which was sub-
is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler sequently dropped on the Japanese cities of
water is removed from the other end. The heat Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The world’s first elec-
gets dissipated from the pond into the atmo- tricity generating reactor was constructed in the
sphere. A second method is to use a cooling United States in 1951 and the Soviet Union built
tower. These structures take up less land area its first reactor in 1954. In December 1953, Presi-
than the ponds. Here most of the heat transfer dent Dwight D. Eisenhower in his ‘Atoms for
occurs through evaporation. Here warm waters Peace’ speech made the following prediction:
coming from the condenser is sprayed down- ‘Nuclear reactors will produce electricity so
ward over vertical sheets or baffles where the cheaply that it will not be necessary to meter it.
water flows in thin films. Cool air enters the The users will pay a fee and use as much elec-
tower through the water inlet that encircles the tricity as they want. Atoms will provide a safe,
base of the tower and rises upwards causing clean and dependable source of electricity.’
evaporative cooling. A natural draft is main-
tained because of the density difference be- Today however though nuclear power is being
tween the cool air outside and the warmer air used as a reliable source of electricity the above
inside the tower. The waste heat is dissipated statement sounds highly optimistic. Several se-
into the atmosphere about 100 m above the rious accidents have caused worldwide concern
base of the tower. The cooled water is collected about safety and disposal of radioactive wastes.
at the floor of the tower and recycled back to
the power plant condensers. The disadvantage In order to appreciate the consequences of us-
in both these methods is however that large ing nuclear fuels to generate energy it is impor-
amounts of water are lost by evaporation. tant to understand how the fuel is processed.
Low-grade uranium ore, which contains 0.2
percent uranium by weight, is obtained by sur-
5.2.7 Nuclear Hazards face or underground mining. After it is mined
the ore goes through a milling process where it
Nuclear energy can be both beneficial and harm- is crushed and treated with a solvent to con-
ful depending on the way in which it is used. centrate the uranium and produces yellow cake
We routinely use X-rays to examine bones for a material containing 70 to 90 percent uranium
fractures, treat cancer with radiation and diag- oxide. Naturally occurring uranium contains only
nose diseases with the help of radioactive iso- 0.7 percent of fissionable U-235, which is not

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 high enough for most types of reactors. Hence became available. The amount of steam being
it is necessary to increase the amount of U-235 produced was reduced by lowering the control
by enrichment though it is a difficult and ex- rods into the reactor. But the test was delayed
pensive process. The enrichment process in- because of a demand for electricity and a new
creases the U-235 content from 0.7 to 3 percent. shift of workers came on duty. The operators
Fuel fabrication then converts the enriched ma- failed to program the computer to maintain
terial into a powder, which is then compacted power at 700 megawatts and the output
into pellets. These pellets are sealed in metal dropped to 30 megawatts. This presented an
fuel rods about 4 meters in length which is then immediate need to rapidly increase the power
loaded into the reactor. As fission occurs the and many of the control rods were withdrawn.
concentration of U-235 atoms decreases. After Meanwhile an inert gas (xenon) had accumu-
about three years, a fuel rod does not have lated on the fuel rods. The gas absorbed the
enough radioactive material to sustain a chain neutrons and slowed the rate of power increase.
reaction and hence the spent fuel rods must be In an attempt to obtain more power the opera-
replaced by new ones. The spent rods are how- tors withdrew all the control rods. This was a
ever still very radioactive containing about one second serious safety violation.
percent U-235 and one percent plutonium.
These rods are a major source of radioactive At 1.00am, the operators shut off most of the
waste material produced by a nuclear reactor. emergency warning signals and turned on all
the eight pumps to provide adequate cooling
Initially it was thought that spent fuel rods could for the reactor following the completion of the
be reprocessed to not only provide new fuel but test. Just as the final stages for the test were
also to reduce the amount of nuclear waste. beginning a signal indicated excessive reaction
However the cost of producing fuel rods by re- in the reactor. In spite of the warning the op-
processing was found to be greater than the erators blocked the automatic reactor shutdown
cost of producing fuel rods from ore. Presently and began the test. As the test continued the
India does operate reprocessing plants to repro- power output of the reactor rose beyond its
cess spent fuel as an alternative to storing them normal level and continued to rise. The opera-
as nuclear waste. At each step in the cycle there tors activated the emergency system designed
is a danger of exposure and poses several health to put the control rods back into the reactor
and environmental concerns. and stop the fission. But it was already too late.
The core had already been deformed and the
Although nuclear power has significant benefits rods would not fit properly thus the reaction
an incident which changed people’s attitudes could not be stopped. In 4.5 seconds the en-
towards nuclear power plants was the ergy level of the reactor increased two thou-
Chernobyl disaster that occurred in 1986. sand times. The fuel rods ruptured the cooling
Chernobyl is a small city in Ukraine near the water turned into steam and a steam explosion
border with Belarus north of Kiev. At 1.00 am occurred. The lack of cooling water allowed the
April 25, 1986 a test to measure the amount of reactor to explode. The explosion blew the 1000
electricity that the still spinning turbine would metric ton concrete roof from the reactor and
produce if steam were shut off was being con- the reactor caught fire. This resulted in the
ducted at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station- world’s worst nuclear accident and it took ten
4. This was important information since the days to bring the runaway reaction under con-
emergency core cooling system required energy trol.
for its operation and the coasting turbine could
provide some of that energy until another source

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 There were of course immediate fatalities, but means of disposal was to dump solid wastes
the long-term consequences were devastating. outside the city or village limits.
116,000 people were evacuated of which
24,000 had received high doses of radiation. Around most towns and cities in India the ap-
Even today many people suffer from illnesses proach roads are littered with multi-coloured
they feel are related to their exposure to the plastic bags and other garbage. Waste is also
fallout from Chernobyl. In 1996 ten years after burnt to reduce its volume. Modern methods
the accident it was clear that one of the long- of disposal such as incineration and the devel-
term effects was the increased frequency of opment of sanitary landfills, etc. are now at-
thyroid cancer in children. tempting to solve these problems. Lack of space
for dumping solid waste has become a serious
The degree and the kind of damage from problem in several cities and towns all over the
nuclear accidents vary with the kind of radia- world. Dumping and burning wastes is not an
tion, the amount of radiation, the duration of acceptable practice today from either an envi-
exposure and the types of cells irradiated. Ra- ronmental or a health perspective. Today dis-
diation can also cause mutations which are posal of solid waste should be part of an
changes in the genetic makeup of the cells. integrated waste management plan. The
Mutations can occur in the ovaries or the testes method of collection, processing, resource re-
leading to the formation of mutated eggs or covery and the final disposal should mesh with
sperms which in turn can lead to abnormal off- one another to achieve a common objective.
spring. Mutations can also occur in the tissues
of the body ad may manifest themselves as ab-
normal tissue growths known as cancer. Two Characteristics of municipal solid waste
common cancers that are linked to increased
radiation exposure are leukemia and breast can- Solid wastes are grouped or classified in several
cer. different ways. These different classifications are
necessary to address the complex challenges of
solid waste management in an effective man-
5.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEEMNT: ner. The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is
CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEA- generally used to describe most of the non-haz-
SURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL ardous solid waste from a city, town or village
WASTE that requires routine collection and transport to
a processing or disposal site. Sources of MSW
In ancient cities, food scraps and other wastes include private homes, commercial establish-
were simply thrown into the unpaved streets ments and institutions as well as industrial fa-
where they accumulated. Around 320 B.C. in cilities. However MSW does not include wastes
Athens, the first known law forbidding this prac- from industrial processes, construction and
tice was established and a system of waste re- demolition debris, sewage sludge, mining wastes
moval began to evolve in several eastern or agricultural wastes.
Mediterranean cities. Disposal methods were
very crude and often were just open pits out- Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of
side the city walls. As populations increased, materials. It can contain food waste such as veg-
efforts were made to transport the wastes out etable and meat material, left over food, egg
further thus creating city dumps. Until recently shells, etc which is classified as wet garbage as
the disposal of municipal solid waste did not well as paper, plastic, tetrapacks, plastic cans,
attract much public attention. The favoured newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes, alu-

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 minum foil, metal items, wood pieces, etc. which ent plastics cannot be recycled together. Thus
is classified as dry garbage. separation of different plastics before recycling
is necessary. Similarly in recycled paper the fi-
Control measures of urban and industrial bers are weakened and it is difficult to control
wastes: An integrated waste management the colour of the recycled product. Recycled
strategy includes three main components: paper is banned for use in food containers to
1. Source reduction prevent the possibility of contamination. It very
2. Recycling often costs less to transport raw paper pulp than
3. Disposal scrap paper. Collection, sorting and transport
account for about 90 percent of the cost of
Source reduction is one of the fundamental paper recycling. The processes of pulping,
ways to reduce waste. This can be done by us- deinking and screening wastepaper are gener-
ing less material when making a product, reuse ally more expensive than making paper from
of products on site, designing products or pack- virgin wood or cellulose fibers. Very often thus
aging to reduce their quantity. On an individual recycled paper is more expensive than virgin
level we can reduce the use of unnecessary items paper. However as technology improves the cost
while shopping, buy items with minimal pack- will come down.
aging, avoid buying disposable items and also
avoid asking for plastic carry bags. Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly
through a sanitary landfill or through incinera-
Recycling is reusing some components of the tion. A modern sanitary landfill is a depression
waste that may have some economic value. in an impermeable soil layer that is lined with
Recycling has readily visible benefits such as con- an impermeable membrane. The three key char-
servation of resources reduction in energy used acteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that
during manufacture and reducing pollution lev- distinguish it from an open dump are:
els. Some materials such as aluminum and steel
can be recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass • Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected
and plastics are recyclable. Mining of new alu- and prepared landfill site in a carefully pre-
minum is expensive and hence recycled alumi- scribed manner.
num has a strong market and plays a significant
role in the aluminum industry. Paper recycling • The waste material is spread out and com-
can also help preserve forests as it takes about pacted with appropriate heavy machinery.
17 trees to make one ton of paper. Crushed
glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to • The waste is covered each day with a layer
manufacture new glass by 50 percent. Cullet of compacted soil.
lowers the temperature requirement of the
glassmaking process thus conserving energy and The problem with older landfills are associated
reducing air pollution. However even if recycling with groundwater pollution. Pollutants seeping
is a viable alternative, it presents several prob- out from the bottom of a sanitary landfill
lems. (leachates) very often percolate down to the
groundwater aquifer no matter how thick the
The problems associated with recycling are ei- underlying soil layer. Today it is essential to have
ther technical or economical. Plastics are diffi- suitable bottom liners and leachate collection
cult to recycle because of the different types of systems along with the installation of monitor-
polymer resins used in their production. Since ing systems to detect groundwater pollution.
each type has its own chemical makeup differ- The organic material in the buried solid waste

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 will decompose due to the action of microor- bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash. The
ganisms. At first the waste decomposes aerobi- possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator
cally until the oxygen that was present in the ash can be harmful. Thus toxic products and
freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic mi- materials containing heavy metals (for example
croorganisms. The anerobes take over produc- batteries and plastics) should be segregated.
ing methane which is poisonous and highly Thus extensive air pollution control equipment
explosive when mixed with air in concentrations and high-level technical supervision and skilled
between 5 and 15 percent. The movement of employees for proper operation and mainte-
gas can be controlled by providing impermeable nance is required.
barriers in the landfill. A venting system to col-
lect the blocked gas and vent it to the surface Thus while sanitary landfills and incinerators have
where it can be safely diluted and dispersed into their own advantages and disadvantages, the
the atmosphere is thus a necessary component most effective method of solid waste manage-
of the design of sanitary landfills. ment is source reduction and recycling.

Even though landfilling is an economic alterna-

tive for solid waste disposal, it has become in- Vermi – Composting
creasingly difficult to find suitable landfilling sites
that are within economic hauling distance and Nature has perfect solutions for managing the
very often citizens do not want landfills in their waste it creates, if left undisturbed. The bio-
vicinity. Another reason is that no matter how geochemical cycles are designed to clear the
well engineered the design and operation may waste material produced by animals and plants.
be, there is always the danger of some environ- We can mimic the same methods that are
mental damage in the form of leakage of present in nature. All dead and dry leaves and
leachates. twigs decompose and are broken down by or-
ganisms such as worms and insects, and is fi-
Incineration is the process of burning munici- nally broken down by bacteria and fungi, to form
pal solid waste in a properly designed furnace a dark rich soil-like material called compost.
under suitable temperature and operating con-
ditions. Incineration is a chemical process in These organisms in the soil use the organic ma-
which the combustible portion of the waste is terial as food, which provides them with nutri-
combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide ents for their growth and activities. These
and water, which are released into the atmo- nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again
sphere. This chemical reaction called oxidation by trees and other plants. This process recycles
results in the release of heat. For complete oxi- nutrients in nature.
dation the waste must be mixed with appropri-
ate volumes of air at a temperature of about This soil can be used as a manure for farms and
815o C for about one hour. Incineration can gardens.
reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90
percent in volume and 75 percent in weight.
The risks of incineration however involve air-
quality problems and toxicity and disposal of the
fly and bottom ash produced during the incin-
eration process. Fly ash consists of finely divided
particulate matter, including cinders, mineral
dust and soot. Most of the incinerator ash is

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 stantial present or potential hazard to human
Steps for Vermi-Compost health or the environment when improperly
treated, stored, transported or disposed of.
• Dig a pit about half a meter square, one
meter deep.
Characteristics of hazardous wastes
• Line it with straw or dried leaves and
grass. A waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it
exhibits any of the four primary characteristics
• Organize the disposal of organic waste based on the physical or chemical properties of
into the pit as and when generated. toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity. In
addition to this waste products that are either
• Introduce a culture of worms that is now infectious or radioactive are also classified as
produced commercially. hazardous

• Ensure that the contents are covered Toxic wastes are those substances that are poi-
with a sprinkling of dried leaves and soil sonous even in very small or trace amounts.
everyday. Some may have an acute or immediate effect
on humans or animals causing death or violent
• Water the pit once or twice a week to illness. Others may have a chronic or long term
keep it moist. effect slowly causing irreparable harm to ex-
posed persons. Acute toxicity is readily appar-
• Turn over the contents of the pit ever ent because organisms respond to the toxin
15 days. shortly after being exposed. Chronic toxicity is
much more difficult to determine because the
• In about 45 days the waste will be de- effects may not be seen for years. Certain toxic
composed by the action of the microor- wastes are known to be carcinogenic, causing
ganisms. cancer and others may be mutagenic causing
biological changes in the children of exposed
• The soil derived is fertile and rich in nu- people and animals.
trients.
Reactive wastes are those that have a tendency
to react vigorously with air or water, are un-
stable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or
Hazardous wastes explode during routine management. For ex-
ample, gunpowder, nitroglycerine, etc.
Modern society produces large quantities of
hazardous waste which are generated by chemi- Ignitable wastes are those that burn at relatively
cal manufacturing companies, petroleum refin- low temperatures (less than 60 C) and are ca-
eries, paper mills, smelters and other industries. pable of spontaneous combustion during stor-
Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm age, transport or disposal. For example, gasoline,
to humans or the environment. Wastes are nor- paint thinners, and alcohol.
mally classified as hazardous waste when they
cause or significantly contribute to an increase Corrosive wastes are those that destroy materi-
in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible als and living tissue by chemical reaction. For
or incapacitating reversible illness or pose a sub- example, acids and bases.

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 Infectious wastes include human tissue from shortening their life span. Lead may also dam-
surgery, used bandages and hypodermic age nerve tissue which can result in brain dis-
needles, microbiological materials, etc. ease.

Radioactive waste is basically an output from Mercury occurs in several different forms. Mer-
the nuclear power plants and can persist in the cury is used in the production of chlorine. It is
environment for thousands of years before it also used as a catalyst in the production of some
decays appreciably. plastics. Industrial processes such as the produc-
tion of chlorine and plastics are responsible for
most of the environmental damage resulting
Environmental problems and health risks from mercury. Our body has a limited ability to
caused by hazardous wastes. eliminate mercury. In the food web mercury
becomes more concentrated as it is taken up by
As most of the hazardous wastes are disposed various organisms. In an aquatic environment,
of on or in land the most serious environmental mercury can be absorbed by the plankton which
effect is contaminated groundwater. Once are then consumed by fish. In addition, fish take
groundwater is polluted with hazardous wastes up mercury through their gills and by eating
it is very often not possible to reverse the dam-
age.

Pesticides are used increasingly to protect and Minamata-An important lesson about
increase food production. They form residues mercury
in the soil which are washed into streams which
then carry them forwards. The residues may A case of human mercury poisoning which
persist in the soil or in the bottom of lakes and occurred about forty years ago in the
rivers. Exposure can occur through ingestion, Minamata bay in Japan taught the world an
inhalation and skin contact resulting in acute or important lesson about the dangers of mer-
chronic poisoning. Today we have an alterna- cury poisoning. A large plastics plant located
tive to the excess use of pesticides through the near the Minamata bay used a mercury con-
use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The taining compound in a reaction to produce
IPM system uses a wide variety of plants and vinyl chloride a common plastic material. The
insects to create a more natural process. The left over mercury was dumped into the Bay
natural balance between climate, soil and in- along with other wastes from the plant.
sect populations can help to prevent an insect Though the mercury was in its less toxic in-
from overpopulating an area and destroying a organic state when dumped microorganisms
particular crop. at the bottom of the bay converted the mer-
cury into its organic form. This organic mer-
Lead, mercury and arsenic are hazardous sub- cury then entered into the tissues of fish
stances which are often referred to as heavy which were in turn consumed by the people
metals. Lead is an abundant heavy metal and is living in the area. The contaminated fish thus
relatively easy to obtain. It is used in batteries, caused an outbreak of poisoning killing and
fuel, pesticides, paints, pipes and other places affecting several people. Mothers who had
where resistance to corrosion is required. Most eaten the contaminated fish gave birth to
of the lead taken up by people and wildlife is infants who showed signs of mercury poi-
stored in bones. Lead can affect red blood cells soning. Mercury poisoning is thus called
by reducing their ability to carry oxygen and Minamata Disease.

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 other fish contaminated with mercury. Gener- as wildlife. Most of the dangerous substances
ally older the fish greater is the mercury con- in our homes are found in various kinds of clean-
centration in its body. Birds that eat the fish ers, solvents and products used in automotive
concentrate even more mercury in their bodies. care. When these products are used incorrectly
It is a cumulative poison ( it builds up in the body they have the potential to be harmful.
over long periods of time) and is known to cause
brain damage. Today the most common methods for dispos-
ing off hazardous wastes are land disposal and
Thousands of chemicals are used in industry incineration. In countries where there is abun-
everyday. When used incorrectly or inappropri- dant land available for disposal for example,
ately they can become health hazards. PCBs North America land disposal is the most widely
(Polychlorinated biphenyls) are resistant to fire used method. In countries like Europe and Ja-
and do not conduct electricity very well which pan where land is not readily available and is
makes them excellent materials for several in- expensive, incineration is the preferred method
dustrial purposes. Rainwater can wash PCBs out for disposal. In spite of strong laws however il-
of disposal areas in dumps and landfills thus legal dumping of these wastes continues. Haz-
contaminating water. PCBs do not break down ardous waste management must move beyond
very rapidly in the environment and thus retain burying and burning. Industries need to be en-
their toxic characteristics. They cause long term couraged to generate less hazardous waste in
exposure problems to both humans and wild- their manufacturing processes. Although toxic
life. PCBs are concentrated in the kidneys and wastes cannot be entirely eliminated, technolo-
liver and thus cause damage. They cause repro- gies are available for minimizing, recycling and
ductive failure in birds and mammals. treating wastes. An informed public can also
contribute in a big way towards this end. It is
Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is widely used essential for us to understand the ill effects of
in the manufacture of plastic. Usually people are chemical substances so that we can make in-
only exposed to high levels of vinyl chloride if formed decisions about its use. We might de-
they work with it or near it but exposure can cide that the benefits of the use of a toxic
also occur from vinyl chloride gas leaks. After a substance do not outweigh the risks and choose
long continuous exposure (one to three years) not to use it at all or we may decide that it is
in humans, vinyl chloride can cause deafness, acceptable to use a substance under certain
vision problems, circulation disorders and bone specific circumstances where it is adequately
deformities. Vinyl chloride can also cause birth controlled and exposure to toxic levels is pre-
defects. vented.

It is essential to substitute the use of PCBs and

vinyl chloride with chemicals that are less toxic. 5.4 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVEN-
Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reduc- TION OF POLLUTION
ing our use of plastics. Thus by reducing waste,
encouraging recycling and using products that There are a host of environmental problems
are well made and durable we can greatly re- caused by human actions on the environment.
duce our consumption of these chemicals thus If we are to respond to these problems we have
curtailing our exposure to these substances. to recognize that each of us is individually re-
sponsible for the quality of the environment we
We may not realize it but many household live in. Our personal actions can either worsen
chemicals can be quite toxic to humans as well or improve our environmental quality. Several

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 people may feel that environmental problems • Try to plant trees wherever you can and
can be solved with quick technological fixes. more importantly take care of them. They
While a majority of individuals would want a reduce air pollution.
cleaner environment, not many of them want
to make major changes in their lifestyle that • Reduce the use of wood and paper prod-
could contribute to a cleaner environment. De- ucts wherever possible. Manufacturing pa-
cisions and actions taken by individuals to a very per leads to pollution and loss of forests
large extent determine the quality of life for which releases oxygen and takes up carbon
everyone. This necessitates that individuals dioxide. Try to recycle paper products and
should not only be aware of various environ- use recycled paper wherever possible.
mental issues and the consequences of their
actions on the environment but should also • From the mail you receive reuse as many
make a firm resolve to develop environmentally envelopes that you can.
ethical lifestyles.
• Do not buy furniture, doors, window frames
With the help of solar energy, natural processes made from tropical hardwoods such as teak
developed over billions of years can indefinitely and mahogany. These are forest based.
renew the topsoil, water, air, forests, grasslands
and wildlife on which all forms of life depend, • Help in restoring a degraded area near your
but only as long as we do not use these poten- home or join in an afforestation program.
tially renewable resources faster than they are
replenished. Some of our wastes can be diluted, • Use pesticides in your home only when ab-
decomposed and recycled by natural processes solutely necessary and use them in as small
indefinitely as long as these processes are not amounts as necessary. Some insect species
overloaded. Natural processes also provide ser- help to keep a check on the populations of
vices of flood prevention, erosion control at no pest species.
costs at all. We must therefore learn to value
these resources and use them sustainably. • Advocate organic farming by asking your
grocery store to stock vegetables and fruits
Concepts that help individuals contribute to- grown by an organic method. This will au-
wards a better quality of our environment and tomatically help to reduce the use of pesti-
human life. cides.

• Develop respect or reverence for all forms • Reduce the use of fossil fuels by either walk-
of life. ing up a short distance using a car pool,
sharing a bike or using public transport. This
• Each individual must try to answer four ba- reduces air pollution.
sic questions:
Where do the things that I consume • Shut off the lights and fans when not
come from? needed.
What do I know about the place where
I live? • Don’t use aerosol spray products and com-
How am I connected to the earth and mercial room air fresheners. They damage
other living things? the ozone layer.
What is my purpose and responsibility
as a human being?

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 • Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil • Start individual or community composting
or other products containing harmful chemi- or vemicomposting plants in your neighbor-
cals down the drain or on the ground. hood and motivate people to join in.

• Buy consumer goods that last, keep them • Do not litter the roads and surroundings just
as long as possible and have them repaired because the sweeper from the Municipal
as far as possible instead of disposing them Corporation will clean it up. Take care to
off. Such products end up in landfills that put trash into dustbins or bring it back home
could pollute ground water. with you where it can be appropriately dis-
posed.
• Buy consumer goods ages in refillable glass
containers instead of cans or throwaway • You must realize that you cannot do every-
bottles. thing and have solutions for every problem
in the world. You can however concentrate
• Use rechargeable batteries. on issues that you feel strongly about and
can do something about. Focusing your
• Try to avoid asking for plastic carry bags energy on a particular issue will help you
when you buy groceries or vegetables or get better results.
any other items. Use your own cloth bag
instead. • You could join any of the several NGOs that
exist in our country or become volunteers.
• Use sponges and washable cloth napkins, Organize small local community meetings
dish towels and handkerchiefs instead of to discuss positive approaches of pollution
paper ones. prevention.

• Don’t use throwaway paper and plastic • Learn about the biodiversity of your own
plates and cups when reusable versions are area. Understand the natural and cultural
available. assets. This would help you to develop a
sense of pride in your city/town/village and
• Recycle all newspaper, glass, aluminum and will also help you understand the problems
other items accepted for recycling in your facing their survival.
area. You might have to take a little trouble
to locate such dealers. • You cannot improve your world by not vot-
ing. You have the option to make a choice
• Set up a compost bin in your garden or ter- rather than complain later on.
race and use it to produce manure for your
plants to reduce use of fertilizers. • It is important that you do not get discour-
aged at the first sign of trouble. Do not dwell
• Try to lobby and push for setting up gar- on the negative aspects. But take positive
bage separation and recycling programs in actions wherever you can to make the world
your localities. a better place to live in.

• Choose items that have the least packag- • When talking to elected officials always be
ing or no packaging. courteous and reasonable. You may dis-
agree with a particular position but be re-

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 spectful in doing so as you will gain little by submersible pumps in a bid to extract ground-
being hostile and brash. water through borewells. This policy aggravated
the fluoride problem.
• Take care to put into practice what you
preach. Remember environment protection Fluoride mainly enters the human body through
begins with YOU. drinking water where 96 to 99 percent of it
combines with the bones as it has an affinity for
calcium phosphate in the bones. Excess intake
5.5 POLLUTION CASE STUDIES of fluoride can lead to dental fluorosis, skeletal
fluorosis or non-skeletal fluorosis. Dental fluo-
A case study of groundwater pollution in rosis is characterized by discoloured, blackened,
India mottled or chalky white teeth. Skeletal fluorosis
leads to severe and permanent bone and joint
An example of groundwater pollution caused deformities. Non-skeletal fluorosis leads to
by excessive extraction is that fluoride contami- gastro-intestinal problems and neurological dis-
nation. Fluorisis is not a localized problem. It has orders. Fluoride can damage the foetus and
spread across 19 states and across a variety of adversely affect the IQ of children.
ecological regions ranging from the Thar desert,
the Gangetic plains and the Deccan plateau. Once fluoride is detected in water, the only so-
Each of these regions are distinct in terms of lution is to deflouridate it. Various technologies
rainfall, soil type, groundwater recharge regime, are available for this process. However the type
climatic conditions and hydrology. High fluoride of technology to be selected depends upon the
concentration in groundwater is a natural phe- fluoride levels in the water and the volume of
nomenon in several countries such as China, Sri water to be deflouridated. None of the Indian
Lanka, West Indies, Spain, Holland, Italy and technologies are however fool-proof.
Mexico. Experts claim that a fluoride belt Deflouridation plants and household water treat-
stretches across the Middle East across Pakistan ment kits are stop-gap solutions.
and India and then into Southeast Asia and the
South of China. According to a report of the
Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water mission, A case study of pesticide pollution in India
the bedrock of the Indian peninsula consists of
a number of fluoride bearing minerals. When One of the most terrifying effects of pesticide
the bedrock weathers the fluoride leaches into contamination of ground water came to light
water and the soil. Although the Indian penin- when pesticide residues were found in bottled
sular bedrock has always been the same, this water. Between July and December 2002, the
problem has only surfaced during the last three Pollution Monitoring Laboratory of the New
decades. This is related to the over extraction of Delhi based Center for Science and Environment
groundwater which has resulted in the tapping (CSE) analysed 17 brands of bottled water both
of aquifers with high fluoride concentrations. packaged drinking water and packaged natural
mineral water commonly sold in areas that fall
The beginnings of this phenomenon can be within the national capital region of Delhi. Pes-
traced back to the 1970s and the 1980s when ticide residues of organochlorine and organo-
there was massive state investment in rural phosphorus pesticides which are most
water development for irrigation as well as for commonly used in India were found in all the
drinking. Encouraged by state subsidies on die- samples. Among organochlorines, gamma-
sel and electricity, people invested in diesel and hexachlorocyclohexane (lindane) and DDT were

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 prevalent while among organophosphorus pes- The low concentration of pesticide residues in
ticides, Malathion and Chlorpyrifos were most bottled water do not cause acute or immediate
common. All these were present above permis- effect. However repeated exposure even to ex-
sible limits specified by the European Economic tremely miniscule amounts can result in chronic
Community, which is the norm, used all over effects like cancer, liver and kidney damage,
Europe. disorders of the nervous system, damage to the
immune system and birth defects.
One may wonder as to how these pesticide resi-
dues get into bottled water that is manufac- Similarly six months after CSE reported pesti-
tured by several big companies. This can be cide residues in bottled water it also found these
traced to several facts. There is no regulation pesticides in popular cold drink brands sold
that the bottled water industry must be located across the country. This is because the main in-
in ‘clean’ zones. Currently the manufacturing gredient in a cold drink or a carbonated non-
plants of most brands are situated in the dirtiest alcoholic beverage is water and there are no
industrial estates or in the midst of agricultural standards specified for water to be used in these
fields. Most companies use bore wells to pump beverages in India.
out water from the ground from depths vary-
ing from 24m to even 152 m below the ground. There were no standards for bottled water in
The raw water samples collected from the plants India till on September 29, 2000 the Union Min-
also reveled the presence of pesticide residues. istry of Health and Family Welfare issued a noti-
This clearly indicated that the source of pesti- fication (no759(E)) amending the Prevention of
cide residues in the polluted groundwater are Food Adulteration Rules, 1954. The BIS (Bureau
used to manufacture the bottled water. This is of Indian Standards) certification mark became
despite the fact that all bottled water plants use mandatory for bottled water from March 29,
a range of purification methods. Thus obviously 2001. However the parameters for pesticide
the fault lies in the treatment methods used. residues remained ambiguous. Following the
report published by CSE in Down to Earth, Vol
These plants use the membrane technology 11, no. 18, a series of Committees were estab-
where the water is filtered using membranes lished and eventually on 18th July 2003 amend-
with ultra-small pores to remove fine suspended ments were made in the Prevention of Food
solids and all bacteria and protozoa and even Adulteration Rules stating that pesticide residues
viruses. While nanofiltration can remove insec- considered individually should not exceed
ticides and herbicides it is expensive and thus [Link] and the total pesticide residues will
rarely used. Most industries also use an activated not be more than 0.0005 mg/lit that the analy-
charcoal adsorption process, which is effective sis shall be conducted by using internationally
in removing organic pesticides but not heavy established test methods meeting the residue
metals. To remove pesticides the plants use re- limits specified herein. This notification came into
verse osmosis and granular activated charcoal force from January 1, 2004.
methods. Thus even though manufacturers
claim to use these process the presence of pes-
ticide residues points to the fact that either A case study of river pollution in India
manufacturers do not use the treatment pro-
cess effectively or only treat a part of the raw Almost all the rivers in India are polluted. The
water. causes of pollution may also be more or less simi-
lar. This is a case study of the river Damodar as
reported in Down to Earth. The 563 km long

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 Damodar river originates near Chandwa village amounts of fine coal particles and oil thus pol-
in the Chhotanagpur hills in Bihar’s Palamau luting the river. The other major coal based pol-
district. It flows through one of the richest min- luters are the coke oven plants that heat coal to
eral belts in the world before draining into the temperatures as high as 1100oC in the absence
Hooghly, about 50 km south of Calcutta. In- of oxygen to prepare it for use in blast furnaces
dian industry depends heavily on this region as and foundries. The volatile components in the
60 percent of the coal consumed in our country coal are removed, leaving hot, non-volatile coke
comes from the Chhotanagpur belt. Coal based in the oven which is washed with huge quanti-
industries of all types dot the area because of ties of water. This water that contains oil and
locational advantages and the easy availability suspended particles is then discharged into the
of water and power. In addition various indus- river.
tries such as the steel, cement, fertilizer and
explosive plants are also located here. The river
Damodar is polluted with minerals, mine rejects Flyash from the thermal power plants
and toxic effluents. Both its water and its sand Only one of the thermal power plants has an
are infested by coal dust and waste from these electrostatic precipitator to collect the fly ash
industries. There are seven thermal power plants while the other just make do with mechanical
in the Damodar valley. The states of Bihar and dust collectors. As most of these plants are lo-
West Bengal depend almost entirely on this area cated on the banks of the river the fly ash even-
for their power requirements. These power tually finds its way into the river. The bottom
plants not only consume a lot of water but also ash from the boilers is mixed with water to form
dump ash in the valley. a slurry which is then drained into ash ponds.
Most of the ponds are full and in several cases
the drainage pipes are choked. The slurry is
Mining therefore directly discharged into the river.
As underground mines cannot keep pace with
the rising demand, 60 percent of the coal ex-
tracted from the area comes from open cast Effects
mines which are responsible for serious land The river and its tributaries are the largest source
degradation. The disposal of rock and soil ex- of drinking water for the huge population that
tracted along with the coal only adds to the lives in the valley. On April 2, 1990 about
problem. 200,000 litres of furnace oil spilled into the river
from the Bokaro Steel Plant. This oil traveled
150 km downstream to Durgapur. For a week
Industries after the incident five million people drank con-
The industries in the area do not have proper taminated water in which the oil levels were 40
effluent treatment plants. Among the big coal to 80 times higher than the permissible value of
based industries the washeries account for the 0.03 mg/l.
bulk of the pollution in terms of the total sus-
pended solids (TSS), oil and grease. About 20 The Damodar Action Plan an end-of-the pipe
percent of the coal handled goes out in the form pollution treatment scheme seeks to tackle ef-
of slurry which is deposited in the ponds out- fluents. One viable option could be to switch to
side. After the slurry settles, coalfine (the sedi- less polluting industries and cleaner technology.
ment) is collected manually. Due to inadequate This would need strong Government initiative
retrieval methods very often the water dis- and also a mass movement by people.
charges into the river from the pond carries high

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 5.6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS, this phenomenon occurs with so little warning
EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES that it is almost impossible to make prepara-
tions against damages and collapse of buildings.
The Indian subcontinent is very vulnerable to About 50 to 60 percent of India is vulnerable to
droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes, land- seismic activity of varying intensities. Most of
slides, avalanches and forest fires. Among the the vulnerable areas are located in the Hima-
36 states and Union territories in the country, layan and sub-Himalayan regions.
22 are prone to disasters.

Among all the disasters that occur in the coun- From management to mitigation of disas-
try, floods are the most frequently occurring ters
natural disasters, due to the irregularities of the
Indian monsoon. About 75 percent of the an- Till very recently the approach towards dealing
nual rainfall in India is concentrated in three to with natural disasters has been post disaster
four months of the monsoon season. As a re- management involving problems such as evacu-
sult there is a very heavy discharge from the ation, warnings, communications, search and
rivers during this period causing widespread rescue, fire-fighting, medical and psychiatric
floods. Approximately 40 million hectares of land assistance, provision of relief, shelter, etc. After
in the country has been identified as being prone the initial trauma and the occurrence of the
to floods. Major floods are mainly caused in the natural disaster is over and reconstruction and
Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin which car- rehabilitation is done by people, NGOs and the
ries 60 percent of the total river flow of our coun- Government, its memories are relegated to his-
try. tory.

India has a long coastline of 5700 kms, which is It is evident today that human activities are re-
exposed to tropical cyclones arising in the Bay sponsible for accelerating the frequency and
of Bengal and the Arabian sea. The Indian Ocean severity of natural disasters. Natural occurrences
is one of the six major cyclone prone regions of such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc. will
the world. In India, cyclones occur usually be- always occur. They are a part of the environ-
tween April and May and also between Octo- ment that we live in. However destruction from
ber and December. The eastern coastline is more natural hazards can be minimized by the pres-
prone to cyclones as it is hit by about 80 per- ence of a well functioning warning system com-
cent of the total cyclones generated in the re- bined with preparedness on part of the
gion. community that will be affected. Thus though
traditionally disaster management consisted pri-
Droughts are a perennial feature in some states marily of reactive mechanisms, the past few
of India. Sixteen percent of the country’s total years have witnessed a gradual shift towards a
area is drought prone. Drought is a significant more proactive, mitigation based approach.
environmental problem as it is caused by a lower
than average rainfall over a long period of time. Disaster management is a multidisciplinary area
Most of the drought prone areas identified by in which a wide range of issues that range from
the Government lie in the arid and semi-arid forecasting, warning, evacuation, search and
areas of the country. rescue, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation
are included. It is also multi-sectoral as it involves
Earthquakes are considered to be one of the administrators, scientists, planners, volunteers
most destructive natural hazards. The impact of and communities. These roles and activities span

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 the pre-disaster, during disaster and post disas- • Any mitigation program must also ensure
ter plans. Since their activities are complemen- effective partnership between Government,
tary as well as supplementary to each other there scientific, private sector, NGOs and the com-
is a critical need for coordinating these activi- munity.
ties.
The main elements of a mitigation strategy are
In order to transfer the benefits of scientific re- as follows:
search and development to the communities
links must be developed between scientific com-
munities and field agencies. Coordination be- Risk assessment and Vulnerability analysis
tween Government agencies and NGOs needs This involves identification of hot spot areas of
to be built up so that overlap of activities may prime concern, collection of information on past
be avoided and linkages between the Govern- natural hazards, information of the natural eco-
ment and communities are established. systems and information on the population and
infrastructure. Once this information is collected
Today we have a range of early warning sys- a risk assessment should be done to determine
tems for a range of natural hazards. Although the frequency, intensity, impact and the time
they are more accurate than before and can help taken to return to normalcy after the disaster.
in prediction it is not enough to ensure commu- The assessment of risk and vulnerabilities will
nities are safe from disasters. This is where di- need to be revised periodically. A regular mecha-
saster mitigation can play an important role. nism will therefore have to be established for
Mitigation means lessening the negative impact this. The use of Geographical Information Sys-
of the natural hazards. It is defined as sustained tems (GIS) a computer program can be a valu-
action taken to reduce long term vulnerability able tool in this process as the primary data can
of human life and property to natural hazards. be easily updated and the corresponding assess-
While the preparatory, response and the recov- ments can be made.
ery phases of emergency management relate
to specific events, mitigation activities have the
potential to produce repetitive benefits over Applied research and technology transfer
time. There is a need to establish or upgrade obser-
vation equipment and networks, monitor the
Certain guidelines if followed can result in an hazards properly, improve the quality of fore-
effective mitigation program. casting and warning, disseminate information
quickly through the warning systems and un-
• Pre-disaster mitigation can help in ensuring dertake disaster simulation exercises.
faster recovery from the impacts of disas-
ters. Thus space technologies such as remote sens-
ing, satellite communications and Global Posi-
• Mitigation measures must ensure protec- tioning Systems have a very important role to
tion of the natural and cultural assets of the play. Government organizations like ISRO (In-
community. dian Space Research Organization) can play a
vital role. Similarly Government organizations
• Hazard reduction methods must take into the National Building Research Organization, the
account the various hazards faced by the Meteorological Department, Irrigation Depart-
affected community and their desires and ment, etc. can undertake applied research for
priorities. devising locale specific mitigation strategies in

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 collaboration with educational institutions or Incentives and resources for mitigation
Universities. To a very large extent the success of mitigation
programs will depend upon the availability of
Such steps could lead to the formulation of lo- continued funding. There is thus a need to de-
cale specific mitigation measures. A combina- velop mechanisms to provide stable sources of
tion of scientific knowledge and expertise with funding for all mitigation programs. This will
the community based mitigation measures include incentives for relocation of commercial
would not only enhance the database but would and residential activities outside the disaster
also form the basis of a successful mitigation prone areas. Housing finance companies should
strategy. make it mandatory for structures in such haz-
ard prone areas to follow special building speci-
fications. The introduction of disaster linked
Public awareness and training insurance should be explored and should cover
One of the most critical components of a miti- not only life but also household goods, cattle,
gation strategy is the training to be imparted to structures and crops.
the officials and staff of the various departments
involved at the state and the district level. This
enables sharing of information and methodol- Landuse planning and regulations
ogy. The success of a mitigation strategy will Long term disaster reduction efforts should aim
depend to a large extent on the inter-sectional, at promoting appropriate land-use in the disas-
inter-departmental coordination and efficient ter prone areas. Separation of industrial areas
teamwork. Thus a training program that is de- from residential areas, maintaining wetlands as
signed after assessment of gaps in knowledge, buffer zones for floods, creation of public aware-
skills and attitude with respect to the various ness of proper land practices and formation of
tasks that need to be undertaken is a vital com- land-use policies for long term sustainable de-
ponent. velopment is imperative.

Institutional mechanisms Hazard resistant design and construction

The most important need at the National level In areas that are prone to disasters protection
is to strengthen or develop the capacity to un- can be enhanced by careful selection of sites
dertake disaster mitigation strategies. There is and the way the buildings are built. Thus it is
a need to emphasize on proactive and pre-di- essential to promote the knowledge of disaster
saster measures rather than post disaster re- resistant construction techniques and practices
sponse. It is thus essential to have a permanent among engineers, architects and technical per-
administrative structure which can monitor the sonnel.
developmental activities across departments and
provides suggestions for necessary mitigation
measures. The National Disaster Management Structural and Constructional reinforcement of
Center (NDMC) can perform such a task. Pro- existing buildings
fessionals like architects, structural engineers, It is also possible to reduce the vulnerability of
doctors, chemical engineers who are involved existing buildings through minor adaptations or
with management of hazardous chemicals can alterations thereby ensuring their safety. This can
be asked to form groups that can design spe- be done by insertion of walls on the outside of
cific mitigation measures. the building, buttresses, walls in the interior of
the building, portico fill-in-walls, specially an-

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 chored frames, covering of columns and beams,
construction of new frame system, placing resi- • Prevention of over-bank spilling by the con-
dential electrical equipment above flood level, struction of embankments and floodwalls.
designing water storage tanks to be able to with-
stand cyclonic winds, earthquakes and floods, • Improvement of flow conditions in the chan-
etc. nel and anti-erosion measures.

• Improved drainage.
Floods and mitigation measures

The lower plain regions of India in particular The non-structural measures include:
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal in respect
of the Ganga and Assam in respect of the • Flood plain management such as Flood Plain
Brahmaputra suffer from the adverse effects of Zoning and Flood Proofing including Disas-
floods every year. The Ganga Brahmaputra ba- ter Preparedness
sin receives maximum run off within the three
monsoon months. Based on hydrological stud- • Maintaining wetlands
ies carried out, it is estimated that only 18 per-
cent of the rainwater can be stored in dams, • Flood forecasting and warning services
reservoirs, etc. while 82 percent of the rainwa-
ter flows through rivers ultimately into the sea. • Disaster relief, flood fighting and public
Floods are therefore a recurring phenomenon health measures
in our country.
• Flood insurance
Floods can be caused by natural, ecological or
anthropogenic factors either individually or as a
combined result. Anthropogenic activities such Earthquakes and mitigation measures
as deforestation and shifting cultivation can also
contribute to floods. Forests on the hill slopes It has been several years since the earthquake
normally exert a sponge effect soaking up the struck Gujarat on January 26, 2001. In these
abundant rainfall and storing it before releas- years rehabilitation has been done on a massive
ing it in small amounts over a period of time. scale. Gujarat’s experience has taught that build-
However when the forests are cleared the riv- ing shelters with less vulnerability to earthquakes
ers turn muddy and swollen during the wet should also take into consideration the specific
monsoon season and run dry later on in the year needs of the victims instead of being a top down
during the drier periods. An increasing propor- approach. The role of NGOs in this is very im-
tion of the rainfall is therefore released shortly portant. Their strength lies in their manpower,
after precipitation in the form of floods. informality in operations and valuable human
resources. Their ability to reach out to the com-
The mitigation measures for floods include both munity and sensitivity to local traditions is an
structural and non-structural measures. The asset in such situations. A report on the various
structural measures include: initiatives in Gujarat reported in Down to Earth
(Vol 12, No. 2) by Mihir Bhatt throws light on
• Reservoirs for impounding monsoon flows the various developments that have taken place
to be released in a regulated manner after after the earthquake. According to the report
the peak flood flow passes. the initiatives of the International Fund for

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 Agriculture Development in supporting the Self are very strong winds, torrential rains and high
Employed Women’s Association and the storm tides. Most of the causalities are caused
Government’s initiative in community based live- by coastal inundation by storm tides. This is of-
lihood security for earthquakes and drought vic- ten followed by heavy rainfall and floods. Storm
tims have the potential to shape future disaster surges cause the greatest destruction.
response and development projects in Gujarat.
Similarly the Gujarat Woman’s Economic Devel- Although one cannot control cyclones, the ef-
opment Corporation initiative in reviving fects of cyclones can be mitigated through ef-
women’s businesses after the calamity also pro- fective and efficient mitigation policies and
vides many practical lessons in regenerating lo- strategies. A brief description of the same is
cal economies and artisan markets. This project given below.
supported by the Asian Development Bank, puts
premium on investments in income generation Installation of early warning systems: Such sys-
and asset building after a natural disaster. The tems fitted along the coastlines can greatly as-
farming kits provided to affected farmers by sist forecasting techniques thus helping in early
Gujarat’s agriculture ministry is also showing evacuation of people in the storm surge areas.
promising results after two seasons. The author
however states that coordination between Gov- Developing communication infrastructure: Com-
ernment, local NGOs and local community ini- munication plays a vital role in cyclone disaster
tiatives both for rescue as well as rehabilitation mitigation and yet this is one of the first ser-
needs to be strengthened as this can cause de- vices that gets disrupted during cyclones. Ama-
lays, overlaps and waste of relief material and teur Radio has today emerged as a second line
efforts. unconventional communications systems and is
an important tool for disaster mitigation.

Cyclones and mitigation measures Developing shelter belts: Shelter belts with plan-
tations of trees can act as effective wind and
Tropical cyclones are the worst natural hazards tide breakers. Apart from acting as effective
in the tropics. They are large revolving vortices windbreakers and protecting soil crops from
in the atmosphere extending horizontally from being damaged they prevent soil erosion.
150 to1000 km and vertically from the surface
to 12 to 14 km. These are intense low-pressure Developing community cyclone shelters: Cyclone
areas. Strong winds spiraling anti clockwise in shelters at strategic locations can help minimiz-
the Northern Hemisphere blow around the cy- ing the loss of human life. In the normal course
clone center at the lower level. At the higher these shelters can be used as public utility build-
levels the sense of rotation is just opposite to ings.
that at the lower level. They generally move 300
to 5000 km per day over the ocean. While mov- Construction of permanent houses: There is a
ing over the ocean they pick up energy from need to build appropriately designed concrete
the warm water of the ocean and some of them houses that can withstand high winds and tidal
grow into a devastating intensity. On an aver- waves.
age about 5 to 6 tropical cyclones form in the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea every year Training and education: Public awareness pro-
out of which 2 to 3 may be severe. More cy- grams that inform the population about their
clones form in the Bay of Bengal than in the response to cyclone warnings and preparedness
Arabian Sea. The main dangers from cyclones can go a long way in reducing causalities.

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 Landuse control and settlement planning: No
residential and industrial units should be ideally
permitted in the coastal belt of 5 km from the
sea as it is the most vulnerable belt. No further
growth of settlements in this region should al-
lowed. Major settlements and other important
establishments should be located beyond 10 km
from the sea.

Landslides and mitigation measures

Landslides are recurring phenomena in the Hi-

malayan region. In the recent years however
intensive construction activity and the destabi-
lizing forces of nature have aggravated the prob-
lem. Landslides occur as a result of changes on
a slope, sudden or gradual, either in its compo-
sition, structure, hydrology or vegetation. The
changes can be due to geology, climate, weath-
ering, land-use and earthquakes.

A significant reduction in the hazards caused

by landslides can be achieved by preventing the
exposure of population and facilities to landslides
and by physically controlling the landslides. De-
velopmental programs that involve modification
of the topography, exploitation of natural re-
sources and change in the balance load on the
ground should not be permitted. Some critical
measures that could be undertaken to prevent
further landslides are drainage measures, ero-
sion control measures such a bamboo check
dams, terracing, jute and coir netting and rock-
fall control measures such as grass plantation,
vegetated dry masonry wall, retaining wall and
most importantly preventing deforestation and
improving afforestation.

Disasters cannot be totally prevented. However

early warning systems, careful planning and pre-
paredness on part of the vulnerable community
would help in minimizing the loss of life and
property due to these disasters.

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 UNIT 3:
Ecosystems

3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM 54

3.1.1 Understanding ecosystems 55
3.1.2 Ecosystem degradation 55
3.1.3 Resource utilisation 56

3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM 56

3.3 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS 57

3.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM 58

3.4.1 The water cycle 58
3.4.2 The Carbon cycle 59
3.4.3 The Oxygen cycle 60
3.4.4 The Nitrogen cycle 60
3.4.5 The energy cycle 61
3.4.6 Integration of cycles in nature 62

3.5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION 62

3.6 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS 62

3.6.1 The food chains 62
3.6.2 The food webs 63
3.6.3 The ecological pyramids 63

3.7 INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 63

3.7.1 Forest ecosystem 65
3.7.2 Grassland ecosystem 70
3.7.3 Desert ecosystem 74
3.7.4 Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, oceans) 75

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 3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM the Western and Eastern Ghats, the semi-arid
desert in the West, the Deccan Plateau, the
An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and Coastal Belts, and the Andaman and Nicobar
recognizable landscape form such as forest, Islands. These geographically distinctive areas
grassland, desert, wetland or coastal area. The have plants and animals that have been adapted
nature of the ecosystem is based on its geo- to live in each of these regions.
graphical features such as hills, mountains,
plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands. It is At an even more local level, each area has sev-
also controlled by climatic conditions such as the eral structurally and functionally identifiable eco-
amount of sunlight, the temperature and the systems such as different types of forests, grass-
rainfall in the region. The geographical, climatic lands, river catchments, mangrove swamps in
and soil characteristics form its non-living (abi- deltas, seashores, islands, etc. to give only a few
otic) component. These features create condi- examples. Here too each of these forms a habi-
tions that support a community of plants and tat for specific plants and animals.
animals that evolution has produced to live in
these specific conditions. The living part of the Ecosystems have been formed on land and in
ecosystem is referred to as its biotic component. the sea by evolution that has created species to
live together in a specific region. Thus ecosys-
Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land- tems have both non-living and living compo-
based ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems in nents that are typical to an area giving it its own
water. These form the two major habitat condi- special characteristics that are easily observed.
tions for the Earth’s living organisms.
Definition: The living community of plants and
All the living organisms in an area live in com- animals in any area together with the non-liv-
munities of plants and animals. They interact ing components of the environment such as soil,
with their non-living environment, and with each air and water, constitute the ecosystem.
other at different points in time for a large num-
ber of reasons. Life can exist only in a small pro- Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less
portion of the earth’s land, water and its atmo- affected by a certain level of human disturbance.
sphere. At a global level the thin skin of the earth Others are highly fragile and are quickly de-
on the land, the sea and the air, forms the bio- stroyed by human activities. Mountain ecosys-
sphere. tems are extremely fragile as degradation of
forest cover leads to severe erosion of soil and
At a sub-global level, this is divided into bio- changes in river courses. Island ecosystems are
geographical realms, eg. Eurasia called the easily affected by any form of human activity
palaeartic realm; South and South-East Asia (of which can lead to the rapid extinction of sev-
which India forms a major part) is the Oriental eral of their unique species of plants and ani-
realm; North America is the Nearctic realm; mals. Evergreen forests and coral reefs are also
South America forms the Neotropical realm; examples of species rich fragile ecosystems
Africa the Ethiopian realm; and Australia the which must be protected against a variety of
Australian realm. human activities that lead to their degradation.
River and wetland ecosystems can be seriously
At a national or state level, this forms biogeo- affected by pollution and changes in surround-
graphic regions. There are several distinctive ing landuse.
geographical regions in India- the Himalayas, the
Gangetic Plains, the Highlands of Central India,

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 3.1.1 Understanding ecosystems • ‘How does the ecosystem work’?
The ecosystem functions through several
Natural ecosystems include the forests, grass- biogeochemical cycles and energy transfer
lands, deserts, and aquatic ecosystems such as mechanisms. Observe and document the
ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea. Man modified components of the ecosystem which con-
ecosystems include agricultural land and urban sists of its non-living or abiotic features such
or industrial land use patterns. as air, water, climate and soil. Its biotic com-
ponents, the various plants and animals.
Each ecosystem has a set of common features Both these aspects of the ecosystem inter-
that can be observed in the field: act with each other through several func-
tional aspects to form Nature’s ecosystems.
• ‘What does the ecosystem look like?’ Plants, herbivores and carnivores can be
One should be able to describe specific fea- seen to form food chains. All these chains
tures of the different ecosystems in ones are joined together to form a ‘web of life’
own surroundings. Field observations must on which man depends. Each of these use
be made in both urban and natural sur- energy that comes from the sun and pow-
roundings. ers the ecosystem.

• What is its structure?

Is it a forest, a grassland, a water body, an 3.1.2 Ecosystem degradation
agricultural area, a grazing area, an urban
area, an industrial area, etc.? Ecosystems are the basis of life itself! The natu-
ral ecosystems in the wilderness provide a vari-
What you should see are its different char- ety of products and are regions in which a num-
acteristics. A forest has layers from the ber of vital ecological processes are present,
ground to the canopy. A pond has differ- without which human civilization would not be
ent types of vegetation from the periphery able to exist.
to its center. The vegetation on a mountain
changes from its base to its summit. Ecosystems are however frequently disrupted by
human actions which lead to the extinction of
• What is the composition of its plant and species of plants and animals that can live only
animal species? in the different natural ecosystems. Some spe-
List the well-known plants and animals you cies if eliminated seriously affect the ecosystem.
can see. Document their abundance and These are called ‘keystone’ species. Extinction
numbers in nature: very common, common, occurs due to changes in land use. Forests are
uncommon, rare. Wild mammals will not deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to
be seen in large numbers, cattle would be create more agricultural land and semi arid
common. Some birds are common – which grasslands that are used as pastures are changed
are the most common species? Insect spe- into irrigated fields. Pollution from industry and
cies are very common and most abundant. waste from urban settings can also lead to ex-
In fact there are so many that they cannot tinction of several species.
be easily counted.
The reason for the depletion of natural resources
is twofold – our rapidly exploding population
that needs to sustain itself on resources, and
the growth of affluent societies, which consume

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 and waste a very large proportion of resources The key to this issue is the need for an ‘equi-
and energy. Increasing extraction of resources table’ distribution of all types of natural re-
is at the cost of natural ecosystems, leading to a sources. A more even sharing of resources within
derangement of their important functions. Each the community can reduce these pressures on
of us in our daily lives use a variety of resources. the natural ecosystems.
If tracked back to their source, one finds that
the resources were originally obtained from
nature and natural ecosystems. Our insensitiv- 3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN
ity to using resources carefully has produced ECOSYSTEM
societies that nature can no longer sustain. If
one thinks before wasting resources such as wa- Structural aspects
ter, reusing and recycling paper, using less plas-
tics that are non-degradable, culminatively this Components that make up the structural as-
can have positive implications on the integrity pects of an ecosystem include:
of our natural resource base and conserve the
resources that nature provides. 1) Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O.

Ecosystems and man: Every region of our earth 2) Organic compounds – Protein, Carbo-
has different ecosystems based on its climatic hydrates, Lipids – link abiotic to biotic
conditions and geographical feature. There are aspects.
terrestrial ecosystems on land and aquatic eco-
systems in water. 3) Climatic regimes – Temperature, Mois-
ture, Light & Topography.

3.1.3 Resource utilisation 4) Producers – Plants.

Most traditional societies used their environment 5) Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Large
sustainably. Though inequality in resource utili- animals.
zation has existed in every society, the number
of individuals that used a large proportion of 6) Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorb-
resources was extremely limited. In recent times ers – fungi.
the proportion of ‘rich’ people in affluent soci-
eties, grew rapidly. Inequality thus became a se-
rious problem. Whereas in the past many re- Functional aspects
sources such as timber and fuel wood from the
forest were extracted sustainably, this pattern 1) Energy cycles.
has drastically changed during the last century.
The economically better off sections began to 2) Food chains.
use greater amounts of forest products, while
those people who lived in the forest became 3) Diversity-interlinkages between organ-
increasingly poor. Similarly the building of large isms.
irrigation projects led to wealth in those areas
that had canals, while those who hand to re- 4) Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles.
main dependent on a constant supply of water
from the river itself, found it difficult to survive. 5) Evolution.

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 Since each ecosystem has a non-living and a liv- producers
Plants are the ‘producers
producers’ in the ecosystem as
ing part that are linked to each other, one needs they manufacture their food by using energy
to look around us and observe this closely. This from the sun. In the forest these form commu-
is an important aspect that is a vital part of our nities of plant life. In the sea these include tiny
lives. algal forms to large seaweed.

The non-living components of an ecosystem are The herbivorous animals are primary consum-
the amount of water, the various inorganic sub- ers as they live on the producers. In a forest,
stances and organic compounds, and climatic these are the insects, amphibia, reptiles, birds
conditions such as rainfall and temperature, and mammals. The herbivorous animals include
which depend on geographical conditions and for example hare, deer and elephants that live
location which is also related to the amount of on plant life. They graze on grass or feed on the
sunlight. The living organisms in an ecosystem foliage from trees. In grasslands, there are her-
are inseparable from their habitat. bivores such as the blackbuck that feed on grass.
In the semiarid areas, there are species such as
The living component of plant life ranges from the chinkara or Indian gazelle. In the sea, there
extremely small bacteria, which live in air, wa-
ter and soil, algae which live in fresh and salt Herbivores
water, to the terrestrial plants which range from
grasses and herbs that grow after the monsoon
every year, to the giant long-lived trees of the
forest. The plants convert energy from sunlight
into organic matter for their growth. They thus
function as producers in the ecosystem. The liv-
ing component of the animal world ranges from
microscopic animals, to small insects and the
larger animals such as fish, amphibia, reptiles,
birds and mammals. Man is just one of the 1.8
Nectarivores
million species of plants and animals that inhabit
the earth. Frugivores

3.3 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOM-

Gramnivores
POSERS

Every living organism is in some way dependent are small fish that live on algae and other plants.
on other organisms. Plants
are food for herbivorous ani- Grass At a higher tropic level, there are carnivorous
mals which are in turn food animals, or secondary
animals
for carnivorous animals. consumers, which live
Thus there are different on herbivorous ani-
tropic levels in the ecosys- mals. In our forests,
tem. Some organisms such the carnivorous ani-
as fungi live only on dead mals are tigers, leop-
material and inorganic mat- ards, jackals, foxes
ter. and small wild cats. In Carnivores

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 the sea, carnivorous fish live on other fish and is not widely distributed, it becomes extinct for
marine animals. Animals that live in the sea all time.
range in size from microscopic forms to giant
mammals such as the whale.
3.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Decomposers or detrivores are a group of or-
ganisms consisting of small animals like worms, Every ecosystem has several interrelated mecha-
insects, bacteria and fungi, which break down nisms that affect human life. These are the wa-
dead organic material into smaller particles and ter cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle,
finally into simpler substances that are used by the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle. While
plants as nutrition. Decomposition thus is a vital every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in
function in nature, as without this, all the nutri- each ecosystem its abiotic and biotic features
ents would be tied up in dead matter and no are distinct from each other.
new life could be produced.
All the functions of the ecosystem are in some
Most ecosystems are highly complex and con- way related to the growth and regeneration of
sist of an extremely large number of individuals its plant and animal species. These linked pro-
cesses can be depicted as the vari-
Detrivores ous cycles. These processes de-
pend on energy from sunlight.
During photosynthesis carbon di-
oxide is taken up by plants and
oxygen is released. Animals de-
pend on this oxygen for their res-
piration. The water cycle depends
on the rainfall, which is necessary
for plants and animals to live. The
energy cycle recycles nutrients
into the soil on which plant life
grows. Our own lives are closely
linked to the proper functioning
of these cycles of life. If human
activities go on altering them, humanity cannot
survive on our earth.
of a wide variety of species. In the species-rich
tropical ecosystems (such as in our country), only
a few species are very common, while most spe- 3.4.1 The Water Cycle
cies have relatively few individuals. Some spe-
cies of plants and animals are extremely rare When it rains, the water runs along the ground
and may occur only at a few locations. These and flows into rivers or falls directly into the sea.
are said to be ‘endemic’ to these areas. A part of the rainwater that falls on land perco-
lates into the ground. This is stored underground
When human activities alter the balance in these throughout the rest of the year. Water is drawn
ecosystems, the “perturbation” leads to the up from the ground by plants along with the
disappearance of these uncommon species. nutrients from the soil. The water is transpired
When this happens to an endemic species that from the leaves as water vapour and returned

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 3.4.2 The Carbon cycle
Water Cycle
The carbon, which occurs in
organic compounds, is in-
cluded in both the abiotic and
biotic parts of the ecosystem.
Carbon is a building block of
both plant and animal tissues.
In the atmosphere, carbon
occurs as carbon dioxide
(CO2). In the presence of sun-
light, plants take up carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere
through their leaves. The
plants combine carbon diox-
ide with water, which is ab-
sorbed by their roots from the
soil. In the presence of sun-
light they are able to form car-
bohydrates that contain car-
bon. This process is known as
photosynthesis. Plants use this
complex mechanism for their
growth and development. In
this process, plants release
to the atmosphere. As it is lighter than air, wa- oxygen into the atmosphere on which animals
ter vapour rises and forms clouds. Winds blow depend for their respiration. Plants therefore
the clouds for long distances and when the help in regulating and monitoring the percent-
clouds rise higher, the vapour condenses and age of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide in the earth’s
changes into droplets, which fall on the land as atmosphere. All of mankind thus depends on
rain. Though this is an end-
less cycle on which life de-
pends, man’s activities are
making drastic changes in
the atmosphere through
pollution which is altering
rainfall patterns. This is
leading to prolonged
drought periods extending
over years in countries
such as Africa, while caus-
ing floods in countries such
as the US. El Nino storms
due to these effects have
devastated many places in
the last few years. Carbon Cycle

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 the oxygen generated through this cycle. It also 3.4.4 The Nitrogen Cycle
keeps the CO2 at acceptable levels.
Carnivorous animals feed on herbivorous ani-
Herbivorous animals feed on plant material, mals that live on plants. When animals defecate,
which is used by them for energy and for their this waste material is broken down by worms
growth. Both plants and animals release carbon and insects mostly beetles and ants. These small
dioxide during respiration. They also return fixed ‘soil animals’ break the waste material into
carbon to the soil in the waste they excrete. smaller bits on which microscopic bacteria and
When plants and animals die they return their fungi can act. This material is thus broken down
carbon to the soil. These processes complete the further into nutrients that plants can absorb and
carbon cycle. use for their growth. Thus nutrients are recycled
back from animals to plants. Similarly the bod-
ies of dead animals are also broken down into
nutrients that are used by the
Oxygen Cycle > plants for their growth. Thus
the nitrogen cycle on which
life is dependent is com-
pleted.
>

Nitrogen fixing bacteria and

fungi in soil gives this impor-
tant element to plants, which
absorb it as nitrates. The ni-
trates are a part of the plant’s
>

metabolism, which help in

forming new plant proteins.
This is used by animals that
feed on the plants. The nitro-
gen is then transferred to car-
nivorous animals when they
feed on the herbivores. Thus our own lives are
3.4.3 The Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is taken up by plants and ani-

>
mals from the air during respiration.
The plants return oxygen to the at-
mosphere during photosynthesis. This
links the Oxygen Cycle to the Carbon
Cycle. Deforestation is likely to gradu-
ally reduce the oxygen levels in our
>

atmosphere. Thus plant life plays an

>

important role in our lives which we

frequently do not appreciate. This is
an important reason to participate in >
afforestation programs. > Nitrogen
Cycle

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 closely interlinked to soil animals, fungi and even Since plants can grow by converting the sun’s
bacteria in the soil. When we think of food webs, energy directly into their tissues, they are known
we usually think of the large mammals and other as producers in the ecosystem. The plants are
large forms of life. But we need to understand used by herbivorous animals as food, which
that it is the unseen small animals, plants and gives them energy. A large part of this energy is
microscopic forms of life that are of great value used up for day to day functions of these ani-
for the functioning of the ecosystem. mals such as breathing, digesting food, support-
ing growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow
and body temperature. Energy is also used for
3.4.5 The Energy Cycle activities such as looking for food, finding shel-
ter, breeding and bringing up young ones. The
The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy carnivores in turn depend on herbivorous ani-
through the ecosystem. Energy from sunlight is mals on which they feed. Thus the different plant
converted by plants themselves into growing and animal species are linked to one another
new plant material which includes leaves, flow- through food chains
chains. Each food chain has three
ers, fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants. or four links. However as each plant or animal
can be linked to several other plants or
animals through many different link-
ages, these inter-linked chains can be
depicted as a complex food web web. This
is thus called the ‘web of life’ that shows
that there are thousands of interrelation-
ships in nature.

The energy in the ecosystem can be de-

picted in the form of a food pyramid or
energy pyramid
pyramid. The food pyramid has
produc-
a large base of plants called ‘produc-
ers
ers’. The pyramid has a narrower middle
section that depicts the number and bio-
mass of herbivorous animals
animals, which are
first order consumers
called ‘first consumers’. The apex
depicts the small biomass of carnivorous
animals called ‘second
second order consum-
ers
ers’. Man is one of the animals at the
apex of the pyramid. Thus to support
mankind, there must be a large base of
herbivorous animals and an even greater
quantity of plant material.

When plants and animals die, this ma-

terial is returned to the soil after being
broken down into simpler substances by
decomposers such as insects, worms,
bacteria and fungi so that plants can
Energy Cycle absorb the nutrients through their roots.

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 Animals excrete waste products after digesting related to the way in which energy flows
food, which goes back to the soil. This links the through the biological system. The most fre-
energy cycle to the Nitrogen cycle. quent example of successional changes occur
in a pond ecosystem where it fluctuates from a
dry terrestrial habitat to the early colonisation
3.4.6 Integration of cycles in Nature stage by small aquatic species after the mon-
soon, which gradually passes through to a ma-
These cycles are a part of global life processes. ture aquatic ecosystem, and then reverts back
These biogeochcemical cycles have specific fea- to its dry stage in summer where its aquatic life
tures in each of the ecosystems. These cycles remains dormant.
are however linked to those of adjacent ecosys-
tems. Their characteristics are specific to the
plant and animal communities in the region. This 3.6 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECO-
is related to the geographical features of the LOGICAL PYRAMIDS
area, the climate and the chemical composition
of the soil. Together the cycles are responsible The transfer of energy from the source in plants
for maintaining life on earth. If mankind disturbs through a series of organisms by eating and
these cycles beyond the limits that nature can being eaten constitutes food chains. At each
sustain, they will eventually break down and lead transfer, a large proportion of energy is lost in
to a degraded earth on which man will not be the form of heat. These food chains are not iso-
able to survive. lated sequences, but are interconnected with
each other. This interlocking pattern is known
as the food web. Each step of the food web is
3.5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION called a trophic level. Hence green plants oc-
cupy the first level, herbivores the second level,
Ecological succession is a process through which carnivores the third level and secondary carni-
ecosystems tend to change over a period of time. vores the fourth level. These trophic levels to-
Succession can be related to seasonal environ- gether form the ecological pyramid.
mental changes, which create changes in the
community of plants and animals living in the
ecosystem. Other successional events may take 3.6.1 The food chains
much longer periods of time extending to sev-
eral decades. If a forest is cleared, it is initially The most obvious aspect of nature is that en-
colonized by a certain group of species of plants ergy must pass from one living organism to an-
and animals, which gradually change through other. When herbivorous animals feed on plants,
an orderly process of community development. energy is transferred from plants to animals. In
One can predict that an opened up area will an ecosystem, some of the animals feed on other
gradually be converted into a grassland, a living organisms, while some feed on dead or-
shrubland and finally a woodland and a forest if ganic matter. The latter form the ‘detritus’ food
permitted to do so without human interference. chain. At each linkage in the chain, a major part
There is a tendency for succession to produce a of the energy from the food is lost for daily ac-
more or less stable state at the end of the suc- tivities. Each chain usually has only four to five
cessional stages. Developmental stages in the such links. However a single species may be
ecosystem thus consist of a pioneer stage, a linked to a large number of species.
series of changes known as serel stages, and
finally a climax stage. The successive stages are

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 3.6.2 The food webs Aquatic
Food Pyramid
In an ecosystem there are a very large number
of interlinked chains. This forms a food web. If
the linkages in the chains that make up the web
of life are disrupted due to human activities that
lead to the loss or extinction of species, the web
breaks down.

3.6.3 The ecological pyramids

In an ecosystem, green plants – the producers,

utilize energy directly from sunlight and convert
it into matter. A large number of these organ-
isms form the most basic, or first ‘trophic level’
of the food pyramid. The herbivorous animals
that eat plants are at the second trophic level

Terrestrial and are called primary consumers. The preda-

Food Pyramid tors that feed on them form the third trophic
level and are known as secondary consumers.
Only a few animals form the third trophic level
consisting of carnivores at the apex of the food
pyramid. This is how energy is used by living
creatures and flows through the ecosystem from
its base to the apex. Much of the energy is used
up in activities of each living organism.

3.7 INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERIS-

TIC FEATURES, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Types of Ecosystems

Terrestrial Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems

Forest Pond
Grassland Lake
Semi arid areas Wetland
Deserts River
Mountains Delta
Islands Marine

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 For each of these ecosystems we need to un- • Existence value - ethical and emotional
derstand 4 basic issues: aspects of the existence of wildlife and
nature.
1. What is the nature of the ecosystem? What
is its structure and its functions? Terrestrial ecosystems in their natural state are
found in different types of forests, grasslands,
2. Who uses the ecosystem and for what pur- semiarid areas, deserts and sea coasts. Where
pose? the land is intensively used, these have been
gradually modified over several thousand years
3. How are these ecosystems degraded? into agricultural and pastoral regions. In the re-
cent past they have been rapidly converted into
4. What can be done to protect it from deterio- intensively irrigated agricultural ecosystems or
rating in the long-term? How can the ecosys- into urban and industrial centers. Though this
tem be conserved? has increased production of food and pro-
vides the raw material for ‘consumer’ goods
that we use, the overuse and misuse of land
Ecosystem goods and services and natural ecosystems has led to a serious
degradation of our environment. The unsus-
Direct Values: tainable use of environmental goods such as soil,
These are resources that people depend upon water, fuelwood, timber from forest, grasses
directly and are easy to quantify in economic and herbs from grasslands for grazing and re-
terms. peatedly burning the grass, degrades these natu-
ral ecosystems. Similarly, improper use of re-
• Consumptive Use Value - Non-market sources can destroy the services that the natu-
value of fruit, fodder, firewood, etc. ral ecosystems provide. These processes of na-
that are used by people who collect ture such as photosynthesis, climate control, pre-
them from their surrounds.] vention of soil erosion are disturbed by many
human activities. When our human population
• Productive Use Value - Commercial was small, most ecosystems could supply all our
value of timber, fish, medicinal plants, sustainably’.
needs. Resources were thus used ‘sustainably’.
etc. that people collect for sale. As industrial ‘development’ led to a very great
increase in consumption of resources, the short
Indirect Values: term economic gains for people became an in-
These are uses that do not have easy ways to dicator of progress, rather than long term eco-
quantify them in terms of a clearly definable unsus-
logical benefits. This has resulted in an ‘unsus-
price. tainable use’ of natural resources. Forests thus
disappear, rivers run dry, deserts begin to spread,
• Non-consumptive use value - scientific and air, water and soil become increasingly pol-
research, bird-watching, ecotourism, luted as by-products of development. Human
etc. well being itself is then seriously affected.

• Option value - maintaining options for

the future, so that by preserving them
one could reap economic benefits in the
future.

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 3.7.1 Forest ecosystem The biotic component includes both the large
(macrophytes) and the microscopic plants and
Forests are formed by a community of plants animals.
which is predominantly structurally defined by
its trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover. Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers,
Natural vegetation looks vastly different from a grasses, and herbs in the forest. These include
group of planted trees, which are in orderly species that flower (angiosperms), and non-flow-
rows. The most ‘natural’ undisturbed forests are ering species (gymnosperms) such as ferns, bryo-
located mainly in our National Parks and Wild- phytes, fungi and algae.
life Sanctuaries. The landscapes that make up
various types of forests look very different from The animals include species of mammals, birds,
each other. Their distinctive appearance is a fas- reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and other in-
cinating aspect of nature. Each forest type forms vertebrates and a variety of microscopic animals.
a habitat for a specific community of animals
that are adapted to live in it. As the plant and animal species are closely de-
pendent on each other, together they form dif-
ferent types of forest communities. Man is a part
What is a forest ecosystem? of these forest ecosystems and the local people
The forest ecosystem has two parts: depend directly on the forest for several natural
resources that act as their life support systems.
• The non-living or abiotic aspects of the People who do not live in the forest buy forest
forest: The type of forest depends upon the products such as wood and paper, which has
abiotic conditions at the site. Forests on been extracted from the forest. Thus they use
mountains and hills differ from those along forest produce indirectly from the market.
river valleys. Vegetation is specific to the
amount of rainfall and the local tempera- Forest types in India: The forest type depends
ture which varies according to latitude and upon the abiotic factors such as climate and soil
altitude. Forests also vary in their plant com- characteristics of a region. Forests in India can
munities in response to the type of soil. be broadly divided into Coniferous forests and
Broadleaved forests.
• The living or the biotic aspects of the for-
est: The plants and animals form commu- They can also be classified according to the na-
nities that are specific to each forest type. ture of their tree species – evergreen, decidu-
For instance coniferous trees occur in the ous, xerophytic or thorn trees, mangroves, etc.
Himalayas. Mangrove trees occur in river They can also be classified according to the most
deltas. Thorn trees grow in arid areas. The abundant species of trees such as Sal or Teak
snow leopard lives in the Himalayas while forests. In many cases a forest is named after
the leopard and tiger live in the forests of the first three or four most abundant tree spe-
the rest of India. Wild sheep and goats live cies.
high up in the Himalayas. Many of the birds
of the Himalayan forests are different from Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan moun-
the rest of India. Evergreen forests of the tain region, where the temperatures are low.
Western Ghats and North East India are These forests have tall stately trees with needle-
most rich in plant and animal species. like leaves and downward sloping branches so
that the snow can slip off the branches. They

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 eral months. Some even get two
monsoons, such as in Southern In-
dia. Evergreen plants shed a few of
their leaves throughout the year.
There is no dry leafless phase as in a
deciduous forest. An evergreen for-
est thus looks green throughout the
year. The trees overlap with each
Coniferous forest other to form a continuous canopy.
Thus very little light penetrates down
to the forest floor. Only a few shade
loving plants can grow in the ground
layer in areas where some light fil-
ters down from the closed canopy.
The forest is rich in orchids and ferns.
The barks of the trees are covered
in moss. The forest abounds in ani-
mal life and is most rich in insect life.

Evergreen forest

Broadleaved forest

have cones instead of seeds and are

called gymnosperms.

Broadleaved forests have several types,

such as evergreen forests, deciduous
forests, thorn forests, and mangrove
forests. Broadleaved forests have large
leaves of various shapes.

Evergreen forests grow in the high rain-

fall areas of the Western Ghats, North
Eastern India and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in
areas where the monsoon lasts for sev-

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 Deciduous forest Thorn forest

called xerophytic species and are

able to conserve water. Some of
these trees have small leaves,
while other species have thick,
waxy leaves to reduce water
losses during transpiration. Thorn
forest trees have long or fibrous
roots to reach water at great
depths. Many of these plants
have thorns, which reduce wa-
ter loss and protect them from
herbivores.

Mangrove forests grow along the

coast especially in the river del-
tas. These plants are able to grow

Deciduous forests are found in regions

with a moderate amount of seasonal
rainfall that lasts for only a few months.
Most of the forests in which Teak trees
grow are of this type. The deciduous
trees shed their leaves during the win-
Mangrove
ter and hot summer months. In March
or April they regain their fresh leaves just
before the monsoon, when they grow
vigorously in response to the rains. Thus
there are periods of leaf fall and canopy
regrowth. The forest frequently has a
thick undergrowth as light can penetrate
easily onto the forest floor.

Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid

regions of India. The trees, which are
sparsely distributed, are surrounded by
open grassy areas. Thorny plants are

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 Forest communities:

Forest type Plants Examples Common Animal Examples Rare Animal Examples

Himalayan Coniferous Pine, deodar Wild goats and sheep, Snow leopard, Hangul,
Himalayan black bear. Himalayan brown bear,
Musk deer, Himalayan
Himalayan Broadleaved Maple, oak Wolf.

Evergreen North-east, Jamun, Ficus, Tiger, Leopard, Sambar, Malabar Pigmy Hog, Rhino,
Western Ghats, Dipterocarpus whistling thrush, Malabar Pied Liontailed macaque
Andaman & Nicobar hornbill, tree frogs.
Deciduous – Dry Teak, Ain,
Terminalia Tiger, Chital, Barking deer,
Babblers, Flycatchers, Hornbills.
Moist Sal
Thorn and scrub, Babul, Ber, Neem Blackbuck, Chinkara, Fourhorned Wolf, Bustard, Florican,
Semiarid forests antelope, Partridge, Monitor Bustards,
lizard.
Mangrove Delta Avicenia Crocodile, shorebirds – sandpipers, Water monitor lizard.
Forests plovers, fish, crustacea.

in a mix of saline and fresh water. They grow During the monsoon, the forest retains mois-
luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt that ture and slowly releases it through perennial
the rivers have brought down. The mangrove streams during the rest of the year. Plantations
trees have breathing roots that emerge from fail to perform this function adequately. The loss
the mudbanks. of forest cover in the catchments of a river thus
leads to irreversible changes such as excessive
soil erosion, large run-off of surface water dur-
Forest utilisation: Natural forests provide local ing monsoons leading to flash floods, and a
people with a variety of products if the forest is shortage of water once the monsoons are over.
used carefully. Over-exploitation for fuel wood
or timber, and conversion to monoculture plan- Forest products that are collected by people
tations for timber or other products, impover- include food such as fruit, roots, herbs and me-
ishes local people as the economic benefit goes dicinal plants. People depend on fuelwood to
to people who live elsewhere. The entire re- cook food, collect fodder for domestic animals,
source base on which local people have tradi- cut building material for housing, collect
tionally survived for generations, is rapidly de- medicinal plants that have been known for
stroyed. Eventually the forest is completely de- generations for several ailments and use a vari-
graded. ety of non timer forest products such as fiber,
cane, gum, to make household articles. Wood
Natural forest ecosystems play an important role from different species of trees have special uses.
in controlling local climate and water regimes. For instance a soft wood is used for the yok of a
It is well-known that under the canopy of a natu- bullock cart while a very hard wood is used for
ral forest, it is cooler than outside the forest. its axil. These forest products are of great eco-

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 are more resistant to diseases. New industrial
products are being produced from the wild
Forest Products
plants of the forest. Many of our new medi-
cines come from wild plants.

Direct uses of forest products

Fruits – mango, jamun, awla
Roots – Dioscoria
Medicine – Gloriosa, Foxglove
Fuelwood – many species of trees and shrubs
Small timber for building huts and houses
Wood for farm implements
nomic value as they are collected, sold and mar-
keted. Forest dwellers and agricultural people Bamboo and cane for baskets
use these goods directly. Other people get them
indirectly from the market. Traditional types of Grass for grazing and stall feeding livestock
agriculture needs forest material such as
branches and leaves, which are burnt to form
wood ash which acts as a fertiliser for crops such Indirect uses of forest products
as rice. Building material for construction and furni-
ture for the urban sector
Urban people use these forest resources indi-
rectly as all their food and other goods come Medicinal products collected and processed
from agricultural areas that are dependent on into drugs
the neighbouring forests.
Gums and resins processed into a variety of
products
Forest services include the control of the flow
of water in streams and rivers. Forest cover re- Raw material for industrial products and
duces surface runoff of rainwater and allows chemicals
ground water to be stored. Forests prevent ero-
Paper from bamboo and softwoods
sion of soil. Once soil is lost by erosion, it can
take thousands of years to reform. Forests regu-
late local temperature. It is cooler and more
What are the threats to the forest ecosys-
moist under the shade of the trees in the forest.
tem?
Most importantly, forests absorb carbon diox-
As forests grow very slowly, we cannot use more
ide and release oxygen that we breathe.
resources than they can produce during a grow-
ing season. If timber is felled beyond a certain
The wild relatives of our crop plants and fruit
limit the forest cannot regenerate. The gaps in
trees have special characteristics in their genes
the forest change the habitat quality for its ani-
which are used to develop new crops and newer
mals. The more sensitive species cannot survive
varieties of fruit. These newer varieties devel-
under these changed conditions. Overutilizing
oped from wild relatives give greater yields or

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 forest resources is an unsustainable way of mis- linate agricultural crops and fruit trees. This leads
using our limited forest resources. We are now to a decrease in agricultural yields.
creating more and more goods that are manu-
factured from raw material from the forest. This The rain that falls on deforested land flows di-
leads to forest degradation and finally changes rectly into nearby rivers. Thus water is not re-
the ecosystem into wasteland. Wood is illegally tained under the ground. People thus do not
extracted from many forests leading to a highly get a sufficient quantity of water throughout
disturbed ecosystem. the year. The exposed soil is rapidly washed away
during the rains once the protective forest cover
Developmental activities such as rapid popula- is removed. Thus agriculture is seriously affected
tion growth together with, urbanisation, in such areas. In deforested areas, the water in
industrialisation and the increasing use of con- streams is brown in colour as soil is washed away
sumer goods, leads to over utilisation of forest while water in forested streams is crystal clear.
produce. Forests are shrinking as our need for
agricultural land increases. It is estimated that Wild animals lose their habitat. This leads to
India’s forest cover has decreased from about extinction of our precious species. Residual for-
33% to 11% in the last century. The increasing ests must be protected from being destroyed
use of wood for timber, wood pulp for paper any further if all the diverse species of plants
and the extensive use of fuelwood results in and animals are to be kept for future genera-
continual forest loss. Forests are also lost by tions.
mining and building dams. As the forest re-
sources are exploited beyond what they can pro-
duce the forest canopy is opened up, the eco- How can forest ecosystems be conserved?
system is degraded, and its wildlife is seriously We can conserve forests only if we use its re-
threatened. As the forest is fragmented into sources carefully. This can be done by using al-
small patches its wild plant and animal species ternate sources of energy instead of fuelwood.
become extinct. These can never be brought There is a need to grow more trees than are cut
back. Extinction is forever. down from forests every year for timber. Affor-
estation needs to be done continuously from
which fuelwood and timber can be judiciously
What if the forests disappear? used.
When forests are cut down tribal people who
depend directly on them for food and fuelwood The natural forests with all their diverse species
and other products find it very difficult to sur- must be protected as National Parks and Wild-
vive. Agricultural people do not get enough life Sanctuaries where all the plants and animals
fuelwood, small timber, etc. for making houses can be preserved.
and farm implements. Urban people who de-
pend on food from agricultural areas, which in
turn depend on neighbouring forest ecosystems 3.7.2 Grassland ecosystems
have to pay a higher price for food as human
population grows. A wide range of landscapes in which the veg-
etation is mainly formed by grasses and small
Insects that live and breed in the forest such as annual plants are adapted to India’s various cli-
bees, butterflies and moths decrease in abun- matic conditions. These form a variety of grass-
dance once forests are degraded. As their num- land ecosystems with their specific plants and
bers decrease they are unable to effectively pol- animals.

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 What is a grassland ecosystem? Himalayan Pastures
Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually
low and/or the soil depth and quality is poor.
The low rainfall prevents the growth of a large
number of trees and shrubs, but is sufficient to
support the growth of grass cover during the
monsoon. Many of the grasses and other small
herbs become dry and the part above the
ground dies during the summer months. In the
next monsoon the grass cover grows back from
the root stock and the seeds of the previous
year. This change gives grasslands a highly sea-
sonal appearance with periods of increased
growth followed by a dormant phase. into the high altitude grasslands in summer and
move down into the forest in winter when the
A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species snow covers the grassland. These Himalayan
of insects, birds and mammals have evolved so pastures have a large variety of grasses and
that they are adapted to these wide-open grass herbs. Himalayan hill slopes are covered with
covered areas. These animals are able to live in thousands of colourful flowering plants. There
conditions where food is plentiful after the rains, are also a large number of medicinal plants.
so that they can store this as fat that they use
during the dry period when there is very little to The Terai consists of patches of tall grasslands
eat. Man began to use these grasslands as pas- interspersed with a Sal forest ecosystem. The
tures to feed his livestock when he began to patches of tall elephant grass, which grows to a
domesticate animals and became a pastoralist height of about five meters, are located in the
in ancient times. low-lying waterlogged areas. The Sal forest
patches cover the elevated regions and the Hi-
Grassland Types in India: Grasslands form a malayan foothills. The Terai also includes
variety of ecosystems that are located in differ- marshes in low-lying depressions. This ecosys-
ent climatic conditions ranging from near desert tem extends as a belt south of the Himalayan
conditions, to patches of shola grasslands that foothills.
occur on hillslopes alongside the extremely moist
evergreen forests in South India. In the Hima-
layan mountains there are the high cold Hima-
layan pastures. There are tracts of tall elephant
grass in the low-lying Terai belt south of the
Himalayan foothills. There are semi-arid grass-
lands in Western India, parts of Central India,
and in the Deccan Plateau.

The Himalayan pasture belt extends upto the

snowline. The grasslands at a lower level form
patches along with coniferous or broadleaved
forests. Himalayan wildlife require both the for-
est and the grassland ecosystem as important
parts of their habitat. The animals migrate up Terai grassland

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 Semiarid grassland patches of forest that occur along the streams
and in depressions. The grasslands are related
to repeated fires that do not permit the forest
to grow.

The grasses are the major producers of biomass

in these regions. Each grassland ecosystem has
a wide variety of species of grasses and herbs.
Some grass and herb species are more sensitive
to excessive grazing and are suppressed if the
area is over grazed. Others are destroyed by re-
peated fires and cannot regenerate. Thus over-
used or frequently burnt grasslands are de-
graded and are poor in plant species diversity.
The Semi-arid plains of Western India, Cen-
tral India and the Deccan are covered by grass-
land tracts with patches of thorn forest. Several How are grasslands used?
mammals such as the wolf, the blackbuck, the Grasslands are the grazing areas of many rural
chinkara, and birds such as the bustards and communities. Farmers who keep cattle or goats,
floricans are adapted to these arid conditions. as well as shepherds who keep sheep, are highly
The Scrublands of the Deccan Plateau are cov- dependent on grasslands. Domestic animals are
ered with seasonal grasses and herbs on which grazed in the ‘common’ land of the village. Fod-
its fauna is dependent. It is teaming with insect der is collected and stored to feed cattle when
life on which the insectivorous birds feed. there is no grass left for them to graze in sum-
mer. Grass is also used to thatch houses and
Shola grassland farm sheds. The thorny bushes and branches of
the few trees that are seen in grasslands are
used as a major source of fuelwood.

Overgrazing by huge herds of domestic livestock

has degraded many grasslands. Grasslands have
diverse species of insects that pollinate crops.
There are also predators of these insects such
as the small mammals like shrews, reptiles like
lizards, birds of prey, and amphibia such as frogs
The Shola grasslands consist of patches on and toads. All these carnivorous animals help to
hillslopes along with the Shola forests on the control insect pests in adjoining agricultural
Western Ghats, Nilgiri and Annamalai ranges. lands.
This forms a patchwork of grassland on the
slopes and forest habitats along the streams and
lowlying areas. What are the threats to grassland ecosys-
tems?
Grasslands are not restricted only to low rainfall In many areas grasslands have been used for
areas. Certain grassland types form when clear- centuries by pastoral communities.
ings are made in different forest types. Some Overutilization and changes in landuse of the
are located on the higher steep hill slopes with

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 ‘common grazing lands’ of rural communities shoots which the domestic animals graze on. If
has lead to their degradation. The grassland this is done too frequently the grasslands begin
cover in the country in terms of permanent pas- to deteriorate. Finally grasslands become bare,
tures now covers only 3.7 percent of land. A the soil is solidly compacted by trampling, or is
major threat to natural grasslands is the con- washed away during the monsoon by rain and
version of grasslands into irrigated farmlands. whipped into dust storms during the hot dry
In the Deccan, grasslands have been altered to summer. The land is degraded, as there is no
irrigated farms and are now mainly used to grow grass to hold the soil in place. It becomes a
sugarcane. After continuous irrigation such land wasteland.
becomes saline and useless in a few years. More
recently many of these residual grassland tracts
have been converted into industrial areas. This Why are our grassland species vanishing?
provides short-term economic gains but result Most people feel that it is only our forests and
in long-term economic and ecological losses. its wildlife that is disappearing. However, other
natural ecosystems such as grasslands are dis-
Grasslands have a limited ability to support do- appearing even more rapidly.
mestic animals and wildlife. Increasing this pres-
sure by increasing the number of domestic ani- Many of the grassland species have disappeared
mals reduces the ‘naturalness’ of the grassland from several parts of India in which they were
ecosystem leading to its degradation. found 50 or 60 years ago. The Cheetah is ex-
tinct in India. The Wolf is now highly threatened.
Most grassland ecosystems are highly modified Blackbuck and chinkara are poached for meat.
by human activities. Cattle, sheep and goat graz- Birds such as the beautiful Great Indian Bustards
ing, and lighting repeated fires affects grasslands are vanishing. Unless grassland species are pro-
adversely. Changing the grasslands to other tected they will vanish from their shrinking habi-
forms of landuse such as agriculture, tree plan- tat, as natural and undisturbed grasslands are
tations and industrialisation forms a serious left in very few locations. If these animals and
threat to this highly productive ecosystem. Thus birds are killed or their habitat is reduced fur-
some of the grassland patches which are in a ther, their extinction will rapidly follow.
less disturbed state and have retained their spe-
cial plants and animals need to be urgently pro-
tected. What if our grasslands disappear?
If our grasslands are lost we will lose a highly
Degradation of grasslands due to over grazing specialised ecosystem in which plants and ani-
by cattle, sheep and goats occurs if more than mals have been adapted to these habitat condi-
a critical number of domestic animals are present tions over millions of years. Local people will not
in the grasslands. When animals overgraze the be able to support their livestock herds.
area, the grasses are converted into flat stubs
with very little green matter. Degraded grass- The extinction of species is a great loss to Man-
lands have fewer grass species as the nutritious kind. The genes of wild grasses are extremely
species are entirely used up by the large num- useful for developing new crop varieties. New
ber of domestic animals. They are thus unable medicines could well be discovered from wild
to regenerate. grassland plants. It is possible that genes from
wild herbivores such as wild sheep, goats and
When fires are lit in the grasslands in summer, antelopes may be used for developing new
the burnt grass gets a fresh flush of small green strains of domestic animals.

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 How can grassland ecosystems be conserved? • Keeping grasslands alive is a National prior-
Grasslands should not be overgrazed and areas ity.
of the grasslands should be closed for grazing.
It is better to collect grass for stall feeding cattle.
A part of the grassland in an area must be closed 3.7.3 Desert ecosystem
every year so that a rotational grazing pattern is
established. Fires must be prevented and rap- Desert and semi arid lands are highly specialised
idly controlled. In hilly areas soil and water man- and sensitive ecosystems that are easily de-
agement in each micro-catchment helps grass- stroyed by human activities. The species of these
lands to return to a natural highly productive dry areas can live only in this specialised habi-
ecosystem. tat.

To protect the most natural undisturbed grass-

land ecosystems, Sanctuaries and National Parks What is a desert or a semi-arid ecosystem?
must be created. Their management should fo- Deserts and semi arid areas are located in West-
cus on preserving all their unique species of ern India and the Deccan Plateau. The climate
plants and animals. Thus they should not be in these vast tracts is extremely dry. There are
converted into plantations of trees. The open also cold deserts such as in Ladakh, which are
grassland is the habitat of its specialised fauna. located in the high plateaus of the Himalayas.
Planting trees in these areas reduces the natu- The most typical desert landscape that is seen
ral features of this ecosystem resulting in the in Rajasthan is in the Thar Desert. This has sand
destruction of this unique habitat for wildlife. dunes. There are also areas covered with sparse
grasses and a few shrubs, which grow if it rains.
In most areas of the Thar the rainfall is scanty
What should we do? and sporadic. In an area it may rain only once
• There is a need to preserve the few natural every few years. In the adjoining semi arid tract
grassland areas that still survive by creating the vegetation consists of a few shrubs and
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in thorny trees such as kher and babul.
all the different types of grasslands.
The Great and Little Rann of Kutch are highly
• Animals such as the wolf, blackbuck, specialised arid ecosystems. In the summers they
chinkara and birds such as bustards and are similar to a desert landscape. However as
floricans have now become rare all over the
country. They must be carefully protected
in the few National Parks and Wildlife Sanc-
tuaries that have natural grassland habitats
as well as outside these Protected Areas.

• We need to create an awareness among

people that grasslands are of great value. If
we are all concerned about our disappear-
ing grasslands and their wonderful wildlife,
the Government will be motivated to pro-
tect them.

Desert and Semi arid eco systems

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 these are low-lying areas near the sea, they get wells lowers the water table creating an even
converted to salt marshes during the monsoons. drier environment. Thus human activities destroy
During this period they attract an enormous the naturalness of this unique ecosystem. The
number of aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, special species that evolved here over millions
cranes, storks, etc. The Great Rann is famous, of years may soon become extinct.
as it is the only known breeding colony of the
Greater and Lesser Flamingos in our country.
The Little Rann of Kutch is the only home of the How can desert ecosystems be conserved?
wild ass in India. Desert ecosystems are extremely sensitive. Their
ecological balance that forms a habitat for their
Desert and semi arid regions have a number of plants and animals is easily disturbed. Desert
highly specialized insects and reptiles. The rare people have traditionally protected their mea-
animals include the Indian wolf, desert cat, gre water resources. The Bishnois in Rajasthan
desert fox and birds such as the Great Indian are known to have protected their Khejdi trees
Bustard and the Florican. Some of the com- and the blackbuck antelope for several genera-
moner birds include partridges, quails and tions. The tradition began when the ruler of their
sandgrouse. region ordered his army to cut down trees for
his own use. Several Bishnois were said to have
been killed while trying to protect their trees.
How are desert and semi-arid ecosystems
used? There is an urgent need to protect residual
Areas of scanty vegetation with semi-arid scru- patches of this ecosystem within National Parks
bland have been used for camel, cattle and goat and Wildlife Sanctuaries in desert and semi arid
grazing in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and for sheep areas. The Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan is
grazing in the Deccan Plateau. destroying this important natural arid ecosys-
tem, as it will convert the region into intensive
Areas that have a little moisture, such as along agriculture. In Kutch, areas of the little Rann,
the watercourses, have been used for growing which is the only home of the Wild Ass, will be
crops such as jowar, and bajra. The natural destroyed by the spread of salt works.
grasses and local varieties of crops have adapted
to growing at very low moisture levels. These Development Projects alter the desert and arid
can be used for genetic engineering and devel- landscape. There is a sharp reduction in the habi-
oping arid land crops for the future. tat available for its specialised species bringing
them to the verge of extinction. We need a sus-
tainable form of development that takes the
What are the threats to desert ecosystems? special needs of the desert into account.
Several types of development strategies as well
as human population growth have begun to
affect the natural ecosystem of the desert and 3.7.4 Aquatic ecosystems
semi arid land. Conversion of these lands
through extensive irrigation systems has The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine
changed several of the natural characteristics environments of the seas and the fresh water
of this region. The canal water evaporates rap- systems in lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands.
idly bringing the salts to the surface. The region These ecosystems provide human beings with a
becomes highly unproductive as it becomes sa- wealth of natural resources. They provide goods
line. Pulling excessive groudwater from tube that people collect for food such as fish and

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 Aquatic ecosystems
marine salt water. There is very little fresh wa-
ter on earth, which is a key resource for people
all over the world.

What is an aquatic ecosystem?

In aquatic ecosystems, plants and animals live
in water. These species are adapted to live in
different types of aquatic habitats. The special
abiotic features are its physical aspects such as
the quality of the water, which includes its clar-
crustaceans. Natural aquatic systems such as riv- ity, salinity, oxygen content and rate of flow.
ers and seas break down chemical and organic Aquatic ecosystems may be classified as being
wastes created by man. However, this function stagnant ecosystems, or running water eco-
has limitations, as the aquatic ecosystem can- systems. The mud gravel or rocks that form the
not handle great quantities of waste. Beyond a bed of the aquatic ecosystem alter its charac-
certain limit, pollution destroys this natural func- teristics and influence its plant and animal spe-
tion. cies composition. The aquatic ecosystems are
classified into freshwater
freshwater, brackish and marine
If aquatic ecosystems are misused or over uti- ecosystems, which are based on the salinity lev-
lized, their ability to provide resources suffers in els.
the long term. Over-fishing leads to a fall in the
fish catch. River courses that are changed by The fresh water ecosystems that have running
dams to provide electricity affect thousands of water are streams and rivers. Ponds, tanks and
people who do not get a continuous supply of lakes are ecosystems where water does not flow.
water downstream for their daily use. When Wetlands are special ecosystems in which the
wetlands are drained, their connected rivers tend water level fluctuates dramatically in different
to cause floods. These are all examples of un- seasons. They have expanses of shallow water
sustainable changes in the use of natural re- with aquatic vegetation, which forms an ideal
sources and nature’s ecosystems that are de- habitat for fish, crustacea and water birds.
pendent on hydrological regimes.
Marine ecosystems are highly saline, while brack-
Water is an important factor in all our ecosys- ish areas have less saline water such as in river
tems. Several ecosystems exist in freshwater and deltas. Coral reefs are very rich in species and

Types of Aquatic ecosystems

Fresh water ecosystems Marine ecosystems

Flowing water Still water Brackish water Saline water

Streams Rivers Ponds, Deltas Coastal Deep ocean

wetlands, shallows,
lakes Coral reefs

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 are found in only a few shallow tropical seas. water consists of floating weeds and rooted veg-
The richest coral reefs in India are around the etation on the periphery which grow on the
Andaman and Nicobar islands and in the gulf of muddy floor under water and emerge out of
Kutch. the surface of the water.

Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are As the pond fills in the monsoon a large num-
covered by mangrove forests and are among ber of food chains are formed. Algae is eaten
the world’s most productive ecosystems in terms by microscopic animals, which are in turn eaten
of biomass production. The largest mangrove by small fish on which larger carnivorous fish
swamps are in the Sunderbans in the delta of depend. These are in turn eaten by birds such
the Ganges. as kingfishers, herons and birds of prey. Aquatic
insects, worms and snails feed on the waste
material excreted by animals and the dead or
The Pond ecosystem decaying plant and animal matter. They act on
the detritus, which is broken down into nutri-
The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem to ents which aquatic plants can absorb, thus com-
observe. pleting the nutrient cycle in the pond. The tem-
porary ponds begin to dry after the rains and
There are differences in a pond that is tempo- the surrounding grasses and terrestrial plants
rary and has water only in the monsoon, and a spread into the moist mud that is exposed. Ani-
larger tank or lake that is an aquatic ecosystem mals such as frogs, snails and worms remain dor-
throughout the year. Most ponds become dry mant in the mud, awaiting the next monsoon.
after the rains are over and are covered by ter-
restrial plants for the rest of the year.
Lake ecosystem
When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its
life forms such as the algae and microscopic A lake ecosystem functions like a giant perma-
animals, aquatic insects, snails, and worms come nent pond. A large amount of its plant material
out of the floor of the pond where they have is the algae, which derives energy from the sun.
remained dormant in the dry phase. Gradually This is transferred to the microscopic animals,
more complex animals such as crabs frogs and which feed on the algae. There are fish that are
fish return to the pond. The vegetation in the herbivorous and are dependent on algae and
aquatic weeds. The small animals such as
snails are used as food by small carnivo-
rous fish, which in turn are eaten by larger
Pond carnivorous fish. Some specialised fish,
such as catfish, feed on the detritus on the
muddy bed of the lake.

Energy cycles through the lake ecosystem

from the sunlight that penetrates the wa-
ter surface to the plants. From plants en-
ergy is transferred to herbivorous animals
and carnivores. Animals excrete waste
products, which settle on the bottom of
the lake. This is broken down by small ani-

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 mals that live in the mud in the floor of the lake. in this ecosystem vary from microscopic algae
This acts as the nutrient material that is used by to large seaweeds. There are millions of zoop-
aquatic plants for their growth. During this pro- lankton and a large variety of invertebrates on
cess plants use Carbon from CO2 for their which live fish, turtles and marine mammals.
growth and in the process release Oxygen. This
Oxygen is then used by aquatic animals, which The shallow areas near Kutch and around the
filter water through their respiratory system. Andaman and Nicobar Islands are some of the
most incredible coral reefs in the world. Coral
reefs are only second to tropical evergreen for-
Stream and River ecosystems ests in their richness of species. Fish, crustacea,
starfish, jellyfish and the polyps that deposit the
Streams and rivers are flowing water ecosystems coral are a few of the thousands of species that
in which all the living forms are specially adapted form this incredible world under the shallow sea.
to different rates of flow. Some plants and ani-
mals such as snails and other burrowing ani- Deforestation of adjacent mangroves leads to
mals can withstand the rapid flow of the hill silt being carried out to sea where it is depos-
streams. Other species of plants and animals ited on the coral which then dies. There are
such as water beetles and skaters can live only many different types of coastal ecosystems
in slower moving water. Some species of fish, which are highly dependent on the tide.
such as Mahseer, go upstream from rivers to
hill streams for breeding. They need crystal clear The marine ecosystem is used by coastal
water to be able to breed. They lay eggs only in fisherfolk for fishing which forms their livelihood.
clear water so that their young can grow suc- In the past, fishing was done at a sustainable
cessfully. level. The marine ecosystem continued to main-
tain its abundant supply of fish over many gen-
As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in erations. Now with intensive fishing by using
the streams that once flowed throughout the giant nets and mechanised boats, fish catch in
year become seasonal. This leads to flash floods the Indian Ocean has dropped significantly.
in the rains and a shortage of water once the
streams dry up after the monsoon.
Seashore ecosystems
The community of flora and fauna of streams
and rivers depends on the clarity, flow and oxy- Beaches can be sandy, rocky, shell covered or
gen content as well as the nature of their beds. muddy. On each of these different types, there
The stream or river can have a sandy, rocky or are several specific species which have evolved
muddy bed, each type having its own species of to occupy a separate niche. There are different
plants and animals. crustacea such as crabs that make holes in the
sand.

Marine ecosystems Various shore birds feed on their prey by prob-

ing into the sand or mud on the sea shore.
The Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal constitute the marine ecosystems Several different species of fish are caught by
around peninsular India. In the coastal area the fishermen. In many areas the fish catch has de-
sea is shallow while further away, it is deep. Both creased during the last decade or two.
these are different ecosystems. The producers

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 How are aquatic ecosystems used? What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?
Man uses aquatic ecosystems for the clean fresh- Water pollution occurs from sewage and poorly
water on which his life is completely dependent. managed solid waste in urban areas when it
We need clean water to drink and for other enters the aquatic ecosystem of lakes and riv-
domestic uses. Water is essential for agriculture. ers. Sewage leads to a process called eutrophi-
Fisherfolk use the aquatic ecosystems to earn a cation, which destroys life in the water as the
livelihood. People catch fish and crabs. They also oxygen content is severely reduced. Fish and
collect edible plants. This is used locally as food crustacea cannot breathe and are killed. A foul
or for sale in the market. Over fishing leads to a odour is produced. Gradually the natural flora
serious decline in the catch and a long-term loss and fauna of the aquatic ecosystem is destroyed.
of income for fisherfolk.
In rural areas the excessive use of fertilisers
Marshes and wetlands are of great economic causes an increase in nutrients, which leads to
importance for people who live on their fish, eutrophication. Pesticides used in adjacent fields
crustacea, reeds, grasses and other produce. pollute water and kills off its aquatic animals.
Chemical pollution from industry kills a large
Modern man impounds water in dams to be able number of life forms in adjacent aquatic eco-
to store it throughout the year. Agriculture and systems. Contamination by heavy metals and
industry are highly dependent on large quanti- other toxic chemicals affects the health of people
ties of water. However this leads to problems who live near these areas as they depend on
for tribal people who have lived there before this water.
the dams were built as they are displaced to
build large dams. These dams make rich people
richer in the farmland and supports people in CASE STUDY
large urban centres that use enormous quanti-
ties of water. The poor tribal folk become even Threats to wetlands in Assam
poorer as the natural resources they depend on
are taken away as their lands are submerged Almost 40% of all wetlands in Assam are
under the water of the dam. under threat. A survey conducted by the
Assam Remote Sensing Application Center
Dams are built across rivers to generate elec- (ARSAC), Guwahati, and the Space Research
tricity. A large proportion of this energy is used Center, Ahemadabad, has revealed that
by urban people, by agriculturists in irrigated 1367 out of 3513 wetlands in Assam are
farmlands and in enormous quantities for indus- under severe threat due to invasion of
try. Large dams have serious ill effects on natu- aquatic weeds and several developmental
ral river ecosystems. While water from dams activities. The wetlands of Assam form the
used for irrigation has lead to economic pros- greatest potential source of income for the
perity in some areas, in semiarid areas that are State in terms of fisheries and tourism.
artificially irrigated the high level of evaporation Though the wetlands of Assam have the ca-
leads to severe salinisation as salts are brought pacity of producing 5,000 tones of fish per
up into the surface layers of the soil. This makes hectare per year, around 20,000 tones of
such lands gradually more and more saline and fish have to be imported to meet local de-
unproductive. mands. This is primarily due to poor wetland
management.

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 How can aquatic ecosystems be conserved?
For sustainable use of an aquatic ecosystem,
water pollution must be prevented. It does not
make sense to allow water to be polluted and
then try to clean it up.

Changing the nature of the aquatic ecosystem

from a flowing water ecosystem to a static eco-
system destroys its natural biological diversity.
Thus dams across rivers decrease the popula-
tion of species that require running water, while
favouring those that need standing water.

Aquatic ecosystems, especially wetlands, need

protection by including them in Sanctuaries or
National Parks in the same way in which we
protect natural forests. These sanctuaries in
aquatic ecosystems protect a variety of forms
of life as well as rare fish which are now highly
endangered such as the Mahseer. Wetland
Sanctuaries and National Parks are of greatest
importance as this is one of the most threat-
ened of our ecosystems. As the proportion of
the earth’s surface that is naturally covered by
wetlands is very small compared to forests or
grasslands, the wetland ecosystems are very
highly threatened.

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 Landuse control and settlement planning: No
residential and industrial units should be ideally
permitted in the coastal belt of 5 km from the
sea as it is the most vulnerable belt. No further
growth of settlements in this region should al-
lowed. Major settlements and other important
establishments should be located beyond 10 km
from the sea.

Landslides and mitigation measures

Landslides are recurring phenomena in the Hi-

malayan region. In the recent years however
intensive construction activity and the destabi-
lizing forces of nature have aggravated the prob-
lem. Landslides occur as a result of changes on
a slope, sudden or gradual, either in its compo-
sition, structure, hydrology or vegetation. The
changes can be due to geology, climate, weath-
ering, land-use and earthquakes.

A significant reduction in the hazards caused

by landslides can be achieved by preventing the
exposure of population and facilities to landslides
and by physically controlling the landslides. De-
velopmental programs that involve modification
of the topography, exploitation of natural re-
sources and change in the balance load on the
ground should not be permitted. Some critical
measures that could be undertaken to prevent
further landslides are drainage measures, ero-
sion control measures such a bamboo check
dams, terracing, jute and coir netting and rock-
fall control measures such as grass plantation,
vegetated dry masonry wall, retaining wall and
most importantly preventing deforestation and
improving afforestation.

Disasters cannot be totally prevented. However

early warning systems, careful planning and pre-
paredness on part of the vulnerable community
would help in minimizing the loss of life and
property due to these disasters.

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 UNIT 6:
Social Issues and The Environment

6.1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 165

6.2 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY 167

6.3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER HARVESTING, WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT 168
6.3.1 Water conservation 168
6.3.2 Rain water harvesting 170
6.3.3 Watershed management 171

6.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE; ITS PROBLEMS

AND CONCERNS. CASE STUDIES 172

6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS 173

6.5.1 Resource consumption patterns and the need for their equitable utilisation 173
6.5.2 Equity – Disparity in the Northern and Southern countries 175
6.5.3 Urban – rural equity issues 175
6.5.4 The need for Gender Equity 175
6.5.5 Preserving resources for future generations 176
6.5.6 The rights of animals 177
6.5.7 The ethical basis of environment education and awareness 178
6.5.8 The conservation ethic and traditional value systems of India 181

6.6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION,
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST. CASE STUDIES 182
6.6.1 Climate change 182
6.6.2 Global warming 183
6.6.3 Acid rain 184
6.6.4 Ozone layer depletion 185
6.6.5 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust 186
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 6.7 WASTELAND RECLAMATION 187

6.8 CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS 189

6.9 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT 193

6.10 AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT 194

6.11 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT 196

6.12 WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 197

6.13 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT 199

6.14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION 201

6.14.1Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 201
6.14.2 Citizens actions and action groups 202

6.15 PUBLIC AWARENESS 204

6.15.1 Using an Environmental Calendar of Activities 204
6.15.2 What can I do? 205

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 6.1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAIN- sound environmental management. He stressed
ABLE DEVELOPMENT on the need for sanitation based on recycling
human and animal manure and well-ventilated
Until two decades ago the world looked at eco- cottages built of recyclable material. He envi-
nomic status alone as a measure of human de- sioned roads as being clean and free of dust.
velopment. Thus countries that were His main objective was to use village made goods
economically well developed and where people instead of industrial products. All these princi-
were relatively richer were called advanced na- pals are now considered part of sound long-term
tions while the rest where poverty was wide- development. Gandhiji had designed a sustain-
spread and were economically backward were able lifestyle for himself when these concepts
called developing countries. Most countries of were not a part of general thinking.
North America and Europe which had become
industrialized at an earlier stage have become A growing realization of the development strat-
economically more advanced. They not only ex- egy that Mahatma Gandhi had suggested many
ploited their own natural resources rapidly but decades earlier is now accepted by experts on
also used the natural resources of developing development across the world. This is based on
countries to grow even larger economies. Thus his concept that the world could support
the way development progressed, the rich coun- people’s needs but not their greed. It has be-
tries got richer while the poor nations got come obvious that the quality of human life has
poorer. However, even the developed world has worsened as economies grew. The world now
begun to realise that their lives were being seri- appears to be at a crossroad. It has taken the
ously affected by the environmental conse- path of short term economic growth and now
quences of development based on economic suffers the consequences of environmental deg-
growth alone. This form of development did not radation at the cost of loss of ‘quality of human
add to the quality of life as the environmental life’. The earth cannot supply the amount of re-
conditions had begun to deteriorate. sources used and wasted by the economically
well off sectors of society as well as that required
By the 1970s most development specialists be- for day to day sustenance of the ever growing
gan to appreciate the fact that economic growth population in less developed countries. Society
alone could not bring about a better way of life must thus change its unsustainable development
for people unless environmental conditions were strategy to a new form where development will
improved. Development strategies in which only not destroy the environment. This form of sus-
economic considerations were used, had begun tainable development can only be brought about
to suffer from serious environmental problems if each individual practices a sustainable lifestyle
due to air and water pollution, waste manage- based on caring for the earth.
ment, deforestation and a variety of other ill
effects that seriously affected peoples’ well be- It was also realized that these were not simple
ing and health. There were also serious equity issues. Indira Gandhi said in the Stockholm Con-
issues between the “haves and the have nots” ference in 1972 that poverty was the greatest
in society, at the global and national levels. The polluter. This meant that while the super rich
disparity in the lifestyles between the rich and nations had serious environmental problems, the
the poor was made worse by these unsustain- under-developed in Asia, Africa and South
able development strategies. America had a different set of environmental
problems linked to poverty. Developing coun-
Many decades ago, Mahatma Gandhi envi- tries were suffering the consequences of a rap-
sioned a reformed village community based on idly expanding human population with all its

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 effects on the over utilization of natural re- economic opportunity on one hand and the re-
sources. quirements of environment on the other. It is
based on improving the quality of life for all,
Thus increasingly the world began to see the especially the poor and deprived within the car-
need for a more equitable use of earth resources. rying capacity of the supporting ecosystems. It
The control over natural resources and the is a process which leads to a better quality of
wealth that it produces also begins to create life while reducing the impact on the environ-
tensions between people that can eventually ment. Its strength is that it acknowledges the
lead to both strife within a country and wars interdependence of human needs and environ-
between nations. This is also a major cause for mental requirements.
the loss of quality of life. How then could a new
form of development be brought about that To ensure sustainable development, any activ-
could solve the growing discontent in the world? ity that is expected to bring about economic
It has become obvious that development must growth must also consider its environmental
begin to change from aiming at short term eco- impacts so that it is more consistent with long
nomic gains to a long term sustainable growth term growth and development. Many ‘devel-
that would not only support the well being and opment projects’, such as dams, mines, roads,
quality of life of all people living in the world industries and tourism development, have se-
today but that of future generations as well. vere environmental consequences that must be
studied before they are even begun. Thus for
The current strategies of economic development every project, in a strategy that looks at sustain-
are using up resources of the world so rapidly able development, there must be a scientifically
that our future generations, the young people and honestly done EIA, without which the
of the world, would have serious environmen- project must not be cleared.
tal problems, much worse than those that we
are facing at present. Thus current development Large dams, major highways, mining, industry,
strategies have come to be considered unsus- etc. can seriously damage ecosystems that sup-
tainable for the world’s long-term development. port the ecological health of a region. Forests
The newer concept of development has come are essential for maintaining renewable re-
to be known as “Sustainable Development”. The sources, reducing carbon dioxide levels and
nations of the world came to clearly understand maintaining oxygen levels in the earth’s atmo-
these issues at the Rio Conference in 1992. Sev- sphere. Their loss impairs future human devel-
eral documents were created for the United opment. Loss of forests depletes biodiversity
Nations Conference on Environment and De- which has to be preserved to maintain life on
velopment (UNCED), which brought out the fact earth. Major heavy industries if not planned care-
that environment and development were closely fully lead to environmental degradation due to
connected and that there was a need to ‘care air and water pollution and generate enormous
for the Earth’. quantities of waste that lead to long term envi-
ronmental hazards. Toxic and Nuclear wastes
Sustainable development is defined as de- can become serious economic problems as get-
velopment that meets the needs of the ting rid of them is extremely costly. Thus the
present without compromising the ability economic benefits of a project must be weighed
of future generations to meet their own against the possible environmental costs before
needs. It also looks at the equity between coun- a project is permitted.
tries and continents, races and classes, gender
and ages. It includes social development and

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 We as citizens of our Nation, and increasingly very little temperature adjustments as the ma-
as citizens of one common future at the global terials used, such as wood and bricks handled
level, must constantly monitor the pattern of temperature changes better than the current
development. If we see that a development concrete, glass and steel of ultra modern build-
project or an industry is leading to serious envi- ings.
ronmental problems, it is our duty to bring this
to the attention of authorities such as the local
administration, the Forest Department or the
Pollution Control Board, to look into the issue. Embodied energy
Further if new development projects are being
planned in and around the place where we live Materials like iron, glass, aluminium, steel,
it is our duty to see that this is brought about in cement, marble and burnt bricks, which are
accordance with environmental safeguards. used in urban housing, are very energy in-
While we all need to think globally, we need to tensive. The process of extraction, refine-
act locally. We have to see to it that we change ment, fabrication and delivery are all energy
development from its present mandate of rapid consuming and add to pollution of earth, air
economic growth without a thought for future and water. This energy consumed in the pro-
ecological integrity, to a more sustainable eco- cess is called embodied energy.
logically appropriate strategy.

If new projects of a large size are to be passed

Government has made it compulsory to publish Until the 1950s many urban kitchens were based
the summary report of the Environmental Im- on fuelwood or charcoal. This was possible and
pact Assessment (EIA) and conduct a ‘Public practical when homes had chimneys and kitch-
Hearing’. It is essential that all of us as respon- ens were isolated from the rest of the house.
sible citizens read, evaluate and respond to such Smoke became a problem once this changed to
public hearings held in our area and make com- apartment blocks. Kerosene thus became a
ments on the possible impacts of the project. In popular urban fuel. This changed to electrical
many situations there are proponents of the energy and increasingly to natural gas by the
project who only look at their own rapid eco- 1970s in most parts of urban India.
nomic gains. It is for citizens as concerned indi-
viduals and groups to counter these vested Urban centers in hot climates need energy for
interests so that our environment is not de- cooling. The early systems of fans changed into
graded further. Life has to be made more liv- air-conditioning, which consumes enormous
able for all. We cannot support the economic quantities of energy. New buildings in our coun-
growth of one sector of society while we per- try have taken to using large areas covered by
mit environmental degradation to destroy the glass. While in cold climates this uses the green
lives of the less fortunate. house effect to trap the warmth of the sun in-
side, in our hot climate this adds several degrees
to the temperature inside. Thus it requires even
6.2 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY more energy to run large central air condition-
ing units. High rise buildings in urban centers
Urban centers use enormous quantities of en- also depend on energy to operate lifts and an
ergy. In the past, urban housing required rela- enormous number of lights.
tively smaller amounts of energy than we use at
present. Traditional housing in India required

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 6.3 WATER CONSERVATION, RAINWATER
CASE STUDY HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Energy efficiency 6.3.1 Water Conservation:

Urban residential and commercial facilities Conserving water has become a prime environ-
are responsible for approximately 35% of mental concern. Clean water is becoming in-
USA’s greenhouse gas emissions. Buildings creasingly scarce globally. With deforestation
need to be made energy efficient and re- surface runoff increases and the sub soil water
duce carbon dioxide emissions, which cause table drops as water has no time to seep slowly
‘heat islands’ or pockets of high tempera- into the ground once vegetation is cleared.
ture over these urban areas.
As many areas depend on wells, it has become
necessary to go on making deeper and deeper
wells. This adds to the cost and further depletes
Urban transport depends on energy mainly from
underground stores of water. This could take
fossil fuels. Most urban people use their own
years to recharge even if the present rate of
individual transport rather than public transport
extraction is reduced which seems hardly pos-
systems for a variety of reasons. Urban trans-
sible in most situations.
port in different cities and even different parts
of a city are either inefficient or overcrowded.
Thus even middle income groups tend to use As deforestation and desertification spreads due
their own private vehicles. This means more and to extensive changes in land use the once pe-
more vehicles on the road which leads to traffic rennial rivers are becoming increasingly seasonal.
congestion, waste of time for all the commut- In many areas the small streams run dry soon
ers, and a great load of particulate matter and after the monsoon as the water table drops fur-
ther and further below the surface. To this is
carbon monoxide from the exhaust of vehicles.
added serious problems caused by rapid surface
This causes a rise in the number of people hav-
flow of water during the rains, which leads to
ing serious respiratory diseases. Thus there is a
extensive floods with loss of life and property.
need to develop a more efficient public trans-
port system and discourage the use of individual
When we waste water, we do not realise that it
vehicles in all our urban areas.
is affecting the lives of all of us in so many dif-
Each of us as an environmentally conscious in- ferent ways. Water has to be equitably and fairly
dividual must reduce our use of energy. An un- distributed so that household use, agriculture
necessary light left on carelessly adds to energy and industry all get a share of the water. It’s
use. Imagine the amount of energy wasted by over use and misuse due to various activities that
thousands of careless people. If we learned to waste water or cause pollution has led to a seri-
ous shortage of potable drinking water. Thus
save electricity, we would begin to have a more
water conservation is linked closely with overall
sustainable lifestyle.
human well being.

Traditional systems of collecting water and us-

ing it optimally have been used in India for many
generations. These have been forgotten in the
recent past. Conserving water in multiple small
percolation tanks and ‘jheels’ was important in

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 traditional forms of agriculture. Villages all over During the British period many dams were built
the country had one or more common ‘talabs’ across the country to supply water especially to
or tanks from which people collected or used growing urban areas. Post independence, India’s
water carefully. policy on water changed towards building large
dams for expanding agriculture to support the
As women had to carry water to their homes green revolution. While this reduced the need
over long distances, this was a time consuming to import food material and removed starvation
and laborious activity, thus the water could not in the country, the country began to see the
be wasted. Many homes had a kitchen garden effects of serious water shortages and problems
that was watered by the wastewater. Conser- related to its distribution. The newer forms of
vation of water was done in traditional homes irrigated agriculture such as sugarcane and other
through a conscious effort. water hungry cash crops required enormous
quantities of water. Finally however, such irri-
gated areas become waterlogged and unpro-
CASE STUDY ductive. As excess water evaporates rapidly from
the surface of heavily irrigated croplands, it pulls
Pani Panchayat – Pune District, up subsoil water along with salts to the surface
Maharashtra of the soil. This leads to salinization by which
the land becomes unproductive. Reducing the
Mahur village in Pune District of Maharashtra high salinity levels in soil is extremely expensive
is situated in a drought prone area. People and frequently impossible.
were not able to grow a good crop in most
years. Clean drinking water was also scarce. With all these ill effects of the poorly conceived
Vilasrao Salunkhe initiated a movement management of water at the national and local
known as Pani Panchayat, to conserve wa- level there is a need to consider a new water
ter in this drought prone area. Watershed policy for the country.
development was initiated on a barren and
uncultivated piece of land belonging to a Saving water in agriculture: Drip irrigation sup-
temple. Conservation of soil and water har- plies water to plants near its roots through a
vesting through a comprehensive micro- system of tubes, thus saving water. Small per-
watershed management program gradually colation tanks and rainwater harvesting can pro-
led to a surplus of water. Out of the 16 hect- vide water for agriculture and domestic use.
ares of land in the village, 9.6 hectares were Rainwater collected from rooftops can be stored
brought under irrigation, 2.4 hectares was or used to effectively recharge subsoil aquifers.
afforested and 4 hectares was converted into
percolation tanks. Wells and field bunds were Saving water in urban settings: Urban people
built. While 200 quintals of grains were pro- waste large amounts of water. Leaking taps and
duced on 24 acres of Salunkhe’s land, 40 pipes are a major source of loss of water. Ca-
acres in the same area yielded only 10 quin- nals and pipes carrying water from dams to the
tals. This made other villagers follow suit. The consumer lead to nearly 50% loss during trans-
area rapidly turned green and productive. fer. Reducing the demand for water by saving it
is more appropriate than trying to meet grow-
ing demands.

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 6.3.2 Rain water Harvesting and zooplankton (microscopic animals). This can
be pathogenic and cause infections. Thus keep-
As our world faces serious water shortages, ev- ing the water uncontaminated is of great im-
ery drop of water we can use efficiently becomes portance.
of great value. One method is to manage rain
water in such a way that it is used at the source. Current technologies of rainwater harvesting
If as much water as possible is collected and require that all roof and terrace water passes
stored this can be used after the rainy season is down into a covered tank where it can be stored
over. In many parts of the world especially in for use after the monsoon. This is most advan-
very dry areas this has been traditionally prac- tageous in arid areas where clean water is very
ticed. However the stored water has to be kept scarce. However there are practical difficulties
pollution free and clean so that it can be used such as constructing large storage tanks which
as drinking water. Stored water can grow algae are expensive.

CASE STUDY
duced to a point that it cannot be taken di-
Mewar, Rajasthan rectly to the fields for irrigation.

The Mewar region of Rajasthan has a rich Chak: Chak is a big plot of land, usually a
legacy of traditional water harvesting systems charnot or village pasture land, enclosed by a
to share the available water for cultivation. stone boundary wall called kot. Tree planta-
There are various types of rainwater harvest- tions, seeding of grass for fodder, contour
ing systems. bunds with trenches and loose stone check
dams are developed in the chak. The chak is
Medhbandi: This is a stone embankment built used for fodder and fuel wood. It reduces soil
on a hill slope to help create a level field for erosion and enhances recharge of ground
cultivation. It controls erosion and conserves water.
moisture.
Talab: The Mewar region is well-known for
Naada/bandha: These are stone check dams its built reservoirs (talabs). Udaipur City is fa-
across streams or gullies that are constructed mous for its large number of talabs, and is
to capture runoff on a stretch of fertile land called the lake city. A small reservoir of less
that is submerged in water during the mon- than five bighas is called talai, a medium sized
soon. The land not only becomes more fertile lake is called bandh or talab and a bigger lake
after trapping silt, but also retains substantial is called sagar or samand.
quantities of water in the soil. These dams are
constructed in phases over several years. The Saza kuva: This is an open dug well which has
height is slowly increased up to the right height several owners. In Mewari language, saza
of the check dam which determines the size means partner. This is an important method
of the naada. for irrigation in the Aravalli hills. About 70,000
wells in the Udaipur District provide water for
Hembar: These are small temporary dams con- 80% of the area under irrigation and provide
structed with stones, twigs and mud over a water for their owners. These are considered
seasonal stream when water flows in it is re- common property resources.

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 Another way of using rooftop rainwater har- along contours of the hill to hold the rainwater
vesting is to collect it so that it percolates into and allow it to percolate into the ground. This
the ground to recharge wells instead of flowing ensures that underground stores of water are
over the ground into rivers. Thus by recharging fully recharged. This is enhanced by allowing
ground water harvested from rooftops, the grasses and shrubs to grow and by planting trees
water table rises and the surrounding wells re- (mainly local species) which hold the soil and
tain water throughout the year. prevents it from being washed away in the
monsoon. Local grass cover can however only
increase if free grazing of domestic animals is
6.3.3 Watershed Management: prevented by stall feeding.

Rivers originate in streams that flow down The next measure is to make ‘nala’ plugs in the
mountains and hill slopes. A group of small streams so that the water is held in the stream
streams flow down hillsides to meet larger and does not rush down the hillside. In selected
streams in the valley which forms the tributar- sites, several small check dams are built which
ies of major rivers. The management of a single together hold back larger amounts of water. All
unit of land with its water drainage system is these measures constitute sound watershed
called watershed management. It is a technique management. It improves the water table and
that has several components. This includes soil keeps the streams and nalas flowing through-
and water management and developing veg- out the year.
etative cover. The natural drainage pattern of a
watershed unit if managed appropriately can
bring about local prosperity by a year round Watershed management principles:
abundance of water that improves the quality
of human life in the area. This is a land management program that
looks at a region from the perspective of all
As it provides water throughout the year, this its water related issues. It can be used to
improves health in the community, as clean manage a river from its source to its termi-
water becomes available. Watershed manage- nation. Watershed management could also
ment enhances the growth of agricultural crops consider the management of a single valley
and even makes it possible to grow more than as a unit, based on its small streams. Saving
one crop in a year in dry areas. water from its local source by allowing it to
percolate into the ground by nala plugs and
Watershed management begins by taking con- check dams instead of allowing it to run off
trol over a degraded site through local partici- rapidly along the surface during the mon-
pation. People must appreciate the need to soon, is a major aspect of good watershed
improve the availability of water both in quan- management. This allows underground aqui-
tity and quality for their own area. Once this is fers to fill so that ground water is recharged.
adequately demonstrated, the community be- Deforestation is a major cause of poor wa-
gins to understand the project, people begin to ter supply. Afforesting such degraded areas
work together in the activities that lead to good is an important aspect of watershed man-
watershed management. agement.

The first technical step is to take appropriate

soil conservation measures. This is done by con-
structing a series of long trenches and mounds

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 6.4 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION
OF PEOPLE: ITS PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS CASE STUDY

Major projects such as dams, mines, express- The Tehri Project

ways, or the notification of a National Park dis-
rupts the lives of the people who live there and The Tehri Dam in the outer Himalayas in Uttar
may also require moving them to an alternative Pradesh, when finished will submerge Tehri
site. None of us would like to give up the home town and nearly 100 villages. Since the dam
we grew up in. Uprooting people is a serious was sanctioned in 1972, local people have
issue. It reduces their ability to subsist on their been opposing the dam and resisting its con-
traditional natural resource base and also struction. Scientists, environmentalists and
creates great psychological pressures. Especially other groups have also opposed this dam.
tribal people, whose lives are woven closely
around their own natural resources, cannot Little is done to ensure proper rehabilitation
adapt to a new way of life in a new place. Thus and compensation for nearly a lakh of people
no major project that is likely to displace people who will be uprooted from their homes as a
can be carried out without the consent of the result of this dam, with little hope of reha-
local people. In India, lakhs of people have been bilitation, as no alternative land is available.
unfairly displaced by thousands of dams created There is also emotional and psychological
since independence to drive the green revolu- trauma caused by forcibly removing people
tion. The dams have been built virtually at the from their homeland where their families
cost of these poor local people who have been have lived for centuries.
powerless to resist the Government’s will. The
Government is expected to find ‘good’ arable
land to resettle displaced persons and provide Resettlement not only puts pressure on the
them with an adequate rehabilitation package project affected people but also on the people
to recover from the disruption. This has rarely who have been living in the area that has been
occurred to the satisfaction of the project af- selected for resettlement. Thus both the com-
fected individuals. In many cases across the munities suffer and conflict over resources is a
country, this has not been implemented satis- distinct possibility in future.
factorily for decades.

Resettlement requires alternate land. However, CASE STUDY

in our overpopulated country, there is no ar-
able high quality land available. Thus most Indigenous tribes
project affected persons are given unusable
wasteland. Rehabilitation involves more than just It is not flora and fauna alone that is under
giving land. In most cases this is also not ad- the threat of extinction. Among the many
equately done. The greatest battle to save their tribes across the globe, the Jarawa of the
own precious land has been carried out by the Andamans in the Indian Ocean are dwin-
tribal people of the Narmada River. They have dling. Dispossession of their customary rights
fought to save their lands for decades. The over land has put their survival at risk. They
Narmada Bachao Andolan has shown how bit- have been compelled to give up their tradi-
ter people can get over this issue. tional lifestyles resulting in rapidly diminish-
ing indigenous population.

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 There are however situations where communi- to the urban sector. Wealth also shifts in the
ties request for shifting to a new site. This is same direction. This unequal distribution of
often observed where people live inside or on wealth and access to land and its resources is a
the periphery of a National Park or Wildlife Sanc- serious environmental concern. An equitable
tuary. In these situations, such as the Gir in sharing of resources forms the basis of sustain-
Gujarat, the local people have asked to be given able development for urban, rural and wilder-
alternate land where they could live peacefully ness dwelling communities. As the political
away from lions that kill their cattle, but the Gov- power base is in the urban centers, this itself
ernment has been unable to find suitable areas leads to inequalities and a subsequent loss of
where they can be shifted for decades. sustainability in resource management in the
rural and even more so for forest dwelling
people.
6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS In 1985, Anil Agarwal published the first report
on the Status of India’s Environment. It empha-
Environmental ethics deals with issues related sized that India’s environmental problems were
to the rights of individuals that are fundamen- caused by the excessive consumption patterns
tal to life and well being. This concerns not only of the rich that left the poor poorer. It was ap-
the needs of each person today, but also those preciated for the first time that tribals, especially
who will come after us. It also deals with the women and other marginalized sectors of our
rights of other living creatures that inhabit our society, were being left out of economic devel-
earth. opment. There are multiple stakeholders in In-
dian society who are dependent on different
natural resources which cater directly or indi-
6.5.1 Resource consumption patterns and rectly to their survival needs. Anil Agarwal
the need for their equitable utilisation: brought forth a set of 8 propositions which are
of great relevance to the ethical issues that are
Environmental ethics deals with issues that are related to environmental concerns. These in-
related to how we utilise and distribute re- clude:
sources. Can individuals justifiably use resources
so differently that one individual uses resources 1. Environmental destruction is largely caused
many times more lavishly than other individuals by the consumption of the rich.
who have barely enough to survive? In a just
world, there has to be a more equitable sharing 2. The worst sufferers of environmental de-
of resources than we encounter at present. The struction are the poor.
just distribution of resources has global, national
and local concerns that we need to address. 3. Even where nature is being ‘recreated’, as
There are rich and poor nations. There are rich in afforestation, it is being transformed
and poor communities in every country. And away from the needs of the poor and to-
there are rich and poor families. In this era of wards those of the rich.
modern economic development, the disparity
between the haves and have-nots is widening. 4. Even among the poor, the worst sufferers
Our human environments in the urban, rural and are the marginalised cultures and occupa-
wilderness sectors, use natural resources that tions, and most of all, women.
shift from the wilderness (forests, grasslands,
wetlands, etc.) to the rural sector, and from there

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 5. There cannot be proper economic and so- crustacea, are seriously affected by the degra-
cial development without a holistic under- dation of aquatic ecosystems. Fuelwood gath-
standing of society and nature. erers from different types of forests, and
pastoralists who are dependent on common
6. If we care for the poor, we cannot allow grazing lands suffer when their resources are
the Gross Nature Product to be destroyed depleted.
any further. Conserving and recreating na-
ture has become our highest priority. Several marginalised sectors of society are most
affected by deforestation, or the loss of grass-
7. Gross Nature Product will be enhanced only land tracts, or the deterioration of perennial
if we can arrest and reverse the growing water sources. All these effects can be linked to
alienation between the people and the com- unsustainable increasing pressures on land and
mon property resources. In this we will have natural resources.
to learn a lot from our traditional cultures.

8. It is totally inadequate to talk only of sus- “I am often amazed and extremely angry,
tainable rural development, as the World when people talk about Environment Edu-
Conservation Strategy does. We cannot cation for the villages. It is the so-called, edu-
save the rural environment or rural people cated people who need Environment
dependent on it, unless we can bring about Education more than anyone else”.
sustainable urban development. – Anil Agarwal, ‘Human-Nature Interac-
tions in a Third World Country’.

Equitable use of forest resources: We

think of forests as being degraded due to The well to do educated urban dweller con-
fuelwood collection by poor rural communi- sumes much larger quantities of resources and
ties, but forget that the rich use much greater energy, than the traditional rural individual. Ur-
quantities of timber. Biomass based indus- ban dwellers who are far removed from the
tries include cotton textiles, paper, plywood, source of natural resources that sustain their lives
rubber, soap, sugar, tobacco, jute, choco- thus require exposure to a well-designed envi-
late, food processing and packaging. These ronment education program to appreciate these
need land, energy, irrigation and forest re- issues. While the rural people have a deep in-
sources. Do each of us realise this when we sight on the need for sustainable use of natural
utilise, use excessively or waste these re- resources and know about methods of conser-
sources that we get indirectly from the for- vation, there are however several newer envi-
ests? ronmental concerns that are frequently outside
their sphere of life experiences. Their traditional
knowledge of environmental concerns cannot
Who pays for the cost of environmental degra-
be expected to bring about an understanding
dation? Most sections of society do not feel the
of issues such as global warming, or problems
direct effects of degradation of the environment
created by pollution, pesticides, etc. These
till it is too late. Those who suffer most are the
people thus require a different pattern of envi-
poor, especially rural women, and tribal people
ronment education that is related to their gaps
who are dependent on forests. Traditional fish-
in information. With the rapidly changing rural
ermen who are dependent on streams and riv-
scenario the development that is thrust on un-
ers, and coastal people who fish and catch
suspecting rural communities needs to be ad-

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 dressed through locale specific environment such as in South and Southeast Asia and South
awareness programs designed specifically for America. People living in the economically ad-
rural school children and adults. This must also vanced nations use greater amounts of resources
use their local traditional knowledge systems as and energy per individual and also waste more
a base on which modern concepts can be built, resources. This is at the cost of poor people who
rather than by fostering concepts that are com- are resource dependant and live in developing
pletely alien to their own knowledge systems. nations.

Common property resources in India once in- The economically advanced West has exploited
cluded vast stretches of forests, grazing lands their own natural resources to such an extent
and aquatic ecosystems. When the British found that they have exhausted them nearly every-
that they were unable to get enough wood for where. They now buy their resources from re-
ship building and other uses they converted for- source rich but economically deprived nations
est areas into Government ‘Reserved Forests’ for at a low cost. This depletes the developing na-
their own use to grow timber trees. This alien- tions of natural resources on which their poor
ated local people from having a stake in pre- depend for their livelihood.
serving these resources. This in turn led to
large-scale losses in forest cover and the cre- Changing this unfair economic practice to a
ation of wasteland. In the past, in traditional more just and fair way in managing trade would
villages that were managed by local panchayats, require a new thinking on the part of people
there were well defined rules about managing who live in the super rich countries.
grazing lands, collecting forest resources, pro-
tecting sacred groves, etc. that supported con-
servation. There was a more or less equitable 6.5.3 Urban – rural equity issues
distribution that was controled by traditional
mechanisms to prevent misuse of common prop- The common property of rural communities has
erty resources. Any infringement was quickly increasingly been used to supply the needs of
dealt with by the panchayat and the offender the urban sector. Land itself that was once held
was punished. Common property resources as a common property resource of villages is
were thus locally protected by communities. As being taken over by the urban and industrial
landuse patterns changed, these mechanisms sectors as it expands. The rural sector not only
were lost and unsustainable practices evolved, supplies food, but also a part of the energy needs
frequently as a result of an inadequately planned (mainly fuelwood) to most towns and cities in
development strategy. India, at a pittance. As a result, the commons of
the rural sector are being depleted of their re-
sources. Thus while the cities get richer, the ru-
6.5.2 Equity – Disparity in the Northern and ral sector, especially the landless, get poorer.
Southern countries The urban rich must appreciate where their re-
sources are derived from and be willing to pay a
Environmental ethics are concerned with, who fair price for using them.
owns resources and how they are distributed.
This can be looked upon at different levels. At
the global level it deals with the great North – 6.5.4 The need for Gender Equity
South divide between the rich industrialized
nations of North America and Europe, as against All over India, especially in the rural sector,
the needs of developing countries of the South women work on the whole longer hours than

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 men. The life of a woman is enmeshed in an natural resources more deeply than men. Thus
inextricable cycle of poverty. In attempting to several environmental movements such as
eke out a living from their environment, they Chipko have been more strongly supported by
must constantly collect fuelwood for their homes local women folk rather than men.
and for sale to nearby urban areas. They labori-
ously collect fodder for their cattle. They have
to trudge several kilometers to reach a reason- 6.5.5 Preserving resources for future gen-
ably clean water source. And finally must cook erations:
meals in a smoky unhealthy atmosphere on crop
waste or other inefficient sources of energy. All Can we use up all the resources of the world,
this can take 10 to 12 hours a day of very hard leaving nothing for our future generations? This
work, every day of the year. There is thus the ethical issue must be considered when we use
question of who should control the environmen- resources unsustainably. If we overuse and mis-
tal resources of a rural community. Unfortu- use resources and energy from fossil fuels, our
nately it is the men who play a decisive role in future generations would find survival much
managing the village commons and its resources more difficult. A critical concern is to preserve
whereas it should be the local women whose species and natural undisturbed ecosystems that
lives are deeply linked with the utilisation and are linked with bioresources, which must be
conservation patterns of natural resources, who protected for the use of future generations. Our
should be decision makers at the local level. Un- generation does not own the world’s resources
fortunately women have not been given an to do whatever we please with them. Just as
equal opportunity to develop and better their our ancestors have left resources for us, it is our
lot. This begins with the lack of attention given duty to leave them behind for our future gen-
to girls whose education is always given less at- erations. These unborn people have a right to
tention than the boys in the family. Unless soci- these resources. We only hold the world as trust-
ety begins to see that development cannot be ees so that future generations can also survive.
planned by a male dominated society from the
male perspective alone, will we be able to cre- Our current development strategies have led to
ate a better living environment for women and environmental resources being overused and
their children? misused by our present generation, without a
thought for the needs of future unborn gen-
The great divide between women and men is erations. We need to appreciate that the next
most apparent in communities that live near generation and those that will come later also
forests and have by tradition made the woman have a right to the earth’s natural resources. As
play a greater role than men in collection of they are not here today to exercise their rights,
natural resources. Women fetch water, collect it is our generation’s responsibility to appreci-
fuelwood, fruit, medicinal products, etc. day in ate the needs of future generations. We have
and day out, while the men work only sporadi- no right to destroy their claim to the use of the
cally in the fields. This disparity in the lives of earth’s resources just because of the accident
women and men has also led to a lower access of being born before them. Development strat-
to education and health care for girl children. egies have not looked at the sustainable levels
at which we can use resources so that the rights
This has deep implications for the rate of utili- of future generations are protected. We are not
zation of natural resources and its conservation. given the earth so that we can use up its re-
Rural women who are intimately connected to sources. It is given to us to hold in trust so that
resources, appreciate the value of conserving

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 future generations are given their just share of nature by itself has natural prey-predator rela-
the earth’s resources. tionships, left to itself, nature maintains a bal-
ance in each ecosystem. While evolution has
developed a system whereby species become
6.5.6 The rights of animals: extinct and new ones evolve to fill the world’s
ecosystems with new plant and animal species,
Can man, a single species, use and severely ex- it is man alone that has been responsible for
ploit the earth’s resources which we share with the recent rapid decline in the number of spe-
billions of other plant and animal species? Within cies on earth. Much more important man is now
our world there are a variety of living beings. reducing the abundance levels of so many spe-
The plants and animals that share the earth with cies that in the near future we will in all prob-
us too have a right to live and share our earth’s ability create a major extinction spasm on earth
resources and living space. We have no right to that will seriously endanger the existence of
push a species that has taken millions of years mankind. Thus endangering the existence of
to evolve towards extinction. Not only do wild wild plants and animals and bringing them close
and domesticated animals have a right to life, to the brink of extinction is not only unfair to a
but have the right to a dignified existence. Cru- species but also to future generation of people
elty to an animal is no different ethically from who may find them of great use. Quite apart
cruelty to another human being. from the use of these species, there is a strong
ethical basis for the rights of animals and plants
to exist on earth. Every individual, human or
Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy was based on animal, that is living has feelings and emotions.
the assumption that human beings were not Cruelty to animals is a crime that must be re-
masters of the other forms of life. He be- garded seriously and action must be taken
lieved that humans were ‘trustees of the against offenders. Animals have a right to a dig-
lower animal kingdom’. nified existence, and their life, well-being and
liberty must be respected. While dominating
over the animal world due to his superior intel-
Human beings are one small cog in the wheel ligence, man cannot remain unfeeling to the
of life on earth. We frequently forget that man right to life and well being of other species. There
has learned to exploit nature and other species is a growing awareness of animal rights in our
well beyond what we should use justifiably. Ev- country and cruelty to animals is being increas-
ery plant and animal has a right to life as a part ingly regarded as a criminal offence.
of our earth’s community of living things. While

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 CASE STUDY but that this has led to serious floods and loss
of precious soil.
Chipko movement
Chipko activists have made long padyatras
About 300 years ago, a ruler in Rajasthan de- across the Himalayas protesting against de-
cided to fell ‘khejri’ trees in his State to create forestation. The movement has been highly
lime. Local women led by a Bishnoi woman, successful and has been primarily supported
Amrita Devi, clung to the trees to prevent the by empowering local women’s groups who
felling of the trees that formed the basis of are the most seriously affected segment of
the scarce resources on which they were de- society by deforestation. The movement has
pendent. The women were ruthlessly massa- proved to the world that the forests of the
cred. It is said that the ruler later realised his hills are the life support systems of local com-
mistake. The story however has been remem- munities of immense value in terms of local
bered and was revived in the 1970s when se- produce that is essential for the survival of lo-
vere tree felling for timber in the Himalayas cal people and that the forest has less quanti-
prompted local women, supported by people fiable but even more important ecological
such as Sunderlalji Bahuguna and Chandi services such as soil conservation and the main-
Prasad Bhat, led a people’s movement to pre- tenance of the natural water regime of the
vent deforestation by timber contractors. They whole region.
called their movement the ‘Chipko’ movement
in memory of the event during which women The ability of local women to band themselves
had clung to their trees and given up their together in the foothills of the Himalayas goes
lives. The movement followed the path the back to the pre Independence days when
300 Bishnoi women had taken three centu- women such as Miraben, a disciple of Gandhiji,
ries ago in Rajasthan. moved to this region and understood that it
was the deforestation that led to floods and
Chipko is a movement primarily begun and devastation of villages in the valleys and in the
supported by local women in the hills of Gangetic plains below. They also appreciated
Uttarakhand and Garhwal, where the women that substitutions of oak and other
have had to bear the brunt of deforestation. broadleaved forests of the Himalayas by plant-
They have not only realised that their fuelwood ing fast growing pine for timber and resin was
and fodder resources have receded away from an ecological and social disaster which reduced
their ‘resource use areas’ around their settle- the forest resources used by traditional hill
ments due to commercial timber extraction, communities.

6.5.7 The ethical basis of environment edu- lege level be exposed to a course on environ-
cation and awareness: ment. It is not to create only an awareness of
environmental issues, but also to bring about
Perhaps the most important concern is related pro environmental action. Among the variety
to creating an ethos that will support a sustain- of tools that can bring home the ethical issues
able lifestyle in society. This brings us to the need of the environment, no solution is as powerful
for environmental education. The Honorary Su- as real life experiences in nature. Creating a love
preme Court of our country has thus ordered for nature brings about strong pro environmen-
that every young individual at school and col- tal action. Our current educational processes at

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 school and college level are being reoriented to
bring this about. Education in nature – The Shantiniketan
model

The Gandhian way of life Rabindranath Tagore founded Shantiniketan

and taught an environment-based philoso-
Mahatma Gandhi had deep insights into the phy. Tagore’s philosophy of education fo-
need to conserve resources. ‘Mans needs but cused attention on the need for a
not his greed can be supported by our earth’ harmonious association between human
was an important concept that was initiated beings and their environment. To achieve this
by him when people had not realized how he relied on exposing young people to na-
short the world would be of resources in ture. This went back to our roots where in
future. At the time natural resources seemed ancient India, learning centers were estab-
to be limitless to most people. This was thus lished in remote forests. Tagore linked these
a new concept and suggested the need for concepts with celebrations of nature through
a uniquely different pattern of living. music, dance, drama and poetry. At
Shantiniketan, there were celebrations for
Gandhiji believed in simplistic living to save each season and ceremonial tree planting.
our earth’s resources. He once said that if He started Vriksha ropan way back in 1928.
India was to become an industrial nation on In fact much of what was initiated in
the lines of England, the world itself would Shantiniketan is now accepted as the route
be stripped bare of its resources by India’s to environment education and sustainable
people alone. living and is essentially based on preserving
nature.

There are two aspects that are closely connected Many species were not only valued, but also ven-
with ethical issues that are related to our envi- erated.
ronment. These are based on valuing nature and
appreciating the beauty of nature and treasur- In today’s world where many of us are far re-
ing the magnificence of the wilderness. moved from nature, we need to remind our-
selves that everything we use, if tracked back
Valuing nature as a resource: It is essential that to its source, has come from nature. We de-
a value system that is based on environmental pend on an intact unpolluted world which is
concern becomes a part of the thinking that we based on nature’s goods and services. No life is
as responsible citizens of our country and our possible without this. If we as citizens begin to
earth need to bring into our own daily lives. again respect Nature and all its varied species
For our ancestors, Nature was considered to be forming a complex web of life, and appreciate
like a mother. This has been essentially forgot- Nature’s functions and services, it will continue
ten. In ancient India, forests were considered to support our lives. If we disrespect nature one
sacred. We now know that forests clean up our cannot expect her to continue to support our
air, and act like a sponge that can hold water well being. Nature’s resources that we all use
for the dry season. In the Hindu scriptures, Bud- and depend on can only be optimized if they
dhist philosophy and especially in the Jain reli- are equitably shared by all of us. If the disparity
gion, each and every species on earth is is too great it can only result in anarchy. The
supposed to have a place in the scheme of life. ‘have not’s’ cannot be expected to remain in

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 abject poverty, making a bare minimum living or seashore where man’s hand has not made
from the meager resources they can get, while drastic changes to the ecosystem and one be-
the ‘haves’, who are already rich become richer gins to value its beauty. It is there to heal the
through unsustainable consumer oriented, human soul and elevate his spirit. Without the
short-term economic development strategies. wilderness, the earth would be a sad bleak hu-
man dominated landscape. The problem is how
Bringing back an ethic for nature conservation much of the wilderness can we preserve in the
requires environment education and conserva- presence of an ever-growing hunger for land
tion awareness. The best way to do so is to ex- and resources for its utilitarian values. Unless
pose young people not only to our dependence we begin to see the ecological values of the wil-
on natural resources from the wilderness, but derness, an ethic for its conservation cannot
by bringing about an appreciation of the beauty become part of our daily lives. And without the
and wondrous aspects of nature. This forms a wilderness the earth will eventually become
sharp contrast to the sad plight of degraded unlivable.
areas and polluted sites in which most of hu-
manity now lives in the developed and develop- The concept of ‘Karma’ is based on a thinking
ing world. that the soul moves from man to animal and in
reverse depending on ones actions. This itself
Appreciating the beauty of Nature and treasur- brings about a concept of the oneness of all
ing the magnificence of the Wilderness: We of- forms of life. Ahimsa or non-violence towards
ten take Nature for granted. We rarely take the life which includes all plants and animals pro-
opportunity to gaze at a scenic sunset, or spend vides India with its basic philosophy which early
the time to sit in the incredible silence of the Hindu philosophers and later sages such as Bud-
forest, or listen to the songs of birds and the dha, Mahavir and Mahatma Gandhi spoke of.
sound of the wind rustling through the leaves. Buddhist and Jain philosophy is intrinsically wo-
Or take the trouble to watch the magic of a ven around non-violence and the great value of
seed germinating from the ground and gradu- all forms of ‘life’. It brings in the notion that
ally growing into a seedling over several days. animals are not to be viewed purely for their
Or observe a tree through a round of seasons utility value but are a part of the earth’s one-
as it gets new leaves, flowers, fruit and seeds. ness which is linked with our own lives as well.
Or reflect on the incredibly large number of link- In Hindu philosophy the earth itself is respected
ages between all the different animals and birds and venerated. In contrast, in Western thought
that depend on the seasonal changes in their Nature is to be subjugated and used. These are
habitat. It is the beauty of Nature that gives it basic differences in thinking processes. Several
an intrinsic value which we tend to ignore. These modern philosophers in the West have now
are not mundane day to day events, they are begun to see these eastern patterns of thought
magical and mystical aspects of nature’s clock as a new basis for human development. This
that is ticking silently all around us. They are shift however, from a purely utilitarian or scien-
part of our living throbbing earth. If we fail to tific exploitation of Nature, to one of harmony
enjoy these wondrous aspects of Nature our lives with Nature, can only occur if each of us loves
will always remain empty. and respects nature’s great ‘oneness’.

Once we realise that the wilderness has a value

all its own, this puts man in his rightful role as a
custodian of nature rather than an exploiter. Visit
a wilderness area, a forest, lakeside, waterfall,

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 6.5.8 The conservation ethic and traditional invaluable help to Rama during his travels to
value systems of India Lanka. The Sun god, Surya, rides a horse and
has a superb chariot on which he moves through
In ancient Indian traditions people have always the sky. The lion is linked to Durga and the
valued mountains, rivers, forests, trees and sev- blackbuck to the moon godess. The cow is as-
eral animals. Thus much of nature was vener- sociated with Krishna. Vishnu’s incarnations
ated and protected. Forests have been have been represented as taking various animal
associated with the names of forest gods and forms which serially include, fish, tortoise, a boar
goddesses both in the Hindu religion as well as and a dwarf, and a half man half lion form.
in tribal cultures. ‘Tree’ goddesses have been
associated with specific plant species. Ficus The associations to various plants that have been
religiosa, the peepal tree, is venerated and is given a religious significance include Tulsi, which
thus not to be cut down. The Banyan tree in is linked to Lakshmi and Vishnu. The Tulsi plant
some regions such as Maharashtra, is venerated is also linked to the worship of ones own ances-
once a year by tying a thread around it as a tors. The peepal tree is said to be the tree under
symbol of respect. The Tulsi plant is grown on which Buddha attained enlightenment. It is also
the doorstep outside every home. associated with Vishnu and Krishna. Several trees
are associated with the goddess Laxmi, includ-
Patches of forest have been dedicated to a de- ing Amalaki, Mango and the Tulsi shrub.
ity in many Indian cultures especially in tribal
areas. These traditionally protected forest Traditions also held that these species, which
patches depict the true nature of undisturbed were considered as an important aspect of Na-
vegetation and have a large number of indig- ture, were the basis of local life support systems
enous plant species as their exploitation has been and were integral to bringing about a harmoni-
controlled through local sentiments. ous life. In traditional societies of the past, these
examples were all a part of ethical values that
Certain species of trees have been protected as protected nature. As modern science based on
they are valued for their fruit or flowers. The the exploitation on nature spread into India,
mango tree is protected for its fruit around most many of these traditions began to lose their ef-
farms even when wood becomes scarce. The fectiveness as measures that led to conserving
Mohua tree (Madhuca indica) is protected by nature.
tribal people as it provides edible flowers, oil
from its seeds and is used to make a potent Concepts that support nature’s integrity must
alcohol. Many plants, shrubs and herbs have thus become a part of our modern educational
been used in Indian medicines which were once systems. This constitutes a key solution to bring
available in the wild in plenty. These are now about a new ethic of conserving nature and liv-
rapidly vanishing. Many species of animals are ing sustainable lifestyles.
venerated as being the ‘vahan’ or vehicle of dif-
ferent gods on which they are said to travel
through the cosmos.

In Indian mythology, the elephant is associated

with Ganesha. The elephant headed Ganesha
is also linked to the rat. Vishnu is associated with
the eagle. Rama is linked to monkeys. In my-
thology, Hanuman, the monkey god, rendered

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 6.6 CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, Niño is likely to increase. Global mean sea level
ACID RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION, is projected to rise by 9 to 88 cm by the year
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST 2100. More than half of the world’s population
now lives within 60km of the sea. They are likely
6.6.1 Climate change: to be seriously impacted by an ingress of salt
water and by the rising sea. Some of the most
The average temperature in many regions has vulnerable regions are the Nile delta in Egypt,
been increasing in recent decades. The global the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh,
average surface temperature has increased by and many small islands including the Marshall
0.6° + 0.2° C over the last century. Globally, Islands and the Maldives, (WHO, 2001).
1998 was the warmest year and the 1990s the
warmest decade on record. Many countries have Human societies will be seriously affected by
experienced increases in rainfall, particularly in extremes of climate such as droughts and floods.
the countries situated in the mid to high lati- A changing climate would bring about changes
tudes. in the frequency and/or intensity of these ex-
tremes. This is a major concern for human
In some regions, such as parts of Asia and Af- health. To a large extent, public health depends
rica, the frequency and intensity of droughts on safe drinking water, sufficient food, secure
have been observed to increase in recent de- shelter, and good social conditions. All these
cades. Episodes of El Niño, which creates great factors are affected by climate change. Fresh
storms, have been more frequent, persistent and water supplies may be seriously affected, reduc-
intense since mid-1970s compared with the pre- ing the availability of clean water for drinking
vious 100 years. All these are signs that the earth and washing during drought as well as floods.
is sick. Its climate is changing, making it more Water can be contaminated and sewage sys-
difficult for mankind to survive. The earth is los- tems may be damaged. The risk of spread of
ing its ability to balance itself due to the imbal- infectious diseases such as diarrhoeal diseases
ances created by human activities. will increase. Food production will be seriously
reduced in vulnerable regions directly and also
Projections of future climate change are derived indirectly through an increase in pests and plant
from a series of experiments made by computer or animal diseases. The local reduction in food
based global climate models. These are worked production would lead to starvation and mal-
out on estimates of aspects such as future popu- nutrition with long-term health consequences,
lation growth and energy use. Climatologists of especially for children. Food and water short-
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ages may lead to conflicts in vulnerable regions,
(IPCC) have reviewed the results of several ex- with serious implications for public health. Cli-
periments in order to estimate changes in cli- mate change related impacts on human health
mate in the course of this century. These studies could lead to displacement of a large number
have shown that in the near future, the global of people, creating environmental refugees and
mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4° to lead to further health issues.
5.8°C. Warming will be greatest over land ar-
eas, and at high latitudes. The projected rate of Changes in climate may affect the distribution
warming is greater than has occurred in the last of vector species (e.g. mosquitoes) which in turn
10,000 years. The frequency of weather ex- will increase the spread of disease, such as ma-
tremes is likely to increase leading to floods or laria and filariasis, to new areas which lack a
drought. There will be fewer cold spells but more strong public health infrastructure. The seasonal
heat waves. The frequency and intensity of El transmission and distribution of many diseases

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 that are transmitted by mosquitoes (dengue, new and unexpected ones. Strategies aimed at
yellow fever) and by ticks (Lyme disease, tick- reducing potential health impacts of anticipated
borne encephalitis) may spread due to climate climate changes should include monitoring of
change. infectious diseases and disease vectors to de-
tect early changes in the incidence of diseases
and the geographical distribution of vectors; en-
vironmental management measures to reduce
CASE STUDIES risk; disaster preparedness for floods or
droughts; and their health related consequences.
Damage to coral reefs, Pacific It will be necessary to create early warning sys-
tems and education for epidemic preparedness.
The severity of periodic warming due to El Improved water and air pollution control will
Nino in 1997 in the Pacific led to the most become increasingly essential for human health.
serious death in coral ever known. It is esti- Public education will have to be directed at
mated that about 10% of the Earth’s coral changes in personal behaviour. Training of re-
reefs were dead, another 30 % were seri- searchers and health professionals must become
ously affected and another 30% were de- an essential part of the world becoming more
graded. responsible towards the expected outcome of
Global Climate Change (GCC).
The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
Townsville, Australia, has predicted that all
the reefs could be dead by 2050. 6.6.2 Global warming:

About 75% of the solar energy reaching the

Butterfly populations in the United King- Earth is absorbed on the earth’s surface which
dom increases its temperature. The rest of the heat
radiates back to the atmosphere. Some of the
Global warming is leading to an early arrival heat is trapped by greenhouse gases, mostly
of butterflies in Britain. Scientists say that but- carbon dioxide. As carbon dioxide is released by
terflies can now be spotted much earlier ev- various human activities, it is rapidly increasing.
ery year in the last two decades. Some, like This is causing global warming.
the red admiral, can now be seen a month
earlier than was the case in the mid – 1970s. The average surface temperature is about 15°C.
Others, like the peacock and the orange tip This is about 33°C higher than it would be in
are appearing between 15 and 25 days ear- the absence of the greenhouse effect. Without
lier than in the past. Future rise in tempera- such gases most of the Earth’s surface would
ture is likely to have a detrimental effect on be frozen with a mean air temperature of -18°C.
these butterflies. Some butterflies which
need cooler temperatures might suffer. Human activities during the last few decades of
industrialisation and population growth have
polluted the atmosphere to the extent that it
has begun to seriously affect the climate. Car-
A Task Group set up by WHO has warned that bon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by
climate change may have serious impacts on 31% since pre-industrial times, causing more
human health. Climate change will increase vari- heat to be trapped in the lower atmosphere.
ous current health problems, and may also bring There is evidence to show that carbon dioxide

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 levels are still increasing. Many countries have industrial activities account for 61% of sulfur
signed a convention to reduce greenhouse gases dioxide pollution. Motor vehicle exhaust fumes
under the United Nations Convention on Cli- are the main source of nitrogen oxides. The ac-
mate Change. Current international agreements ids in acid rain chemically react with any object
are however not still effective to prevent the they come in contact with. Acids react with other
significant changes in climate and a rise in sea chemicals by giving up hydrogen atoms.
levels.
Effects: Acid rain is known to cause widespread
environmental damage.
Global warming is accelerating faster than
what climatologists had calculated a few 1. Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutri-
years ago. In 1995, the Intergovernmental ents in the soil which are needed by plants.
Panel on Climate Change predict that glo- It can also dissolve naturally occurring toxic
bal warming would rise temperatures by 3.5 substances like aluminium and mercury,
to 10 degrees Centigrade during the 21st freeing them to pollute water or poison
century, if the present trends continue. It is plants.
now believed that this could be much
greater. This would lead to not only tem- 2. Acid rain indirectly affects plants by remov-
perature changes but in the amount of rain- ing nutrients from the soil in which they
fall. India may see great annual fluctuations grow. It affects trees more directly by cre-
in rainfall leading to floods and drought. ating holes in the waxy coating of leaves,
causing brown dead spots which affect the
plant’s photosynthesis. Such trees are also
6.6.3 Acid rain: more vulnerable to insect infestations,
drought and cold. Spruce and fir forests at
When fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural higher elevations seem to be most at risk.
gas are burned, chemicals like sulfur dioxide and Farm crops are less affected by acid rain than
nitrogen oxides are produced. These chemicals forests.
react with water and other chemicals in the air
to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid and other harm- 3. Acid rain that falls or flows as ground wa-
ful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates. These ter to reach rivers, lakes and wetlands,
acid pollutants spread upwards into the atmo- causes the water in them to become acidic.
sphere, and are carried by air currents, to finally This affects plant and animal life in aquatic
return to the ground in the form of acid rain, ecosystems.
fog or snow. The corrosive nature of acid rain
causes many forms of environmental damage. 4. Acid rain also has far reaching effects on
Acid pollutants also occur as dry particles and wildlife. By adversely affecting one species,
gases, which when washed from the ground by the entire food chain is disrupted, ultimately
rain, add to the acids in the rain to form a more endangering the entire ecosystem. Differ-
corrosive solution. This is called acid deposition. ent aquatic species can tolerate different
levels of acidity. For instance clams and
Damage from acid rain is widespread in North mayflies have a high mortality when water
America, Europe, Japan, China and Southeast has a pH of 6.0, while frogs can tolerate
Asia. In the US coal burning power plants con- more acidic water, although with the de-
tribute to about 70% of sulfur dioxide. In cline in supply of mayflies, frog populations
Canada oil refining, metal smelting and other may also decline. Land animals that are de-

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 pendent on aquatic organisms are also af- 6.6.4 Ozone layer depletion:
fected.
Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on
5. Acid rain and dry acid deposition damages oxygen. It forms a layer 20 to 50kms above the
buildings, automobiles, and other structures surface of the earth. This action takes place
made of stone or metal. The acid corrodes naturally in the atmosphere, but is very slow.
the materials causing extensive damage and Ozone is a highly poisonous gas with a strong
ruins historic buildings. For instance the odour. It is a form of oxygen that has three at-
Parthenon in Greece and the Taj Mahal in oms in each molecule. It is considered a pollut-
India have been affected by acid rain. ant at ground level and constitutes a health
hazard by causing respiratory ailments like
6. Although surface water polluted by acid rain asthma and bronchitis. It also causes harm to
does not directly harm people, the toxic sub- vegetation and leads to a deterioration of cer-
stances leached from soil can pollute water tain materials like plastic and rubber. Ozone in
supply. Fish caught in these waters may be the upper atmosphere however, is vital to all
harmful for human consumption. Acid, life as it protects the earth from the sun’s harm-
along with other chemicals in the air, pro- ful ultraviolet radiation. The ozone layer in the
duces urban smog, which causes respira- upper atmosphere absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet
tory problems. radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth’s
surface.
Solutions: The best way to stop the formation
of acid rain is to reduce the emissions of sulfur This layer in the atmosphere protects life on
dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmo- earth from the dangerous UV radiation from the
sphere. This can be achieved by using less en- sun. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that
ergy from fossil fuels in power plants, vehicles chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs,
and industry. Switching to cleaner burning fu- which were used as refrigerants and aerosol
els is also a way out. For instance using natural spray propellants, posed a threat to the ozone
gas which is cleaner than coal, using coal with layer. The CFC molecules are virtually indestruc-
lower sulfur content, and developing more effi- tible until they reach the stratosphere, where
cient vehicles. If the pollutants have already been UV radiation breaks them down to release chlo-
formed by burning fossil fuels, they can be pre- rine atoms. The chlorine atoms react with ozone
vented from entering the atmosphere by using molecules which break down into oxygen mol-
scrubbers in smokestacks in industry. These spray ecules, which do not absorb UV radiations. Since
a mixture of water and limestone into the pol- the early 1980s, scientists detected a thinning
luting gases, recapturing the sulfur. of the ozone layer in the atmosphere above
Antarctica. This phenomenon is now being de-
In catalytic converters, the gases are passed over tected in other places as well including Austra-
metal coated beads that convert harmful chemi- lia. Although the use of CFCs has been reduced
cals into less harmful ones. These are used in and now banned in most countries, other chemi-
cars to reduce the effects of exhaust fumes on cals and industrial compounds such as bromine,
the atmosphere. Once acid rain has affected soil, halocarbons and nitrous oxides from fertilizers
powdered limestone can be added to the soil may also attack the ozone layer.
by a process known as liming to neutralize the
acidity of the soil. The destruction of the ozone layer is seen to
cause increased cases of skin cancer and cata-
racts. It also causes damage to certain crops and

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 to plankton, thus affecting natures food chains
and food webs. This in turn causes an increase CASE STUDY
in carbon dioxide due to the decrease in veg-
etation. Nuclear disasters and leakages

With the signing of the Montreal Protocol in In 1986 the Nuclear Power Station at
1987, a treaty for the protection of the ozone Chernobyl in USSR developed a problem that
layer, the use of CFCs was to be banned by the led to a fire and a number of explosions in
year 2000. After 2000, the ozone layer is ex- its Nuclear Reactor. The radioactive dust
pected to recover slowly over a period of about spread over many kilometers and covered
50 years. not only Europe but North America as well.
Three people died in the explosion and 28
shortly after due to radiation exposure. Some
6.6.5 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holo- 259 sick were hospitalized. As the area had
caust: to be evacuated 1,35,000 people had to be
moved immediately and another 1.5 lac by
Nuclear energy was researched and discovered 1991. As radioactive fall out continued even
by man as a source of alternate energy which more people had to be moved. An estimated
would be clean and cheap compared to fossil 6.5 lakh people may have been seriously af-
fuels. And although this did happen, along with fected. They may get cancer, thyroid
the benefits of nuclear energy came its down- tumours, and cataracts, and suffer from a
falls. In the short history of nuclear energy there lowered immune mechanism.
have been accidents that have surpassed any
natural calamity or other energy source extrac- As radioactivity passes from grass to herbi-
tion in their impacts. A single nuclear accident vores, sheep in Scotland and Reindeer in
can cause loss of life, long-term illness and de- Lapland were affected and were unfit for
struction of property on a large scale for a long human consumption. Vegetable, fruit and
period of time. Radioactivity and radioactive fall- milk were contaminated in Europe.
out leads to cancer, genetic disorders and death
in the affected area for decades after, thus af- A French Nuclear Waste Processing Center
fecting all forms of life for generations to come. in Normandy may have affected the lives of
children playing nearby. They may develop
leukemia (blood cancer) in later life.

Nuclear holocaust:
The use of nuclear energy in war has had dev-
astating effects on man and earth. The
Hiroshima and Nagasaki incident during World
War II, the only use of nuclear power in war in
history, is one of the worst disasters in history.
In 1945, the United States dropped atomic
bombs in Japan over the towns of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki. These two atomic bombs killed
thousands of people, left many thousands in-
jured and devastated everything for miles

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 around. The effects of the radiation from these with extreme difficulty can be used for forestry
nuclear bombs can still be seen today in the form or to recreate natural ecosystems.
of cancer and genetic mutations in the affected
children and survivors of the incident. Agriculture: Wasteland can be reclaimed for
agriculture by reducing the salt content which
can be done by leaching and flushing. Gypsum,
6.7 WASTELAND RECLAMATION urea, potash and compost are added before
planting crops in such areas.
Loss of vegetation cover leads to loss of soil
through erosion, which ultimately creates waste- Agro forestry: This involves putting land to mul-
lands. This is one of the pressing problems of tiple uses. Its main purpose is to have trees and
the country. Loss of soil has already ruined a crops inter- and /or under planted to form an
large amount of cultivable land in our country. integrated system of biological production within
If it remains unchecked, it will affect the remain- a certain area. Thus, agro forestry implies inte-
ing land. Unless we adequately safeguard our gration of trees with agricultural crops or live-
‘good’ lands, we may eventually face a serious stock management simultaneously.
shortage of food grains, vegetables, fruit, fod-
der and fuel wood. Hence, conservation of soil, Forestry: Attempts to grow trees in highly non
protecting the existing cultivable land and re- alkaline saline soils have been largely unsuccess-
claiming the already depleted wastelands fig- ful. Field experiments have shown that species
ures prominently among the priority tasks of like Eucalyptus, Prosopis and Acacia Nilotica
planning for the future. Some of the wasteland could not be grown in highly alkaline soil. Stud-
reclamation programs have been unsuccessful ies have shown that if tree seedlings are planted
because after sometime the land reverts to its with a mixture of original soil, Gypsum, and
original poor condition due to mismanagement manure, better growth can be achieved. It is
and unscientific ways in which the reclamation however important to use indigenous species
has been carried out. of trees so that the program recreates the local
ecosystem with all its species.
In choosing wasteland reclamation methods at-
tention must be paid to the cost factor. This has
to be taken into account before deciding on a Need for wasteland development:
particular method for reclamation of wastelands. Wasteland development provides a source of
A proper study of environmental aspects and income for the rural poor. It ensures a constant
human impacts which are responsible for the supply of fuel, fodder and timber for local use.
development of wastelands have to be looked It makes the soil fertile by preventing soil ero-
into. sion and conserving moisture. The program
helps maintain an ecological balance in the area.
Wasteland can be classified into three forms: The increasing forest cover helps in maintaining
(1) Easily reclaimable, (2) Reclaimable with local climatic conditions. Regenerated vegeta-
some difficulty, (3) Reclaimable with extreme dif- tion cover helps in attracting birds which feed
ficulty. on pests in the surrounding fields and function
as natural pest controllers. The trees help in hold-
Easily reclaimable wastelands can be used for ing back moisture and reduce surface run off
agricultural purposes. Those which can be re- rates thus helping in the control of soil erosion.
claimed with some difficulty can be utilized for
agro forestry. Wastelands that are reclaimed

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 Components of wasteland reclamation: velopment provide the local people with newer
The first major task is the identification of the technological advances. Guidelines regarding
problem at the micro level. For this it is neces- control of water logging must be provided. Ap-
sary to have District, Village and plot level sur- propriate technologies must be made available
veys of the wasteland. A profile of the maps to people belonging to the weaker sections and
indicating the detailed distribution and informa- landless farmers. Collective efforts have to be
tion on the wasteland is essential. With the help made to check soil losses through water and
of local government institutions such as the vil- wind erosion to prevent the collapse of the irri-
lage Panchayats, along with Block Development gation system through siltation. Plans concern-
Officers, Revenue Department functionaries, a ing wasteland reclamation and utilization
plan based on the community needs must be prepared at various stages must be properly in-
produced. This must be done through a partici- tegrated for a successful long-term outcome.
patory exercise that involves all the different
stakeholders in the community. A think-tank of
administrators, ecologists, and local NGOs must CASE STUDY
also be involved in the process.
Tehri, Uttar Pradesh
The next step is to identify the factors that are
responsible for the formation of wastelands. Nagchaund village in Tehri District of Uttar
Based on these factors the wasteland is classi- Pradesh was once an eroded and deforested
fied into: marginally, partially or severely dete- land. When Soban Singh Bhandari returned
riorated lands. Locale specific strategies for to his village after retirement from the army
reclaiming the wasteland must be worked out. in 1987 he was struck by this degradation.
Government officials along with the local NGOs After six months he became the pradhan of
must assist the farmers by demonstrating im- the village and decided to implement vari-
proved methods of cultivation, arranging for ous village development schemes differently.
loans for the small, marginal and landless farm- Through the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, he
ers and the people from the weaker sections of gained immense community support. In
the society. Involving local women has proved 1990 the Forest Department selected a 30-
to be of great value. Another essential compo- hectare barren piece of community land for
nent of the program is to organize publicity cam- a micro-watershed development program.
paigns, integrated with training farmers and The villagers controlled grazing in the area,
frontline Government and Forest Department undertook plantations for fuel and fodder.
staff on the various aspects of wasteland utili- Bhandari helped the village raise money by
zation. Environmental scientists can help by sug- selling the fodder from the area to a neigh-
gesting the necessary changes in cropping boring village and the money was used for
patterns particularly for drought prone areas. development and maintenance work. This
Other tasks that should be addressed include community effort has had a great impact on
the selection of appropriate crops for fodder and the ecology of the area. The moisture con-
trees that provide local people with non-wooded tent of the area increased and the water
forest products according to the nature of the sources of the villages were recharged. Lo-
wasteland. Testing soil in laboratories provides cal people now have access to all the natu-
guidance to the farmers on the proper land ral resources they need for their daily lives.
management to be used. Irrigation and other
expertise needed for improving productivity
without creating unsustainable patterns of de-

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 The demands of our increasing human popula- by the process of development. It is seen that
tion for environmental goods and services has today’s consumption patterns are depleting
imposed severe pressures on the available land natural resources at a rapid rate and widening
resources especially on the forests and green the inequalities in consumption in different so-
cover. This is closely linked to the wellbeing of cieties. Consumerism causes wasteful use of en-
the rural population which constitutes a large ergy and material far beyond that needed for
percent of the population which depends on everyday living at a comfortable level. Money is
local natural resources for their survival. The in- not the only way to measure the cost of an item
creasing demand for food, fodder, fuel wood, that we use. When one adds up all the raw
etc. has led to activities that are responsible for material and energy that goes into the manu-
increasing environmental degradation. This is re- facture of goods or the services provided by
sponsible for the extension of wastelands. Thus nature that one uses during a day’s activities,
the development of agro forestry based agri- the toll on the environment is large. When this
culture and forestry has become the prime pre- cost is multiplied over a lifespan, the amount is
requisite for an overall development of the staggering. If one considered the overutilisation
economy in the country. The pressure on land is in each family, city or a country, the impacts are
already very high and the only hope of increas- incredibly high. For example: two hundred bil-
ing productivity lies in bringing appropriate im- lion cans, bottles, plastic cartons and paper cups,
provement in the various categories of are thrown away each year in the “developed”
wasteland spread over the country. world. “Disposable” items greatly increase this
waste. Rather than compete on quality or reli-
ability, many industrial consumer products are
6.8 CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS made for one-time use. Buying quality products
that are warranteed against failure or wearing
Modern societies that are based on using large out, learning about the raw materials that things
amounts of goods, especially those that are are made of, and an appreciation of their origin
manufactured for one time use, are extremely from nature’s storehouse, as well as knowing
wasteful. The increasing consumption of natu- the conditions of the workers that make them,
ral resources has lead to serious environmental are some ways of resisting consumerism and
problems around the world. Current consump- decreasing waste.
tion patterns are depleting non-renewable re-
sources, poisoning and degrading ecosystems,
and altering the natural processes on which life CASE STUDY
depends. The present pattern of consumption,
especially in affluent societies, is mainly respon- Himachal Pradesh was the first State in India
sible for the high level of utilization of resources. to regulate the manufacture and use of plas-
People in the industrialized countries make up tics. The State proposed a ban on all types
20% of the world population but consume 80% of polythene packing.
of the world’s resources and produce 80% of
wastes. This is due to a pattern of economic
development that ensures that people go on
consuming even more than they actually need. While there may be some new appliances and
India is rapidly moving into this unsustainable cars that are more productive and energy effi-
pattern of economic growth and development. cient, discarding the old often leads to an al-
The rich in such a society get richer often at the most total waste of the energy and material
cost of the poor whose lives are not improved already invested in these products. This alone

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 may more than nullify the energy savings of the cal processes for production of goods has rap-
new product. This is a tricky problem. idly increased problems due to inadequate waste
disposal. This creates a heavy burden on natu-
Consumerism is related to the constant purchas- ral resources, degrades the environment and cre-
ing of new goods, with little attention to their ates health hazards. With the rapid increase in
true need, durability, product origin, or the en- population, the amount of waste in terms of
vironmental consequences of their manufacture quantity and quality has increased waste man-
and disposal. Consumerism is driven by huge agement pressures many fold in recent years. If
sums spent on advertising designed to create the high quantities of waste generated contin-
both a desire to follow trends, and a personal ues, mankind will be drowned under heaps of
feeling of satisfaction based on acquisition. garbage, and streams of sewage. His health will
Materialism is one of the end results of con- be affected by dangerous industrial effluents,
sumerism. and he will be smothered by clouds of smoke
and unhealthy gases. Human civilisation will run
Consumerism interferes with the sustainable use out of resources, preventing further develop-
of resources in a society by replacing the nor- ment.
mal common sense desire for an adequate sup-
ply of life’s necessities, with an insatiable quest The increasing demands of consumption on the
for things that are purchased by larger and larger finite resources of the planet, increasing level
incomes to buy them. There is little regard for of environmental pollution, and the problems
the true utility of what is bought. An intended of waste disposal must be changed to the care-
consequence of this strategy which is promoted ful utilization of resources, recovery of used
by those who profit from consumerism, is to material by waste recycling. Therefore reuse of
accelerate the discarding of the old, either be- goods and waste utilization should become a
cause of lack of durability or a change in fash- part of the production -consumption cycle. Uti-
ion. Especially in developed countries, landfills lizing various forms of waste must be made a
are being rapidly filled with cheap discarded part of the planning and development process.
products that fail to work within a short time Current patters in the industrial sector have led
and cannot be repaired. In many cases consumer to the disposal of waste in a careless uneco-
products are made psychologically obsolete by nomical manner. Burning or dumping wastes
the advertising industry long before they actu- into streams and oceans, or creating more land-
ally wear out. fills damages the environment. For example it is
estimated that the per capita production of do-
The inordinate amount of waste that is gener- mestic waste is many times higher in a devel-
ated by consumer-oriented societies around the oped country when compared to a developing
world is now a serious environmental issue. Most country. Unfortunately, many developing coun-
human activities are related to production and tries are now working out similar wasteful trends
consumption cycles which produce excessive through development, but do not have the same
amounts of waste in the form of solid, liquid economic potential to handle the waste this new
and gaseous waste products. The problems of unsustainable strategy produces. Large quanti-
waste management in the urban and rural sec- ties of solid, liquid and gaseous waste is pro-
tors are different. Rural communities that were duced by urban industrial communities in the
smaller, once had a limited amount of waste form of plastic, paper, leather, tin cans, bottles,
which was recycled as the communities used mineral refuse, and pathological waste from
them effectively. With the advent of an indus- hospitals. Dead animals, agricultural wastes,
trial civilization the highly complex technologi- fertilizer and pesticide overuse, and human and

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 animal excreta are essentially rural concerns. The Bagasse, a waste product of the sugar industry,
waste is either discharged into the atmosphere, is used in the paper, ply industries.
into water sources, or buried underground.
These wastes are not considered to have any The material left over after extraction of oil from
economic value. This attitude towards waste has seeds is used as cattle feed.
led to disastrous effects on the environment
besides over exploiting natural resources.
CASE STUDY

Reduce, reuse, recycle Plastic to oil

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, or the 3Rs principle, is
the new concept in waste management. But The Indian Oil Corporation Limited and the
what does it actually mean? Although some Department of Science and Technology are
waste is inevitable in any society, we must mini- expected to establish India’s first plant to
mize the generation of waste at the source by convert waste plastic into petrol, diesel and
using minimal resources. Do not use what you LPG.
do not need. The goal of every society should
be to reach a low-waste or no waste society.

Eg. Fancy packaging of consumer products in The generated waste or discarded material that
two or three layers is not necessary. cannot be used again in its original form can be
sent back to the industry to be broken down
Use your own reusable cloth/ jute bags instead and used as a resource to be made into a new
of plastic bags. product of the same type or into something
entirely different.
The residual waste can be converted into a
useable resource. In developed countries waste Eg. Plastic items are recycled into new plastic
is used to produce energy. products.

Several technological breakthroughs have re- Metal scrap and broken glass is used to make
cently been made to recover material from in- new metal products.
dustrial waste such as heavy metals and
chemicals such as mercury and nitric acid. Thus Finally, the waste material generated which can
the waste does not remain a waste product any- neither be reused or recycled, must be disposed
more, but becomes a useful resource. off in a proper manner with minimum impact
to the environment.
Eg. Using kitchen wet waste to make compost
that can be used as an organic fertilizer. - Non toxic solid waste should be properly
segregated and disposed off in landfills that
Using sewage in a biogas plant to make fuel. are properly sealed to avoid leakage and
contamination of surrounding land and
One industry’s waste could be a valuable re- groundwater.
source for another industry.
- Toxic wastes should be treated or disposed
Eg. Cloth rags from the textile industry are off separately in a proper manner.
bought and used by paper and other industries.

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 - Sewage and industrial wastewater should 1. Use only as much as you need, be it any re-
be adequately treated and raw materials re- source – water, food, paper, etc.
covered from it where possible before it is
released into our rivers and waterways. 2. Next time you throw away something, think
about whether it is really a waste. If it is of no
The 3R principle of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, use to you, could someone else use it?
should be followed in that order. Reuse rinse water to water your garden, etc.
Donate old clothes to the needy, instead of
- Reduction is the best option. If we reduce throwing them away.
at source, there is a smaller chance of waste
generation and the pressure on our already 3. If you are sure the item is not usable in its
stretched natural resources is reduced. present form, can it be recycled? Paper, plas-
tics, glass, metal can all be recycled.
- Reuse is the next best option, as the prod-
uct is reused in its current form without any 4. Segregate your waste into wet and dry gar-
energy expended to convert it into a new bage. Wet garbage includes most kitchen
item. wastes. Most of this can be used for composting.
Most dry garbage is recyclable.
- Recycling is the last option, as although it
converts a waste into a resource, it uses The amount of dry waste generated in your
energy to transform that resource into a household is an indicator of how well you are
new useable product. following the 3Rs principle. A lot of dry waste
means you should go back to the ‘Reduce and
Thus by following the ‘Reduce, Reuse, Recycle’ Reuse’ principles and try to follow them better.
principle, i.e. by reducing use at source, by re-
using and recycling whatever possible and fi- 5. Avoid the use of non-biodegradable materi-
nally by proper disposal of residual waste, we als such as Styrofoam and certain types of plas-
can cut down or the waste generated and en- tics.
sure that the minimal residual waste does not
harm our environment. This principle can be Although most plastics are recyclable, recycling
followed by everyone, from an individual or an still takes up energy, which is another precious
industry to a whole country. resource not to be wasted. If thrown away as
waste, Styrofoam and plastics can take hundreds
What can I do? You can follow the 3Rs prin- of years to decompose.
ciple in the following ways:
6. Do not litter or throw garbage in public places.
Garbage and litter is a visual contaminant and
can cause diseases health problems. Proper dis-
posal of garbage is an important part of waste
management.

7. Be a conscious consumer and do not buy prod-

ucts that are over packaged. Try choosing prod-
ucts that are made from recycled material or
are organically grown.

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 Resources must be conserved by proper selec-
Suggestions for better waste management:
tion, production technologies, recovering and
recycling what is usable and reducing unneces-
1) Every country must survey all the differ-
sary demands for consumption and inventing
ent forms of waste generation along
technologies which would make it possible for
with its sources. They must set up pri-
reusing the waste resources so as to reduce over-
orities concerning waste utilization.
exploiting of our existing resources.
Most waste can be converted to re-
sources which can enhance the
economy of the country.
6.9 THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT
2) Plans should be prepared for control-
ling waste at the source. This must in-
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 not only
clude segregation of wet and dry waste,
has important constitutional implications but
where the wet waste can be converted
also an international background. The spirit of
to compost and used and the dry waste
the proclamation adopted by the United Nations
is recycled.
Conference on Human Environment which took
3) Research and developmental programs
place in Stockholm in June 1972, was imple-
to find innovative methods of waste re-
mented by the Government of India by creating
cycling must be encouraged. Recycling
this Act.
should be a part of conservation and
environmental protection programs. Pri-
Although there were several existing laws that
vate and public organizations for waste
dealt directly or indirectly with environmental
recycling and management should be
issues it was necessary to have a general legis-
set up.
lation for environmental protection because the
4) Uneconomical methods of waste dis-
existing laws focused on very specific types of
posal like land filling, or incineration
pollution, or specific categories of hazardous
must be reduced to a minimum. Plans
substances or were indirectly related to the en-
for appropriate disposal of non-utilizable
vironment through laws that control landuse,
hazardous waste from chemical indus-
protect our National Parks and Sanctuaries and
tries must be implemented and strictly
our wildlife. However there were no overarching
monitored.
legislation and certain areas of environmental
5) Every community should organize exten-
hazards were not covered. There were also gaps
sive programs on education and dem-
in areas that were potential environmental haz-
onstration on the reduction of waste,
ards and there were several inadequate linkages
and the proper disposal and effective
in handling matters of industrial and environ-
reutilization of waste material. People
mental safety. This was essentially related to the
should be informed of the need for
multiplicity of regulatory agencies. Thus there
waste management to protect the qual-
was a need for an authority which could assume
ity of the environment. This should be
the lead role for studying, planning and imple-
included in the curriculum at school and
menting long term requirements of environmen-
college level.
tal safety and give directions to, as well as
6) Every society should make efforts to de-
coordinate a system of speedy and adequate
sign peoples’ life styles and cultural pat-
response to emergency situations threatening
terns based on low waste production.
the environment.
The goal of every society should be to
reach a low-waste or no waste society.

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 This Act was thus passed to protect the envi- dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic com-
ronment, as there was a growing concern over pounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond
the deteriorating state of the environment. As a prescribed level. To ensure this, Pollution Con-
impacts grew considerably environmental pro- trol Boards (PCBs) have been set up by Govern-
tection became a national priority in the 1970s. ment to measure pollution levels in the
The decline in the environmental quality, was atmosphere and at certain sources by testing
evidenced by increasing pollution, loss of forest the air. This is measured in parts per million or
cover and an increasing threat to biodiversity. in milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter. The
particulate matter and gases that are released
The presence of excessive concentrations of by industry and by cars, buses and two wheel-
harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and ers is measured by using air sampling equipment.
aquatic ecosystems leads to the disruption of However, the most important aspect is for
food chains and a loss of species. These are people themselves to appreciate the dangers of
symptoms of a rapidly deteriorating environ- air pollution and reduce their own potential as
ment. The growing risks of environmental acci- polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or
dents and threats to life support systems now the industry they work in reduces levels of emis-
looms threateningly over our civilisation. The de- sions.
cision taken at the conference in Stockholm
strongly voiced these environmental concerns This Act is created ‘to take appropriate steps
and several measures were made possible for for the preservation of the natural resources of
environmental protection. While the need for a the earth which among other things includes
wider general legislation to protect our environ- the preservation of high quality air and ensures
ment is now in place, it has become increas- controlling the level of air pollution.
ingly evident that our environmental situation
continues to deteriorate. We need to implement The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
this Act much more aggressively if our environ-
ment is to be protected. (a) To provide for the Prevention, Control and
abatement of air pollution.
Public concern and support is crucial for imple-
menting the EPA. This must be supported by an (b) To provide for the establishment of Central
enlightened media, good administrators, highly and State Boards with a view to implement
aware policy makers, informed judiciary and the Act.
trained technocrats who together can influence
and prevent further degradation of our environ- (c) To confer on the Boards the powers to
ment. Each of us has a responsibility to make implement the provisions of the Act and
this happen. assign to the Boards functions relating to
pollution.

6.10 THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrial-
OF POLLUTION) ACT ized and urbanized areas, which are also densely
populated. The presence of pollution beyond
The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean certain limits due to various pollutants dis-
up our air by controlling pollution. Sources of charged through industrial emission are moni-
air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power tored by the Pollution Control Boards set up in
plants, etc. are not permitted to release particu- every State.
late matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur

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 Powers and Functions of the Boards Whoever contravenes any of the provision of
Central Board: The main function of the Cen- the Act or any order or direction issued is pun-
tral Board is to implement legislation created to ishable with imprisonment for a term which may
improve the quality of air and to prevent and extend to three months or with a fine of
control air pollution in the country. The Board Rs.10,000 or with both ,and in case of continu-
advises the Central Government on matters con- ing offence with an additional fine which may
cerning the improvement of air quality and also extend to Rs 5,000 for every day during which
coordinates activities, provides technical assis- such contravention continues after conviction
tance and guidance to State Boards and lays for the first contravention.
down standards for the quality of air. It collects
and disseminates information in respect of mat- What can an individual do to control air pollu-
ters relating to air pollution and performs func- tion?
tions as prescribed in the Act.
1) When you see a polluting vehicle take down
State Pollution Control Boards: The State Boards the number and send a letter to the Road
have the power to advice the State Government Transport Office (RTO) and the Pollution
on any matter concerning the prevention and Control Board (PCB).
control of air pollution. They have the right to
inspect at all reasonable times any control equip- 2) If you observe an industry polluting air, in-
ment, industrial plant, or manufacturing process form the Pollution Control Board in writing
and give orders to take the necessary steps to and ascertain if action is taken.
control pollution. They are expected to inspect
air pollution control areas at intervals or when- 3) Use cars only when absolutely necessary.
ever necessary. They are empowered to provide Walk or cycle as much as possible instead
standards for emissions to be laid down for dif- of using fossil fuel powered vehicles.
ferent industrial plants with regard to quantity
and composition of emission of air pollutants 4) Use public transport as far as possible, as
into the atmosphere. A State Board may estab- more people can travel in a single large ve-
lish or recognize a laboratory to perform this hicle rather than using multiple small ve-
function. hicles which add to pollution.

The State Governments have been given pow- 5) Share a vehicle space with relatives and
ers to declare air pollution control areas after friends. Carpools minimise the use of fossil
consulting with the State Board and also give fuels.
instructions for ensuring standards of emission
from automobiles and restriction on use of cer- 6) Do not use air fresheners and other aero-
tain industrial plants. sols and sprays which contain CFCs that de-
plete the ozone layer.
Penalties: Persons managing industry are to be
penalized if they produce emissions of air pol- 7) Do not smoke in a public place. It is illegal
lutants in excess of the standards laid down by and endangers not only your own health
the State Board. The Board also makes applica- but also that of others.
tions to the court for restraining persons caus-
ing air pollution. 8) Coughing can spread bacteria and viruses.
Use a handkerchief to prevent droplet in-

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 fection which is air borne. It endangers the ever, preventing pollution is better than trying
health of other people. to cure the problems it has created, or punish-
ing offenders.
It is a citizen’s duty to report to the local au-
thorities such as the Collector or the Pollution The main objectives of the Water Act are to pro-
Control Board, and the press about offences vide for prevention, control and abatement of
made by a polluter so that action can be taken water pollution and the maintenance or resto-
against the offender. It is equally important to ration of the wholesomeness of water. It is de-
prevent and report to the authorities on cutting signed to assess pollution levels and punish
down of trees, as this reduces nature’s ability to polluters. The Central Government and State
maintain the carbon dioxide and oxygen levels. Governments have set up Pollution Control
preventing air pollution and preserving the qual- Boards that monitor water pollution.
ity of our air is a responsibility that each indi-
vidual must support so that we can breathe air
that will not destroy our health. Functions of the Pollution Control Boards:
The Government has given the necessary pow-
ers to the PCBs to deal with the problems of
6.11 THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CON- water pollution in the country. The Government
TROL OF POLLUTION) ACT has also suggested penalties for violation of the
provisions of the Act.
The Government has formulated this Act in 1974
to be able to prevent pollution of water by in- Central and State water testing laboratories
dustrial, agricultural and household wastewa- have been set up to enable the Boards to assess
ter that can contaminate our water sources. the extent of water pollution and standards have
Wastewater with high levels of pollutants that been laid down to establish guilt and default.
enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well as the
sea are serious health hazards. Controlling the The Central and State Boards are entitled to
point sources by monitoring levels of different certain powers and functions which are as fol-
pollutants is one way to prevent pollution by lows:
giving a punishment to a polluter. However it is
also the responsibility of people in general to Central Board: It has the power to advise the
inform the relevant authority when they see a Central Government on any matters concern-
likely source of pollution. Individuals can also ing the prevention and control of water pollu-
do several things to reduce water pollution such tion. The Board coordinates the activities of the
as using biodegradable chemicals for household State Boards and also resolves disputes. The
use, reducing use of pesticides in gardens, and Central Board can provide technical assistance
identifying polluting sources at workplaces and and guidelines to State Boards to carry out in-
in industrial units where oil or other petroleum vestigations and research relating to water pol-
products and heavy metals are used. Excessive lution, and organizes training for people involved
organic matter, sediments and infecting organ- in the process. The Board organizes a compre-
isms from hospital wastes can also pollute our hensive awareness program on water pollution
water. Citizens need to develop a watchdog through mass media and also publishes data
force to inform authorities to take appropriate regarding water pollution. The Board lays down
actions against different types of water pollu- or modifies the rules in consultation with the
tion. A polluter must pay for his actions. How- State Boards on standards of disposal of waste.

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 The main function of the Central Board is to that fails to comply with the directions given in
promote the cleanliness of rivers lakes streams the subsections of the law can be convicted or
and wells in the country. punished with imprisonment for a term of three
months or with a fine of Rs10,000 or both and
State Boards: They have the power to advise in case failure continues an additional fine of
the State Government on any matters concern- Rs.5,000 everyday. If a person who has already
ing water pollution. It plans a comprehensive been convicted for any offence is found guilty
program for the prevention of water pollution. of the same offence again, he/she after the sec-
It collects and disseminates information on wa- ond and every subsequent conviction, would be
ter pollution and participates in research in col- punishable with imprisonment for a term not
laboration with the Central Board in organizing less than two years but which may extend to
training of people involved in the process. The seven years with fine.
Board inspects sewage or trade effluents, treat-
ment plants, purification plants and the systems What can individuals do to prevent water pollu-
of disposal and also evolves economical and re- tion?
liable methods of treatment of sewage and other
effluents. It plans the utilization of sewage wa- 1. Inform the Pollution Control Board of any
ter for agriculture. It ensures that if effluents offender who is polluting water and ensure
are to be discharged on land the waste is di- that appropriate action is taken. One can
luted. The State Board advises State Govern- also write to the press.
ments with respect to location of industries.
Laboratories have been established to enable 2. Do not dump wastes into a household or
the Board to perform its functions. industrial drain which can directly enter any
water body, such as a stream, river, pond,
The State Boards have the power to obtain in- lake or the sea.
formation from officers empowered by it who
make surveys, keep records of flow, volume, and 3. Do not use toilets for flushing down waste
other characteristics of the water. They are given items as they do not disappear but reap-
the power to take samples of effluents and sug- pear at other places and cause water pollu-
gest the procedures to be followed in connec- tion.
tion with the samples. The concerned board
analyst is expected to analyze the sample sent 4. Use compost instead of chemical fertilizers
to him and submit a report of the result to the in gardens.
concerned Board. The Board is required to send
a copy of the result to the respective industry. 5. Avoid use of pesticides at home like DDT,
The Board also has the power of inspecting any Melathion, Aldrin, and use alternative meth-
plant record, register, document or any mate- ods like paste of boric acid mixed with gram
rial object, and can conduct a search in any place flour to kill cockroaches and other insects.
in which there is reason to believe that an of- Use dried neem leaves to help keep away
fence has been conducted under the Act. insects.

Penalties are charged for acts that have caused

pollution. This includes failing to furnish infor- 6.12 THE WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT
mation required by the Board, or failing to in-
form the occurrence of any accident or other This Act passed in 1972, deals with the declara-
unforeseen act. An individual or organisation tion of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries

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 and their notification. It establishes the struc- six years and not less than two years with a pen-
ture of the State’s wildlife management and the alty of Rs.10,000.
posts designated for Wildlife Management. It
provides for setting up Wildlife Advisory Boards. What can an individual do?
It prohibits hunting of all animals specified in
Schedules I to IV of the Act. These are notified 1) If you observe an act of poaching, or see a
in order of their endangeredness. Plants that are poached animal, inform the local Forest De-
protected are included in schedule VI. partment Official at the highest possible
level. One can also report the event through
The Amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act the press. Follow up to check that action is
in 2002 is more stringent and prevents the com- taken by the concerned authority. If no ac-
mercial use of resources by local people. It has tion is taken, one must take it up to the
brought in new concepts such as the creation Chief Wildlife Warden of the State.
of Community Reserves. It has also altered sev-
eral definitions. For instance in animals, fish are 2) Say ‘no’ to the use of wildlife products and
now included. Forest produce has been rede- also try to convince other people not to buy
fined to ensure protection of ecosystems. them.

While there are several changes, the new Act 3) Reduce the use of wood and wood prod-
still has serious issues concerned with its imple- ucts wherever possible.
mentation. Laws are only as good as the ones
that can be complied with. The Act is expected 4) Avoid misuse of paper because it is made
to deter people from breaking the law. How- from bamboo and wood, which destroys
ever, there are serious problems due to poach- wildlife habitat. Paper and envelopes can
ing. One cannot expect to use the Act to reduce always be reused.
this without increasing Forest Staff, providing
weapons, jeeps, radio equipment, etc. for es- 5) Create a pressure group and ask Govern-
tablishing a strong deterrent force. ment to ensure that the biodiversity of our
country is conserved.
Penalties: A person who breaks any of the con-
ditions of any license or permit granted under 6) Do not harm animals. Stop others from in-
this Act shall be guilty of an offence against this flicting cruelty to animals.
Act. The offence is punishable with imprison-
ment for a term which may extend to three years 7) Do not disturb birds nests and fledglings.
or with a fine of Rs 25,000 or with both. An
offence committed in relation to any animal 8) When you visit the Zoo do not tease the
specified in Schedule I, or Part II of Schedule II, animals by throwing stones or feeding
like the use of meat of any such animal, or ani- them, and prevent others from doing so.
mal articles like a trophy, shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term not less than one 9) If you come across an injured animal do
year and may extend to six years and a fine of what you can to help it.
Rs 25,000.
10) If the animal needs medical care and ex-
In the case of a second or subsequent offence pert attention contact the Society for the
of the same nature mentioned in this sub-sec- Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in your city.
tion, the term of imprisonment may extend to

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 11) Create awareness about biodiversity con- it became clear that forests must be protected
servation in your own way to family and for their other functions such as maintenance
friends. of soil and water regimes centered around eco-
12) Join organizations, which are concerned logical concerns. It also provided for the use of
with protection of biodiversity, such as goods and services of the forest for its local in-
Worldwide Fund For Nature –India (WWF- habitants.
I), Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),
or a local conservation NGO. The new policy framework made conversion of
forests into other uses much less possible. Con-
servation of the forests as a natural heritage finds
6.13 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT a place in the new policy, which includes the
preservation of its biological diversity and ge-
To appreciate the importance of the Forest Con- netic resources. It also values meeting the needs
servation Act of 1980, which was amended in of local people for food, fuelwood, fodder and
1988, it is essential to understand its historical non-wood forest products that they subsist on.
background. The Indian Forest Act of 1927 con- It gives priority to maintaining environmental
solidated all the previous laws regarding forests stability and ecological balance. It expressly
that were passed before the 1920’s. The Act states that the network of Protected Areas
gave the Government and Forest Department should be strengthened and extended.
the power to create Reserved Forests, and the
right to use Reserved Forests for Government In 1992, the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the
use alone. It also created Protected Forests, in Constitution furthered governance through
which the use of resources by local people was panchayats. It gives States the ability to provide
controlled. Some forests were also to be con- power to the local panchayats to manage local
trolled by a village community, and these were forest resources.
called Village Forests.
The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was en-
The Act remained in force till the 1980s when it acted to control deforestation. It ensured that
was realised that protecting forests for timber forestlands could not be de-reserved without
production alone was not acceptable. The other prior approval of the Central Government. This
values of protecting the services that forests was created as States had begun to de-reserve
provide and its valuable assets such as the Reserved Forests for non-forest use. States
biodiversity began to overshadow the impor- had regularized encroachments and resettled
tance of their revenue earnings from timber. ‘Project Affected People’ from development
Thus a new Act was essential. This led to the projects such as dams in these de-reserved ar-
Forest Conservation Act of 1980 and its amend- eas. The need for a new legislation became ur-
ment in 1988. gent. The Act made it possible to retain a greater
control over the frightening level of deforesta-
India’s first Forest Policy was enunciated in 1952. tion in the country and specified penalties for
Between 1952 and 1988, the extent of defor- offenders.
estation was so great that it became evident
that there was a need to formulate a new policy Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests: No
on forests and their utilisation. Large tracts of person is allowed to make clearings or set fire
forestland had already been diverted to other to a Reserved Forest. Cattle are not permitted
uses. The earlier forest policies had focused at- to trespass into the Reserved Forest. Felling,
tention on revenue generation only. In the 1980s collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarries or

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 collecting any forest product is punishable with 3) Be in touch with concerned local NGOs and
imprisonment for a term of six months, or with associations. Organize one with other like
a fine which may extend to Rs.500, or both. minded people if none exist in your area.

Penalties for offences in Protected Forests: A 4) Create awareness about the existence and
person who commits any of the following of- value of National Parks and Sanctuaries and
fences like felling of trees, or strips off the bark build up a public opinion against illegal ac-
or leaves from any tree or sets fire to such for- tivities in the forest or disturbance to wild-
ests, or kindles a fire without taking precautions life.
to prevent its spreading to any tree mentioned
in the Act, whether standing or felled, or fells 5) Pressurize the authorities to implement the
any tree, drags timber, or permits cattle to dam- forest and wildlife laws and rules to protect
age any tree, shall be punishable with imprison- green areas.
ment for a term which may extend to six month
or with a fine which may extend to Rs.500, or 6) Take legal action if necessary and if pos-
both. sible through a Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
against the offending party. Use the help
When there is a reason to believe that a forest of NGOs who can undertake legal action.
offence has been committed pertaining to any
forest produce, the produce together with all 7) Help to create public pressure to change
tools used in committing such offences may be rules laws and procedures when necessary.
seized by any Forest Officer or Police Officer.
Every officer seizing any property under this sec- 8) Use better, ecologically sensitive public
tion shall put on the property a mark indicating transport and bicycle tracks. Do not litter in
the seizure and report the seizure to the Magis- a forest area.
trate who has the jurisdiction to try the offence.
Any Forest Officer, even without an order from 9) Participate in preservation of greenery, by
the Magistrate or a warrant, can arrest any per- planting, watering and caring for plants.
son against whom a reasonable suspicion ex-
ists. Whom should forest offences be reported to?
If you as a citizen come across anyone felling
What can an individual do to support the Act? trees, encroaching on forest land, dumping gar-
bage, cutting green wood, lighting a fire, or cre-
1) Be alert to destructive activities in your lo- ating a clearing in Reserved Forests, Protected
cal green areas such as Reserved Forests and Forests, National Park, Sanctuary or other for-
Protected Forests, and in Protected Areas est areas, you must report it to the forest / wild-
(National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries). life officers concerned. For urgent action one
Report any such act to the Forest Depart- can contact the police. In fact you should file an
ment as well as the Press. Report of viola- FIR in any case because it serves as an impor-
tions can be made to the Conservator of tant proof that you have made the report.
Forest, District Forest Officer, Range Forest
Officer, Forest Guard or the District Com-
missioner, or local civic body.

2) Acquaint yourself with the laws, detailed

rules and orders issued by the Government.

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 6.14 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT passed. The Ministry of Environment and For-
OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION ests (MoEF) has identified a large number of
projects that need clearance on environmental
Environmental legislation is evolved to protect grounds. The EIA must define what impact it
our environment as a whole, our health, and would have on water, soil and air. It also re-
the earth’s resources. The presence of a legisla- quires that a list of flora and fauna identified
tion to protect air, water, soil, etc. does not nec- in the region is documented and to specify if
essarily mean that the problem is addressed. there are any endangered species whose habi-
Once a legislation is made at the global, Na- tat or life could be adversely affected. Most de-
tional or State level, it has to be implemented. velopment projects such as industries, roads,
For a successful environmental legislation to be railways and dams may also affect the lives
implemented, there has to be an effective of local people. This must be addressed in the
agency to collect relevant data, process it and EIA. There are 30 different industries listed by
pass it on to a law enforcement agency. If the MoEF that require a clearance before they are
law or rule is broken by an individual or institu- set up.
tion, this has to be punished through the legal
process. Information to law enforcement offi- Impacts created by each type of industry differs
cials must also come from concerned individu- and the proposed sites also vary in their sensi-
als. In most situations, if no cognizance is given, tivity to impacts. Some areas are more fragile
the interested concerned individual must file a than others. Some have unique ecosystems.
Public Interest Litigation (PIL) for the protection Others are the habitats of wildlife and some may
of the environment. There are several NGOs in be the home of endangered species of plants
the country such as WWF-I, BEAG and the BNHS or animals. All these aspects require evaluation
which take these matters to court in the inter- before a development project or an industry site
est of conservation. Anyone can request them is cleared.
to help in such matters. There are also legal ex-
perts such as MC Mehta who have successfully New projects are called ‘green field projects’
fought cases in the courts to support environ- where no development has been done. Projects
mental causes. A related issue is the fact that that already exist but require expansion must
there are several irregular practices for which a also apply for clearance. These are called ‘brown
bribe to an unscrupulous official is used to cover field projects’.
up an offence. Thus the general public must act
as a watch dog not only to inform concerned After the Environmental Protection Act of 1986
authorities, but also to see that actions are taken was passed, an EIA to get an environmental
against offenders. clearance for a project became mandatory.

Project proponents are expected to select a com-

6.14.1 Environment Impact Assessment petent agency to undertake an EIA. Projects can
(EIA): be classified into those with a mild impact, a
moderate impact or a serious impact. Some may
For all development projects, whether Govern- have temporary major impacts, during the con-
ment or Private, the MoEF requires an impact struction phase, which could later become less
assessment done by a competent organisation. damaging, or be mitigated by a variety of mea-
The EIA must look into physical, biological and sures. In other situations the impact may con-
social parameters. EIAs are expected to indicate tinue and even increase, for example where toxic
what the likely impacts could be if the project is solid waste will be constantly generated. Some

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 projects could thus cause temporary reversible cies without population assessments, or census
damage while others can have irreversible or figures of wildlife, or a study of the effects on
even permanent impacts. the ecosystem as a whole. Changes in landuse
patterns effect whole communities of living or-
To get an environmental clearance the proposer ganisms. This is rarely taken into account, as such
of the project is expected to apply to the State issues are difficult to assess in quantifiable terms.
Pollution Control Board. The PCB checks and
confirms that the EIA can be initiated. The Issues related to equity of resources that are in-
Agency that does the assessment submits a Re- evitably altered by development related projects
port to the proposer. This may take several are also not fully addressed. These cryptic con-
months. A Report of the Environmental State- cerns must be dealt with more seriously in envi-
ment is forwarded to the MoEF, which is the ronmental assessments and the public at large
impact assessment authority. should know and appreciate these inadequa-
cies. It is not sufficient to say that an EIA has
After 1997, the MoEF has stipulated that a public been done. It is the quality and sincerity of the
hearing should be done at the local level. The EIA that is of importance.
Pollution Control Board puts an advertisement
about the hearing in the local vernacular press. An EIA is not intended to stop all types of devel-
An Environmental Impact Statement which is opment. The siting of an industry can be se-
an Executive Summary of the EIA is kept for the lected carefully and if it is likely to damage a
public to read. The venue and time of the Public fragile area an alternate less sensitive area must
Hearing is declared. Once the hearing is held be selected.
and opinions have been expressed, both for and
against the project, the minutes of the meeting In some cases it is essential to drop projects al-
are sent to the MoEF. Though this is done, it is together if the anticipated impacts are likely to
evident that the voices of project affected people be very severe. In other cases it is necessary for
are still not heard. In some cases NGOs have the project to counter balance its effects by miti-
taken up the cause of local people. Until educa- gating the ill effects on the environment. This
tional levels and environmental awareness be- means compensating for the environmental
comes a part of public thinking and is objectively damage by afforestation or creating a Protected
based on the facts of the case, these hearings Area in the neighbourhood at the cost of the
will remain an inadequate tool to control pos- project. Rehabilitation and resettlement of
sible impacts of new development projects. project affected people is a key concern which
should be given adequate funds and done after
Experience shows that a large number of EIAs a consent is clearly obtained from the people
are inadequately researched and frequently bi- living in the area. In most cases it is advisable to
ased as they are funded by the proposer of the avoid resettlement altogether. If an area’s veg-
project. While most EIAs are adequate for stud- etation is being affected project costs must in-
ies on the possibilities of air, water and soil pol- clude the cost of compensatory afforestation
lution, they generally deal inadequately with and other protective measures.
issues such as preservation of biodiversity and
the social issues that may arise from future en-
vironmental impacts. 6.14.2 Citizens actions and action groups:

Biodiversity concerns frequently are sketchily Citizens must learn to act as watch dogs to pro-
considered and mostly consist of a listing of spe- tect their own environment from the conse-

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 quences of unsustainable projects around them.
Well informed citizens not only have rights but CASE STUDY
also have a duty to perform in this regard. They
can join action groups to develop a lobby to The Narmada Issue
strengthen the environmental movements in the
country, their State, town or village. The controversy over the plan to build sev-
eral dams on the Narmada River and its tribu-
Individuals can take one or several possible ac- taries symbolizes the struggle for a just and
tions when they observe offenders who for their equitable society in India. The construction
own self interest damage the environment for of these dams displaces many poor and un-
others living in the area. An individual has the derprivileged communities, destroying their
right to bring an environmental offence or nui- relatively self-sufficient environmentally
sance to the attention of concerned authorities. sound economy and culture and reducing a
This ranges from Government line agencies such proud people to the status of refugees or
as the Police, the Forest Department, the Col- slum dwellers.
lector or Commissioner of the area as the case
may be. At times the concerned officials may The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the
not be able to easily appreciate complex envi- Narmada Movement) is one of the most dy-
ronmental concerns and the individual may have namic people’s movements fighting for the
to learn how to communicate these issues in a rights of these underprivileged people who
way in which it becomes essential for the con- are being robbed of their homes, livelihoods
cerned officer to act in a pro environmental fash- and way of living in the name of ‘national
ion. If this does not work a citizen can seek legal interest’.
redressal under relevant statutes of law. The En-
vironment Protection Act and the Wildlife Pro- One such dam, the Sardar Sarovar Dam,
tection Act are the most frequently used legal when completed will drown 37,000 hectares
instrument for these purposes. It is possible to of fertile land and displace 200,000 adivasis
move courts by a Public Interest Litigation, and and cause incomprehensible loss to the ecol-
take this up to the Hon. Apex Court – the Su- ogy.
preme Court of India, which in the recent past
has given several highly enlightened pro-con-
servation judgements.

Citizen groups can resort to alternate means of

CASE STUDY
pressure such as ‘rasta rokos’, ‘dharnas’, etc. to
draw attention to important environmental con-
Silent Valley
cerns. They can also elicit public support through
the press and electronic media.
The proposed Hydel project at Silent valley,
a unique pocket of tropical biodiversity in
South India, in the 1970s was stopped and
the area declared a National Park in 1984.
This was achieved by several dedicated indi-
viduals, groups and organisations lobbying
to save the area from being submerged and
protect its rich biodiversity.

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 Among the many environmental battles that March 21: World Forestry Day can be used
have been fought in this country some have to initiate a public awareness campaign about
been won while many others have been lost. the extremely rapid disappearance of our for-
These projects have led to serious environmen- ests. The program must be action oriented and
tal degradation in spite of the laws intended to become an ongoing process with activities such
control such damage. as tree plantation.

April 7: World Health Day – The World Health

6.15 PUBLIC AWARENESS Organisation (WHO) came into existence on this
day in 1948. A campaign for personal sanita-
Environmental sensitivity in our country can only tion and hygiene to understanding issues of pub-
grow through a major public awareness cam- lic health, occupational health, etc. can be
paign. This has several tools. The electronic carried out. Topics that deal with environment
media, the press, school and college education, related diseases and their spread can be dis-
adult education, are all essentially complemen- cussed and preventive measures suggested.
tary to each other. Green movements can grow
out of small local initiatives to become major April 18: World Heritage Day can be used to
players in advocating environmental protection arrange a visit to a local fort or museum. Envi-
to the Government. Policy makers will only work ronment also includes our cultural monuments.
towards environmental preservation if there is Students could use this opportunity to create
a sufficiently large bank of voters that insist on awareness among the local people about their
protecting the environment. Orienting the me- very valuable heritage sites.
dia to project pro environmental issues is an
important aspect. Several advertising campaigns April 22: Earth Day was first celebrated in 1970
frequently have messages that are negative to by a group of people in the USA to draw atten-
environmental preservation. tion to increasing environmental problems
caused by humans on earth. This day is now
celebrated all over the world with rallies, festi-
6.15.1 Using an Environmental Calendar of vals, clean-ups, special shows and lectures.
Activities:
June 5: World Environment Day marks the
There are several days of special environmental anniversary of the Stockholm Conference on
significant which can be celebrated in the com- Human Environment in Sweden in 1972, where
munity and can be used for creating environ- nations of the world gathered to share their
mental awareness. concern over human progress at the expense of
the environment. This day can be used to project
February 2: World Wetland Day is celebrated the various environmental activities that the
to create awareness about wetlands and their college has undertaken during the year. New
value to mankind. On February 2nd 1971, the pledges must be made to strengthen an envi-
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International ronmental movement at the college level.
importance was signed at Ramsar in Iran. You
can initiate a campaign for proper use and main- June 11: World Population Day is a day when
tenance of wetlands in the vicinity of the city or the vital link between population and environ-
village. ment could be discussed in seminars held at
college and other NGOs.

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 August 6: Hiroshima Day could be used to globally and act locally’ to improve your own
discuss our own Bhopal Gas Tragedy and the environment. ‘You’ can make a difference to
Chernobyl disaster. our world.

September 16: World Ozone Day was pro- Biodiversity Conservation: A great proportion
claimed by the United Nations as the Interna- of the residual wilderness of India is now under
tional Day for the preservation of the ozone great threat. Its unique landscapes are shrink-
layer. This is a good occasion for students to ing as the intensive forms of agriculture and in-
find out more about the threats to this layer dustrial growth spreads through a process called
and initiate discussion on what they can do to ‘development’. Modern science has serious
help mitigate this global threat. The day marks doubts about the possibility of the long-term
the Montreal Protocol signed in 1987 to control survival of the human race if man continues to
production and consumption of ozone deplet- degrade natural habitats, extinguishes millions
ing substances. of years of evolution through an extinction
spasm, and looks only at short-term gains. The
September 28: Green Consumer Day could extinction of species cannot be reversed. Once
be used to create an awareness in consumers a species is lost, it is gone forever. Future gen-
about various products. Students could talk to erations will hold us responsible for this great
shopkeepers and consumers about excess pack- loss.
aging and a campaign to use articles which are
not heavily packaged could be carried out. We frequently forget that we are a part of a
great complex web of life and our existence
October 1-7: Wildlife Week can consist of depends on the integrity of 1.8 million species
seminars on conserving our species and threat- of plants and animals on earth that live in a large
ened ecosystems. The State forest Departments number of ecosystems.
organize various activities in which every stu-
dent should take part. A poster display, a street The following are some of the things you can
play to highlight India’s rich biodiversity can be do to contribute towards our ecological secu-
planned. Wildlife does not only mean animals, rity and biodiversity conservation.
but includes plants as well.

Dos:
6.15.2 What can I do?
1. Plant more trees of local or indigenous spe-
Most of us are always complaining about the cies around your home and your workplace.
deteriorating environmental situation in our Encourage your friends to do so. Plants are
country. We also blame the government for in- vital to our survival in many ways.
action. However how many of us actually do
anything about our own environment? 2. If your urban garden is too small for trees,
plant local shrubs and creepers instead.
You can think about the things you can do that These support bird and insect life that form
support the environment in your daily life, in a vital component of the food chains in
your profession and in your community. You nature. Urban biodiversity conservation is
can make others follow your environment feasible and can support a limited but valu-
friendly actions. A famous dictum is to ‘think able diversity of life.

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 3. If you live in an apartment, grow a terrace 12. Support Project Tiger, Project Elephant, etc.
or balcony garden using potted plants. Win- and join NGOs that deal with environmen-
dow boxes can be used to grow small flow- tal protection and nature conservation.
ering plants, which also add to the beauty
of your house. 13. Involve yourself and friends in activities car-
ried out during Wildlife Week and other
4. Whenever and wherever possible prevent public functions such as tree plantation
trees from being cut, or if it is not possible drives and protests against destruction of
for you to prevent this, report it immedi- the environment.
ately to the concerned authorities. Old trees
are especially important.
Don’ts
5. Insist on keeping our hills free of settlements
or similar encroachments. Degradation of 1. Do not present flower bouquets instead give
hill slopes leads to severe environmental a potted plant and encourage your friends
problems. to do so.

6. When shopping, choose products in limited 2. Do not collect unnecessary pamphlets and
packaging. It will not only help cut down leaflets just because they are free.
on the amount of waste in landfills, but also
helps reduce our need to cut trees for pa- 3. Do not use paper plates and tissues or pa-
per and packaging. per decorations when you hold a party.

7. Look for ways to reduce the use of paper. Habitat preservation: The rapid destruction of
Use both sides of every sheet of paper. Send forests, and the growth of human habitations
your waste paper for recycling. and activities have reduced the natural habitats
of animals and birds. Loss of habitat is one of
8. Buy recycled paper products for your home. the major pressures on several species and has
For example sheets of paper, envelopes, etc. led to the extinction of several rare and endemic
species. Many others are seriously threatened.
9. Reuse cartons and gift-wrapping paper. We therefore have the responsibility to preserve
Recycle newspaper and waste paper instead remaining habitats and their inhabitants.
of throwing it away as garbage.
The following are some ‘dos and don’ts’ that
10. Donate used books and magazines to can help preserve threatened ecosystems.
schools, hospitals, or libraries. The donations
will not only help these organizations, but
also will reduce the exploitation of natural Dos:
resources used to produce paper.
1. Visit forests responsibly. Remember to bring
11. Participate in the events that highlight the out everything you take in, and clean up
need for creating Sanctuaries and National litter left by others. Stay on marked trails,
Parks, nature trails, open spaces, and sav- and respect the fact that wildlife need peace
ing forests. and quiet. Study the ecosystem; it gives one
a greater sense of responsibility to conserve
it.

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 2. Be kind to animals. Stop friends from dis- They have a right to a peaceful existence.
turbing or being cruel to wild creatures such The zoo is in any case not an ideal home for
as birds, frogs, snakes, lizards and insects. them.

3. Learn about birds. Identify birds that are

common in your area. Understand their Don’ts
food requirements and feeding habits. Con-
struct artificial nesting boxes for birds. This 1. Do not disturb, tease, hurt or throw stones
will encourage birds to stay in your neigh- at animals in a Protected Area and stop oth-
borhood, even if their nesting habitat is ers from doing so. If you see an injured ani-
scarce. mal contact the Forest Officials.

You can learn more about birds by making 2. Do not disturb or destroy the natural habi-
a birdbath. Birds need water to drink and tats of birds or animals.
to keep their feathers clean. You can make
a birdbath out of a big ceramic or plastic 3. Do not use articles like leather handbags
saucer. Having birds around your home, and lipsticks, which are made from animal
school or college can even help increase spe- products. No wildlife products should be
cies diversity in the area. used.

4. Attract wildlife such as small mammals, such 4. Do not catch or kill butterflies or other in-
as squirrels, to your garden by providing run- sects. Butterflies, moths, bees, beetles and
ning or dripping water. Make a hole in the ants are important pollinators.
bottom of a bucket and poke a string
through to serve as a wick. Hang a bucket 5. Do not kill small animals and insects like
on a tree branch above your birdbath to dragonflies and spiders as they act as bio-
fill it gradually with water throughout the logical pest control mechanisms.
day.
6. Do not bring home animals or plants col-
5. Protect wildlife, especially birds and insects lected in the wild. You could be seriously
that are insectivorous and live in your neigh- harming wild populations and natural eco-
borhood by eliminating the use of chemi- systems where they were collected.
cals in your garden. Instead, use organic
measures from vermicomposting and by 7. Do not buy products like purses, wallets,
introducing natural pest predators. Do your boots and that are made from reptile skins.
gardening and landscaping using local If you are not certain that a product is made
plants, to control pests in your garden. from a wild species, its better to avoid us-
ing it.
6. If you have pets, feed them well and give
them a proper home and in an emergency 8. Do not buy products made from ivory. El-
proper medical care. ephants are killed for their tusks, which are
used to make a variety of ivory products.
7. When you visit a zoo learn about the ani-
mals that are found there but do not tease 9. Do not use any wild animal or plant prod-
or hurt them through the bars of their cage. ucts that are collected from the wild and

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 have dubious medicinal properties. You may 5. Add organic matter to enrich your garden
be endangering a species and even your soil. For example compost from kitchen
own health. scraps and manure from poultry, cows are
good sources of nutrients. Make sure ma-
Soil conservation: Soil degradation affects us nure is not too fresh and that you do not
all in some way, either directly or indirectly. There use too much. Healthy soil grows healthy
are many ways that each of us can help in solv- plants, and it lessens the need for insecti-
ing environmental problems due to loss of soil. cides and herbicides.

Following are some of the dos and don’ts for 6. In your vegetable garden, rotate crops to
conserving soil. prevent the depletion of nutrients. Legumes
such as peas and beans put nitrogen back
into the soil.
Dos:
7. Set up a compost pit in your college or gar-
1. Cover the soil in your farm or garden with den, so that you can enrich your soil with
a layer of mulch to prevent soil erosion in the organic waste from the kitchen and cut
the rains and to conserve soil moisture. down on the amount of waste it sends to a
Mulch can be made from grass clippings or landfill. Set up buckets in your college or
leaf litter. lunchroom where fruit and left-over food
can be put. Empty the buckets daily into a
2. If you plan to plant on a steep slope in your compost pit, and use the rich compost
farm or garden, prevent soil erosion by first formed in a few weeks to enrich the soil
terracing the area. Terraces help in slowing around the college. Kitchen scraps, leaves
the rain water running downhill so it can and grass clippings are excellent compost.
soak into the soil rather than carry the soil
away. 8. Encourage your local zoo, farms, and other
organizations or people that house a large
3. Help prevent soil erosion in your commu- number of animals to provide your commu-
nity by planting trees and ground-covering nity with bioferilizer made from animal
plants that help hold the soil in place. You manure. This can be composted to make a
might organize a group of citizens to iden- rich fertilizer, and it forms an additional
tify places that need planting, raise funds, source of income for the animal owners.
work with the local government to plant
trees, shrubs and grasses, and maintain 9. Buy organically grown produce to help re-
them over the long term. duce the amount of toxic pesticides used in
farms that harm soil organisms. Look for
4. If your college is surrounded by open space, organically grown produce in your grocery
evaluate how well the soil is being con- shop, or try growing some yourself if you
served. Look for places where soil can run have the space.
off, like on an unplanted steep slope or
stream bank, or where soil is exposed rather 10. Support environmental campaigns in your
than covered with mulch. These areas need State and community. Cutting down on ir-
special care and must be carefully replanted. responsible development can protect soil,
biodiversity, and enhance our quality of life.

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 Don’ts: 7. Use a drip irrigation system to water more
efficiently.
1. Do not remove grass, leave it on the lawn.
Cuttings serve as moisture-retention mulch 8. When you need to drink water, take only
and a natural fertilizer. as much as you need to avoid wastage. So
many people in our country don’t even have
2. Do not use toxic pesticides in your garden— access to clean drinking water!
they often kill the beneficial organisms, your
soil needs to stay healthy. 9. Saving precious rainwater is very important.
Harvest rainwater from rooftops and use it
Conserving water: Most of India has good av- sustainably to recharge wells to reduce the
erage annual rainfall, however we still face a burden on rivers and lakes.
water shortage nearly everywhere. This is one
of the major environmental problems in our 10. Monitor and control wastes going into
country. Conservation of this very precious natu- drains for preventing water pollution.
ral resource is very important and it is the need
of the hour. It should start with every individual. 11. Replace chemicals like phenyl, strong de-
It must start with you! Following are some of tergents, shampoo, chemical pesticides and
the things you can do to conserve this precious fertilizers used in your home, with environ-
natural resource. ment friendly alternatives, such as neem and
biofertilisers. Groundwater contamination
by household chemicals is a growing con-
Dos: cern.

1. Reduce the amount of water used for daily 12. For Ganesh Chaturthi, bring home a
activities. For example - turn off the tap ‘Shadu’ idol instead of a Plaster of Paris idol
while brushing your teeth to save water. and donate it instead of immersing it in the
river to reduce river pollution.
2. Reuse the rinsing water for house-plants.
Reuse the water that vegetables are washed
in to water the plants in your garden or your Don’ts:
potted plants.
1. Do not turn your tap on full force, instead
3. Always water the plants early in the morn- maintain a slow flow.
ing to minimize evaporation.
2. Do not use a shower, instead use a bucket
4. Soak the dishes before washing them to of water for bathing. A 10 minute shower
reduce water and detergent usage. wastes many liters of water as compared
to using water from a bucket.
5. Look for leaks in the toilet and bathroom
to save several litres of water a day. 3. Do not over water garden plants, water
them only when necessary.
6. While watering plants, water only as rap-
idly as the soil can absorb the water. 4. Do not pollute sources of water or water
bodies by throwing waste into them. This is
the water you or someone else has to drink!

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 5. Do not throw waste into toilets because fi- 9. Turn off the stove immediately after use.
nally it goes into water bodies.
10. Plan and keep things ready before you start
Conserving energy: Coal, petroleum and oil cooking.
are mineral resources and are non-renewable
sources of energy. At the current rate of fossil 11. Keep vessels closed while cooking and al-
fuel consumption, the present oil reserves on ways use small, narrow mouthed vessels to
the earth will last only for the next 30 to 50 conserve energy.
years. Crores of rupees are being spent to ex-
tract, process and distribute coal, petroleum and 12. When the food is almost cooked, switch
electricity. Experiments are being carried out to off the gas stove and keep the vessel closed.
generate energy from wind, and photovoltaic It will get completely cooked with the steam
cells. They are highly successful. At an individual already present inside.
level, every one of us should try to conserve en-
ergy. Following are some of the things you can 13. Soak rice, pulses etc., before cooking to
do to conserve energy. reduce cooking time and save fuel.

14. Get your family to eat together, it will save

Dos: re-heating fuel.

1. Turn off the lights fans and air conditioning 15. Select a light shade of paint for walls and
when not necessary. ceilings, as it will reflect more light and re-
duce electrical consumption.
2. Use low voltage lights.
16. Position your reading tables near the win-
3. Use tube lights and energy saver bulbs as dow and cut down on your electricity bill
they consume less electricity. by reading in natural light.

4. Switch off the radio and television when not 17. Use a bicycle—it occupies less space, re-
required. leases no pollutant and provides healthy
exercise.
5. Use alternative sources of energy like solar
power for heating water and by cooking 18. Try using public transport systems like trains
food in a solar cooker. and buses as far as possible.

6. Cut down on the use of electrical appli- 19. Plan your trips and routes before setting out.
ances.
20. Walk rather than drive wherever possible.
7. In summer, shut windows, curtains and Walking is one of the best exercises for your
doors early in the morning to keep the health.
house cool.
21. Get vehicles serviced regularly to reduce fuel
8. Use a pressure cooker as much as possible consumption and reduce pollution levels.
to save energy.

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 Don’ts:

1. Do not use unnecessary outdoor decorative

lights.

2. Do not use a geyser during summer. Instead,

heat water naturally with the help of sun-
light.

3. Do not use halogen lamps as they consume

a lot of electricity.

4. Do not put food in the refrigerator when

they are still hot.

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