Glossary of Terms for

Physical Geography and

Earth Science

Michael Pidwirny
Front Cover Photo: Blue marble composite image generated by
NASA in 2002

Copyright 1999-2023 Michael Pidwirny ii

 Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science
PDF Edition - Version June 13, 2023

Michael Pidwirny
Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences
Irving K. Barber Faculty of Science, University of British Columbia

Published by
Our Planet Earth Publishing

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced or utilized in

any form, or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means without the prior
written permission of the publisher.

Copyright © 1999-2023 Michael Pidwirny

ISBN: 978-0-9877029-0-6

Our Planet Earth Publishing

Kelowna, British Columbia,
CANADA, V1V 3B8
Email: [Link]@[Link]

Copyright 1999-2023 Michael Pidwirny iii

 Copyright © 1999-2023

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Copyright 1999-2023 Michael Pidwirny iv

 Preface
Glossary of Terms for Physical Geography and Earth Science was created to
help undergraduate students learn some of the common terms used in Physical
Geography and Earth Science. This version of the eBook contains over 4000
terms with more than 320 associated graphics. Regular updates will be made in
the future adding more terms to this resource.

You can download a PDF version of this eBook with interactive hyperlinks from
the following link:

[Link]
terms-for-physical-geography-and-earth-science-pdf-download/

The author, Michael Pidwirny, an Associate Professor in the Department of Earth,

Environmental and Geographic Sciences at the University of British Columbia,
Okanagan Campus, located in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada. He teaches
courses in introductory Earth Science / Physical Geography, Anthropogenic
Climate Change, and the use of statistics in Earth Science and Geography.

Please send any suggestions, comments or corrections to the following email

address: [Link]@[Link]

Thanks

Michael Pidwirny, Associate Professor

Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences
Irving K. Barber Faculty of Science
University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus
Science Building, 1177 Research Road
Kelowna, British Columbia
CANADA V1V 1V7

Copyright 1999-2023 Michael Pidwirny v

Dedication:
This book is dedicated to Sarah, Nicholas, and Parker who
share my curiosity for learning things about the Earth.

Copyright 1999-2023 Michael Pidwirny vi

 A
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

A Horizon - Soil horizon normally found below the O horizon and above the B
horizon. This layer is characterized by the following two features: (1) A layer in
which humus and other organic materials are mixed with mineral particles; and (2) A
zone of translocation where finer solid particles and soluble substances are removed
by the process of eluviation.

Abiotic - A nonliving thing. Use of the term often refers to the physical and chemical
components in an organism's environment. Also called inorganic.

Ablation - The surface loss of ice or snow from a glacier or snowfield by melting,
sublimation, and/or calving.

Ablation Zone - The region on a glacier where there is a surface net removal of snow
and/or ice by melting, sublimation, and/or calving.

Abney Level - An instrument used in surveying to determine slope angle and

elevation. Uses a sighting tube that is fastened to a moveable pointer and protractor.
From the protractor, one then reads off the angle of the sighting tube.

Abrasion - The physical wearing and grinding of a surface through friction and
collision by solid material carried in wind, water, or ice.

Abrasion Platform - A level and smooth area of land surface that is normally
exposed only at low tide. Forms when abrasive wave action cuts into land
formations along the coastline.

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Absolute Age - The age of a geologic event, deposit, mineral, rock, or fossil
measured in years. Compare with relative age.

Absolute Coordinates - A phrase used in geographic information systems that

implies the coordinates of points are measured relative to an assigned origin in a
two-dimensional computerized mapping system.

Absolute Drought - A climatological term used to technically suggest drought is

occurring. In the United Kingdom, it is defined as a period of at least 15 straight
days where no rainfall has occurred. In the USA, it is defined as an uninterrupted
period of at least 14 days without rainfall.

Absolute Humidity - A measurement of humidity in the atmosphere. Absolute

humidity is the mass of water vapor in a given volume of air (this measurement is
not influenced by the mass of the air). This measurement is normally expressed in
grams of water vapor per cubic meter (g/m3 or g m-3) of atmosphere at a specified
temperature.

Absolute Instability - A situation in the atmosphere where a rising parcel of air

becomes warmer than the air environment around it because of adiabatic expansion.
This causes an unstable atmosphere to occur in terms of weather and usually the
development of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds.

Absolute Stability - A situation in the atmosphere where a rising parcel of air

becomes colder than the air environment around it because of adiabatic expansion.
This causes a stable atmosphere to occur in terms of weather.

Absolute Temperature - Refers to a system of temperature measurement of an object

where absolute zero defines a state of lowest possible heat energy. See Kelvin
temperature scale.

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Absolute Vorticity - A meteorological term related to the vorticity of air moving
clockwise or counterclockwise in the atmosphere. Absolute vorticity is the sum of
two components: the vorticity caused by the Earth's rotation or the Coriolis effect;
and the vorticity of air's circulation caused by the change in wind speed and wind
direction over some distance.

Absolute Zero - A temperature of -273.15°C or -459.67°F or 0 Kelvin. At this

temperature atomic motion essentially stops and the kinetic energy of atoms is at a
minimum.

Absorbed Water - Water that is electrochemically held by the solid particles and
other water molecules found in a soil.

Absorption - (1) Process of taking in and being made part of an existing quantity of
matter. (2) The interception of electromagnetic radiation or sound.

Absorption (Atmospheric) - Atmospheric absorption is defined as a process where

solar radiation is retained by a substance found in the atmosphere and converted
into heat energy. The creation of heat energy also causes the atmospheric substance
to emit its own electromagnetic radiation. In general, the absorption of solar
radiation by substances in the Earth's atmosphere results in temperatures that get no
higher than 1800°C (3300°F). According to Wien's Law, bodies with temperatures at
this level or lower would emit their radiation in the longwave band.

Abstract Space - A geographic model or conceptual representation of the Earth or

some other celestial object. For example, the maps and globes we construct to
represent space on Earth are approximations of the real world. Compare with
concrete space.

Abundance - Total count of the number of individuals for one or more species found
in a certain area for a particular time.

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Abyss - (1) The deep part of an ocean or a sea. (2) A very deep canyon or gorge.

Abyssal Fan - A fan-shaped accumulation of sediment that is deposited by a stream

at the base of a submarine canyon, within an ocean basin.

Abyssal Plain - Another name for ocean floor.

Abyssal Zone - A vertical zone in the oceans that has a depth of between 4,000 and
6,000 meters (13,100 to 19,700 feet). The abyssal zone has no light penetration from
the surface. Seawater temperature at this depth is between 2 to 3°C (35-37°F) and it
generally lacks nutrients. Life is rare in this environment and the organisms that do
exist here are adapted to survive in crushing pressures. Also see (in order of depth in
a water body) pelagic zone, photic zone, aphotic zone, mesopelagic zone, bathyal
zone, hadal zone, demersal zone, and benthic zone.

Accidented Relief - A landscape with a highly dissected, uneven relief pattern.

Acclimation - The slow physiological adjustment of an organism to new conditions

in its surrounding environment.

Accordant Drainage - A pattern of stream drainage that is primarily determined by

the underlying geologic structure of the landscape. Compare with discordant
drainage.

Accretion - The gradual growth of the continental masses over geologic time
through the addition of marine sediments. These sediments are added onto the
edges of the continents through tectonic collision with other oceanic or continental
plates.

Accumulation - The surface addition of snow to a glacier or snowfield.

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Accumulation Zone - (1) Region in a glacier where there is a surface net addition of
snow. (2) The part of a hill slope that has a net gain of material leading to a
progressive raising of the slope's surface.

Acid - (1) Substance having a pH less than 7. (2) Substance that releases hydrogen
ions (H+).

Acid Deposition - The surface accumulation of acids, originally from the

atmosphere, in solid or liquid form. Also see acid precipitation.

Acid Precipitation - A form of precipitation with a pH less than 5.6. On average, the
normal pH of precipitation falling to the Earth's surface is 5.6.

Acid Rain - Rain with a pH less than 5.6. On average, the normal pH of precipitation
falling to the Earth's surface is 5.6.

Acid Rocks - An igneous rock that contains more than 66% free silica or silica in
combination with highly siliceous minerals. Compare with basic rocks.

Acid Shock - A sudden acidification of runoff waters from the spring melting of
accumulated snow in the middle latitudes because of the winter accumulation of
acid precipitation.

Acidic - Any substance with a pH below 7. Compare with alkaline or basic.

Acidic Solution - Any water based solution that is acidic (pH less than 7) or has
more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH-). Also see basic solution and
neutral solution.

Acidophile - A type of plant that is adapted to survive on acidic soils.

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Acre - A unit of area two-dimensional measurement, with no predetermined shape,
used in many countries including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and
Australia. One acre is equivalent to 43,560 square feet or 0.0015625 square miles.
Converting one acre to metric units equals 4,047 square meters or 0.4047 hectares.

Actinometer - Meteorological instrument used to measure the intensity of solar

radiation either by chemical or physical processes. Chemical actinometers use a
chemical reaction to determine intensity of sunlight. Physical actinometers can use a
thermopile, bolometer, or a photodiode to measure solar radiation strength.

Actinomycetes - A group of filamentous microorganisms. From an evolutionary

perspective, these organisms are between bacteria and fungi.

Active Fault - A fault that regularly has periodic movement.

Active Layer - Upper zone of the soil layer in higher latitude locations that
experience daily and seasonal freeze-thaw cycles.

Active Movement - The movement of an organism by its own means. This may
involve the use of morphological appendages like wings, legs, fins, etc. Compare
with passive movement.

Active Remote Sensing - A form of remote sensing where the sensor provides its
own source of electromagnetic radiation to illuminate the object being viewed. Radar
is an example of an active remote sensing device.

Actual Evapotranspiration - The amount of water that is actually removed from a

surface due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration.

Actual Mixing Ratio - Another term used to describe mixing ratio.

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Actual Resource - Is substance or thing that is currently being consumed and there is
some measured estimate of how much of this resource exists in the environment.

Adaptation - (1) Evolutionary adaptation - a genetically based characteristic

expressed by an organism. Particular adaptations found in populations become
frequent and dominant if they enhance an individual's ability to survive in the
environment. (2) Physiological adaptation - change in an organism's physiology as a
result of exposure to some environmental condition.

Adaptive Radiation - The evolution of a number of new species from one or a few
ancestor species over many thousands or millions of years. Normally occurs after a
mass extinction creates many vacant ecological niches or when a radical change in
the environment produces new ecological niches.

Adhesion - The intermolecular attraction that occurs between molecules of different

substances.

Adiabatic - A process where heat does not enter or leave a system. In the
atmospheric sciences, adiabatic processes are often used to model internal energy
changes in rising and descending parcel of air in the atmosphere. When a parcel of
air rises it expands because of a reduction in pressure. If no other non-adiabatic
processes occur (like condensation, evaporation, and radiation), expansion causes
the parcel of air to cool at a set rate of 0.98°C per 100 meters (0.54°F per 100 feet). The
opposite occurs when a parcel of air descends in the atmosphere. The air in a
descending parcel becomes compressed. Compression causes the temperature within
the parcel to increase at a rate of 0.98°C per 100 meters (0.54°F per 100 feet).

Adiabatic Compression - In our planet's atmosphere, adiabatic compression occurs

when a parcel of air lowers its altitude. The increase in atmospheric pressure with
lower altitude causes the parcel to increase in size and the gas molecules in the
parcel to move closer to each other, which in turn causes the temperature in the
parcel to increase at a rate of 0.98°C per 100 meters (0.54°F per 100 feet).

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Adiabatic Cooling - The cooling of a rising air parcel because of adiabatic expansion.

Adiabatic Expansion - In our planet's atmosphere, adiabatic expansion occurs when

a parcel of air rises in altitude. The decrease in atmospheric pressure with higher
altitude causes the parcel to increase in size and the gas molecules in the parcel to
move further apart from each other, which in turn causes the temperature in the
parcel to decrease at a rate of 0.98°C per 100 meters (0.54°F per 100 feet) if saturation
has not occurred.

Adiabatic Warming - The warming of a sinking air parcel because of adiabatic

compression.

Adret - The side of a hill that faces the Sun most directly. As a result, this area
receives more heat energy and light than other parts of the hill. Term is frequently
used in the Alps.

Advection - Process that involves the transfer of mass and heat energy using
horizontal motions through a fluid substance like air or water. Also see convection.

Advection Fog - Fog generated when winds flow over a surface with a different
temperature. Two types of advection fog exist. (1) When warm air flows over a cold
surface it can produce fog through contact cooling. (2) Cold air blowing over a warm
moist surface produces a form of advection fog know as evaporation fog.

Adventitious - Refers to the buds, shoots and roots that grow from unusual locations
on a plant. For example, a root that develops from stem tissue.

Adventive Cone - A small volcanic cone or crater that forms on the sides of a much
larger volcano.

Aeolian - A geomorphic process involving wind. Alternative spelling is eolian.

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Aeolian Landform - Is a landform formed from the erosion or deposition of
weathered surface materials by wind. This includes landforms with some of the
following geomorphic features: sand dunes, deflation hollows, and desert pavement.
Alternative spelling - eolian landform.

Aeolianite - A sedimentary rock consisting of aeolian sediment cemented together

by substances like calcium carbonate. The degree of cementation can be quite
variable and this factor influences the porosity of the rock.

Aeration Zone - See zone of aeration.

Aerial Camera - A specially designed camera used for aerial photography.

Aerial Photography - A form of remote sensing that captures images of objects using
photographic cameras and film from platforms in the atmosphere or space.

Aerobic - (1) Presence of molecular oxygen. (2) Occurring only in the presence of
molecular oxygen. (3) Being able to exist in the presence of molecular oxygen.

Aerography - Scientific study of the geographic range of populations, species,

genera, families, etc.

Aerosol - Term used to describe suspended solid and liquid particles found in the
atmosphere. These particles include bacteria, sea salt, water droplets, ice crystals,
smoke, condensation nuclei, deposition nuclei, various types of pollutants, dust,
spores, and pollen.

Aerosphere - Another term used to describe the atmosphere surrounding a planet or

other large celestial body.

Aestivation - A state in some animals where there is summer season inactivity and
metabolic reduction. Usually coincides with annual cycles of drought.

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Affluent - A smaller stream flowing into a larger stream.

Afforestation - The establishment of forest cover on a site that previously did not
support trees. Compare with reforestation.

Afrotropic - One of eight biogeographic realms found on Earth, where many species
have a unique evolutionary history because
of geographic isolation. Geographically, this
realm covers all of Africa south of the Sahara
Desert, the southern Arabian Peninsula,
Madagascar, southern Iran, southwestern
Pakistan, and various islands of the western
Indian Ocean (see Map). The climate of this
realm is mainly tropical to subtropical. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Afterglow - Curved area of white to orange to red light appearing for sometime after
sunset along the horizon. Afterglow occurs near the point where the Sun descends
below the horizon. Afterglow is created by the mie scattering of sunlight in the
atmosphere.

Aftershock - Small earth tremors that occur seconds to weeks after a major
earthquake event.

Agate - A semi-precious gemstone consisting normally of

fine-grained chalcedony quartz that occurs in different
colored alternating bands when seen in cross-section.
Commonly found in metamorphic and volcanic rocks. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Age - Shortest geologic time unit. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for more information on the geologic time scale.

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Agglomerate - A coarse-grained igneous rock made up of different sized fragments
of lava that have been lithified with volcanic ash and dust by heat. Associated with
explosive volcanic eruptions.

Aggradation - (1) Readjustment of the stream long profile where the stream channel
is raised by the deposition of bed load. (2) The buildup of the land surface because of
the deposition of sediments from aeolian, fluvial, and glacial processes.

Aggradational Ice - Horizontal below-ground layers of ice that form in the active
layer in permafrost environments.

Aggregate - An accumulation of soil particles that bind together to form a much

larger mass. Aggregates change the physical nature of a soil by increasing air flow
and permeability.

Aggregation Ratio - Soil science term that describes the proportion of different types
of clay minerals to the total weight of clay particles in a sample of soil.

Aggressivity - The ability of water to dissolve calcium carbonate in limestone

bedrock.

Agricultural Revolution - The transition from nomadic hunting and gathering

human societies to a more advanced society where agriculture generates most of the
food required for consumption. During the course of this transformation, the
practice of agriculture becomes increasingly more reliant on the use of tools,
machines, and technology.

Agroclimatology (Agricultural Climatology) - A subfield of climatology that

examines the longterm effect of climate on the components of agricultural systems.

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Agroforestry (Agricultural Forestry) - Is a hybrid approach to land-use that
combines the knowledge and technologies of agriculture and forestry to create a
more efficient, productive, and sustainable forest land-use system.

Agrometerology (Agricultural Meteorology) - A subfield of meteorology that

examines the short-term effect of weather on the components of agricultural systems.

Agronomy - Field of science that studies various phenomena associated with

agriculture.

Air Mass - A large body of air whose temperature and humidity characteristics
remain relatively constant over a horizontal distance of hundreds to thousands of
kilometers (miles). Air masses develop their climatic characteristics by remaining
stationary over a source region for many days. Air masses are classified according to
their temperature and humidity characteristics.

Air Mass Thunderstorm - Are common single-celled thunderstorms that develop

from a mass of unstable air. Compare with severe thunderstorm.

Air Parcel - A hypothetical volume of air used for modeling basic dynamic and
thermodynamic properties of the atmosphere. The air parcel concept is often used
for simulating adiabatic processes in the atmosphere and predicting atmospheric
stability.

Air Pollution - The addition of one or more noxious or harmful substances to the
atmosphere. These substances must be in concentrations high enough to be
hazardous to humans, other animals, vegetation, or human-made materials. Also see
primary pollutant and secondary pollutant. Also called atmospheric pollution.

Air Pressure - See atmospheric pressure.

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Airglow - A dim emission of visible light by excited gas atoms in the upper
atmosphere at night. In the Earth's upper atmosphere, airglow involves excite
oxygen atoms and molecules and often has an emerald green color. Also called
nightglow.

Airshed (Air Shed) - A defined geographic region within the atmosphere. This
concept is often used to manage the effects of pollution and other emissions on air
quality as it relates to the health of humans and other forms of life.

Airuille - A pointed mountain peak or outcrop of rock that has developed its form
because of the erosive forces of frost action.

Alas - A relatively large flat-floored depression with steep sides found in areas of
permafrost and thermokarst. These features may fill with water to form a lake or
pond.

Albedo - The reflectivity of a surface with respect to visible light.

Albers Equal Area Map Projection - A type of Conic Map

Projection system that depicts area accurately but distorts
map scale and shape of map features like coastlines (see
map of North America). This projection system is
commonly used in British Columbia, Canada for provincial
scale mapping and by the United States Geological Survey.

Alcove - A deep steep-sided recess on the face of a cliff that

was produced by fluvial erosion.

Alcrete - An aluminum-rich soil deposit that forms as a hard crust at or near the
ground surface. Forms mainly in the tropics, where high temperatures and high
rainfall cause the chemical weathering of soil and rock leaving behind deposits of

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relatively insoluble Al3+ ions. If the aluminum deposits are high enough, alcretes are
called bauxite which is a very important source of aluminum ore for surface mining.

Aleutian Low - Subpolar low pressure system that commonly forms near the
Aleutian Islands. Most developed during the winter season. This large-scale
atmospheric pressure system spawns many mid-latitude cyclones.

Alfisols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. Soil associated with
forest vegetation. Upper layers of this soil are relatively rich in organic
matter. Whitish layer found in the A horizon because of eluviation.
Illuvial layer forms in the B horizon. Image Source: U.S. Department of
Agriculture.

Algae - A simple photosynthetic plant that commonly lives in moist or aquatic

environments. Algae species can be unicellular or multicellular in body form.

Algal Bloom - A rapid increase in the population size of algae in a fresh or saline
aquatic system. Most blooms contain several hundred to millions of algae cells per
milliliter of water. However, there is no official threshold number of algae cells for
defining an algae bloom. Algae blooms can have negative effects on the other species
found in the aquatic system. Algae blooms can occur naturally or due to the effects of
humans, for example, nutrient fertilization.

Alien Species - See invasive species. Also called exotic species and an introduced
species.

Alimentation - The accumulation of snow and ice in a firn field adding to the mass
of a glacier.

Alkali - A term used to describe a chemical substance that is basic and has the ability
to dissolve in water. Some chemical elements that have this property include lithium

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(Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), francium (Fr),
beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and
radium (Ra).

Alkali Flat - A flat extensive ground surface

deposit of salts combined with other fine-
grained sediments. Commonly form when a
lake dries out because of a reduction in
precipitation or an increase in evaporation or
both. Also called a dry lake. Shown is an alkali
flat located in Steptoe Valley, Nevada, USA.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Alkali Soil - A soil that has a pH greater than 8.5 because of the presence of salts.
Soils with this level of alkalinity deter the growth of most plants.

Alkaline - (1) Having a pH greater than 7. (2) Substance that releases hydroxyl ions
(OH-). Compare with acidic.

Allele - Alternative forms of a gene. Each form produces a unique inheritable

characteristic in an organism.

Allelopathy - A particular form of amensalism found in plants. In this interaction,

one species produces and releases chemical substances that inhibit the growth of
another species.

Allerød Interstadial - A relatively short interstadial that occurred from 11,000 to

12,000 BP (before present) in Europe during the last major glacial advance of the
Pleistocene Epoch.

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Allogenic Stream - A stream whose discharge is generated from locations outside its
immediate area. For example, the Nile River's discharge does not come from the
Egyptian desert areas but from sources to the south of Egypt. Allogenic streams can
also receive much of their discharge from groundwater flow because of the presence
of permeable rocks.

Allogenic Succession - A plant succession caused by a change in environmental

conditions that is unrelated to the activities of the developing plant community.

Allometric Growth - A concept applied to organic and inorganic systems that

suggests a change in the size of the whole is correlated to changes in the size of the
parts that make up the whole. For example, when we compare the morphology of
mammals changes in body size are generally proportional to changes in the size of
skulls, leg length, heart volume, etc. Or in an inorganic system, morphological
analysis of streams of different size suggest the proportion of segments that falls into
order classes remains proportionally the same.

Allopatric Speciation - The evolution of a new species because of the isolation of a

small group of individuals from the other members of a population. Compare with
sympatric speciation.

Allopatry - Two or more things that occur in distinctly different geographical areas.
Often used by biologists concerning species or populations. Compare with sympatry.

Allophane - A hydrated aluminosilicate substance commonly found associated with

clay minerals.

Alluvial - Things related to a stream and its various associated landscape modifying
processes.

Alluvial Channel - Refers to a stream channel that is incised into alluvial deposits.

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Alluvial Fan - Large fan-shaped terrestrial deposit of
alluvial sediment (alluvium) on which a braided stream
flows over. These landscape features are formed when
stream load is deposited because of a reduction in the
velocity of stream flow. See image of alluvial fan found in
the Taklimakan Desert, XinJiang Province, China (Image
Source: NASA).

Alluvial Soil - A soil that is the product of alluvial deposits

from a stream. These soils are often fine-grained and composed of clay and silt
particles. An alluvial soil can also be composed of coarse-grained deposits.

Alluvial Terrace - Flat elevated bench composed of unconsolidated alluvium found

either side of a stream channel. Formed when a stream down cuts into its floodplain.

Alluvium - Sediment that originates from a stream. Compare with colluvium.

Alpha Particle - A particle of matter that is positively charged. Alpha particles

consists of two neutrons and two protons and is emitted as a form of radioactivity
from the nuclei of some radioisotopes. Also see beta particle and gamma rays.

Alp - (1) Any mountain with a relatively high elevation. (2) A summer pasture area
found below the snow line in a mountainous region.

Alpha Diversity - A measure of species diversity that focuses on the mean number
of different species within smaller subunits located in the broader landscape.
Introduced by ecologist R.H. Whittaker. Compare with beta diversity and gamma
diversity.

Alpine - Zone above the tree line but below the region of permanent snow on a
mountain.

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Alpine Glacier - A small glacier that occupies a U-shaped valley on a mountain. Also
called a mountain glacier and valley glacier. Compare with cirque glacier, piedmont
glacier, and continental glacier.

Alpine Orogeny - A period of mountain building in southern Europe. This orogeny

produced the Alps Mountains in Europe. This event took place from the late
Mesozoic to the Tertiary.

Alpine Permafrost - A form of permafrost that is found at high altitudes in

mountainous environments.

Alpine Tundra - High altitude biome or ecosystem dominated by a few species of

dwarf shrubs, grasses, sedges, lichens, and mosses. Biological productivity is low in
this biome because of the extremes of climate. Quite similar to tundra.

Alteration - Term used in Geology to describe a change in the minerals that make up
the composition of a rock. Often associated with chemical metamorphism.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1) - A hypothesis that has been suggested by a researcher

because it is believed to be false or because it is being used as a starting point for a
logical scientific argument. Used in statistical testing to help organize the testing of
logical arguments. Compare with null hypothesis.

Altimeter - Instrument used to measure the altitude of an object above a defined

surface, like sea level.

Altiplanation - A type of solifluction that creates flat-topped terraces composed of

loose rock. Also called cryoplanation.

Altithermal - A phase during the Holocene when global temperatures where 1 to 3°C
(2 to 5°F) warmed than today. The date for this warm period is about 9,000 to 5,000

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years ago. Also called Climatic Optimum, Holocene Megathermal, Holocene
Optimum, and Holocene Thermal Maximum, and Hypsithermal.

Altitude - The vertical distance above a fixed reference starting point. Most measures
of altitude use mean sea level as the base datum.

Altocumulus Cloud - Middle altitude cloud that is colored from

white to gray (see image). This cloud is composed of a mixture of
water droplets and ice crystals. It appears in the atmosphere as
layers or patches that are well rounded and commonly wavelike.
Found in an altitude range from 2,000 to 8,000 meters (6,500 to
26,250 feet).

Altostratus Cloud - Gray-looking middle altitude cloud that is composed of water

droplets and ice crystals. Appears in the atmosphere as dense sheet-like layer. Can be
recognized from stratus clouds by the fact that you can see the Sun through it. Found
in an altitude range from 2,000 to 8,000 meters (6,500 to 26,250 feet).

Alveole - A network of small depressions found on the surface of a rock because of

chemical weathering.

Ambient Temperature - The temperature of the environment surrounding or within

some object or thing.

Amensalism - Interspecific interaction between different species where one species

suffers in terms of fitness, while the fitness of the other species does not change. See
allelopathy.

Amino Acid - A complex organic molecule containing mainly containing atoms of

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Used by organisms to construct proteins.

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Ammonia - Chemical compound composed of nitrogen and hydrogen (NH3). A
major component of the nitrogen cycle. Released from organic matter when
decomposed.

Ammonium - Chemical compound composed of nitrogen and hydrogen (NH+4). A

major component of the nitrogen cycle. Product of organic matter decomposition.
Ammonium can be fixed to clay minerals found in soil and later chemically
exchanged.

Ammonium Fixation - A soil process where ammonium ions (NH+4) are absorbed
onto negatively charged sites found in a clay particle. Once absorbed, these
ammonium ions are not readily available to plants.

Amphibian - Group of vertebrate animals that can inhabit both terrestrial and
aquatic habitats. This group of animals
contains frogs, newts, and salamanders.
These organisms live at the land/water
interface and spend most of their life in
water. From an evolutionary perspective,
these organisms are descended from fish and
are ancestors to reptiles. Shown is the frog
species Litoria caerulea. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, this image is in the public
domain. See the Encyclopedia of Life for more
information on this group of organisms. [Link]

Amphibole - A group of double-chained inosilicate minerals whose basic chemical

unit is the tetrahedron (SiO4). Amphiboles are common rock-forming minerals and
are found in most igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks. They form at low
temperatures with the presence of water in the crystallization environment. There
are about 60 recognized mineral types in this group.

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Amphidromic System - The circular movement of near-surface water within an
ocean basin driven by a tidal cycle and Coriolis effect. Embedded within this flow
are high tide wave crests and low tide wave troughs. Such systems move
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Amplitude - A vertical measure of a wave from its center or equilibrium to the next
wave crest.

Anabatic Wind - A local type of wind that is generated by surface heating and
travels upslope. A valley breeze is an example of a anabatic wind.

Anabranch - A segment of a stream that branches away from the main stream
channel and rejoins with the main stream channel somewhere downstream.
Anabranching creates small islands in the stream system.

Anabranching - A type of stream channel pattern. Similar to a braided stream

channel pattern except that islands tend to be much wider than the width of the
stream channel.

Anadromy - A migration behavior found in some fish species where individuals

move from seawater to freshwater for reproduction.

Anaerobic - (1) Absence of molecular oxygen. (2) Occurring only in the absence of
molecular oxygen. (3) Being able to exist without the presence of molecular oxygen.

Anaerobic Respiration - See fermentation.

Anafront - A situation of strong frontal activity where warm air rises up and over the
surface of a cold or warm front to high altitudes. The moisture in this rising warm air
usually produces precipitation that falls a considerable distance from the surface

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edge of the front. Associated with mid-latitude cyclones and cyclogenesis. Compare
with katafront.

Analemma - (1) Is a curve drawn on a

globe to describe the daily declination of
the Sun. This curve allows one to find the
line of latitude where the Sun will be
directly overhead at solar noon for a
specific date during the year. (2) A curve
that plots the position of the Sun in the
daytime sky at the same time each day, over
a calendar year, for a particular Earth
location. Shown is a plot of the Sun at 12:00
(noon) for the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich (latitude 51.5° North, longitude 0°) Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, this
image is in the public domain.

Anamolistic Tidal Cycle - A tidal cycle caused by the repeated change in the
distance between the Earth and Moon over 27.5 days.

Anaseism - The vertical movement of seismic waves away from an earthquake

focus.

Anastomosing - The rejoining of two stream channels that were created by the
division a single channel somewhere upstream. Commonly seen in braided stream
systems.

Anchor Ice - Submerged ice attached to the bottom of a water body like a stream,
lake, or sea.

Andesite - An extrusive igneous rock that develops from a magma that is chemically
between felsic and mafic and whose mineral crystals are fine.

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Andisols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources Conservation
Service Soil Classification System. These soils develop from parent materials that are
volcanic in origin. Image Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Andosols - A common soil type that develops from volcanic deposits. These soils are
dark in color and very fertile.

Anemograph - Meteorological instrument that constantly records wind speed and

direction.

Anemometer - Meteorological instrument used to measure wind speed. These

instruments commonly employ four methods to measure this weather phenomenon:
(1) A device with three or four open cups attached to a rotating
spindle. The speed of rotation is then converted into a
measurement of wind speed; (2) A device that correlates
propellor spin speed with wind speed (see the image, Image
Source: NOAA); (3) A pressure plate that measures the force
exerted by the moving wind at right angles; and (4) An
instrument consisting of a heated-wire where electrical
resistance (temperature of the wire) is adjusted to account for
heat lost by airflow. The faster the wind the greater the heat
loss and thus the more energy that is required to keep the wire at a constant
temperature. As a result, wind speed is measured by the drain of electrical current.

Aneroid Barometer - A commonly used type of barometer that

measures atmospheric pressure by way of the expansion and
contraction of a sealed hollow cell which is partially depleted of
air.

Angiosperms - A large group of species of vascular plants that

cover their seeds in a mature ovary or fruit.

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Angle of Declination - (1) The angle from the direction produced by a magnetic
needle in a compass to True North. (2) The angle created to some object in space to
some reference horizontal plane.

Angle of Incidence - Angle at which the Sun's rays or insolation strike the Earth's
surface. If the Sun is positioned directly overhead or 90° from the horizon, the
incoming insolation strikes the surface of the Earth at right angles and is most
intense.

Angle of Repose - Measurement commonly used in civil engineering. It is the

maximum angle at which a material can be inclined without structurally failing.
Geomorphologists use this measurement to determine the stability of a slope to mass
movement.

Angular Momentum - Abstract concept in physics that models an object's speed of

travel at a distance from an axis of rotation. Mathematically it is the product of an
object's mass, it's velocity and its distance from the center of rotation. Also see
momentum.

Angular Unconformity - Is a sedimentary deposit where

horizontal layers of younger sedimentary rock are deposited
on older layers that are tilted and eroded creating an
angular discordance (see figure).

Angular Velocity - The velocity at which a rotating object spins measured in angular
displacement per unit time. Normally measured in radians or degrees per second or
per hour.

Anhydrite - A mineral composed of anhydrous calcium sulfate (CaSO4). Anhydrite

minerals are commonly found in gypsum.

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Animal - Organisms that belong to the kingdom Animalia. General characteristics of
these organisms include eukaryotic cell type, mitochondria, and most have a
complex nervous system. This group of life includes organisms like sponges,
jellyfishes, arthropods (insects, spiders, shrimp, and lobsters), mollusks (snails,
clams, oysters, and octopuses), fish, amphibians (frogs, toads, and salamanders),
reptiles (turtles, lizards, alligators, crocodiles, and snakes), birds, and mammals
(kangaroos, bats, cats, rabbits, elephants, whales, porpoises, monkeys, apes, and
humans). See the Encyclopedia of Life for more information on this group of
organisms. [Link]

Animal Territory - The spatial area defended by an individual of a particular animal

species against other members of its species or animals of other species.

Animalia - Group, at the kingdom level, in the classification of life. Multicellular

organisms that have a eukaryotic cell type, mitochondria, and a complex nervous
system. See the term animal for more information. See Encyclopedia of Life.

Anion - An ion carrying a negative atomic charge. Examples of anions include nitrite
(NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-).

Anisotropy - An object or thing that has an attribute whose measurement changes

value with direction. Compare with isotropy.

Annual Mean Global Temperature - Normally, it is the annual mean temperature

value calculated from all of Earth's surface (terrestrial and ocean) meteorological
stations for a particular year. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
calculated the annual mean global temperature for 2011 to be 14.41°C (57.94°F). This
value can also be calculated for a specific number of years. For the 30-year period
1961 and 1990, the annual mean global temperature was about 14.0°C (57.2°F).
NASA uses the period 1951-1980 for comparative purposes and suggests the average
annual mean global temperature for this 30-year period was 14.0°C. Also called
annual average global temperature.

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Annual Mean Temperature - The average surface temperature as recorded at a
meteorological station for a location for a particular year. Usually, it is calculated by
summing all of monthly mean temperatures and then dividing by 12.

Annual Plant - A species of plant that completes its life in one growing season.

Annual Temperature Range - The numerical difference between the warmest and
coldest monthly mean temperatures for a particular year. Two factors that have a
strong influence on this measure are latitude and distance from large water bodies.
Locations near the equator generally have a smaller annual temperature range when
compared to locations closer to the poles. Locations in the center of continents away
from the moderating effects of oceans also tend to have larger annual temperature
ranges.

Annular Drainage - A stream drainage pattern that is circular or

ring-like in appearance (see figure). Annular drainage occurs
when streams differentially erode into softer horizontal rock
layers that exist in a dome or in a basin landscape feature.

Antarctic - (1) A region of the Earth found south of 66.5° South latitude. The
Antarctic consists of the Southern Ocean and the continent of Antarctica. (2) One of
eight biogeographic realms found on Earth, where many species have a unique
evolutionary history because of geographic isolation. Geographically, this realm
covers all of Antarctica. The climate of this realm is polar.

Antarctic Circle - Latitude of 66.5° South. The northern limit of the area of the Earth
that experiences 24 hours of darkness or 24 hours of day at least one day during the
year.

Antarctic High - A region of high pressure that occupies central Antarctic

throughout the year. This pressure system is responsible for creating surface air
masses with very cold temperatures and extremely low humidity.

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Antecedent Drainage - A stream drainage system that has maintained its particular
pattern despite changes in the landscape because of localized landscape uplift.

Antecedent Moisture - Refers to the moisture conditions found in an area or within

a soil before a rainfall event.

Anthracite - A type of coal that has the highest carbon content and the least
impurities. Anthracite has a carbon content is between 92.1% and 98%.

Anthromorphic Soil - A type of soil that has formed recognizable characteristics

because of the activities of humans.

Anthropochore - A plant species that has been introduced to a habitat directly (for
example, as a crop plant) or indirectly (for example, as a weed) by the direct or
indirect action of humans.

Anthropogeomorphology - The geomorphological study of humans as an agent in

landscape processes and forms.

Anticline - A fold in layers of rock that forms an

upward arch or has a convex shape (see figure).
Shown is a symmetrical anticline. Anticlines can
also be asymmetrical. Compare with syncline,
monocline, overturned fold, and recumbent fold.

Anticyclone - An atmospheric pressure system consisting of an area of high pressure

and outward circular wind flow near the ground surface. In the Northern
Hemisphere winds from an anticyclone blow clockwise, while Southern Hemisphere
systems blow counterclockwise. Compare with cyclone.

Antidune - A stream bed alluvial deposit which migrates upstream against the
direction of water flow. Found in the shallow areas of streams that have a relatively

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high flow rate. Antidunes look very similar to ripples. However, these stream bed
features develop in low flow conditions. Also see bedforms.

Antiform - A landscape feature that is made of folded layers of rock that arch
upward (convex shape). Antiforms differ from anticlines in that the oldest rocks may
not be exposed in the middle of the feature.

Antipodes - Two locations on the Earth's surface that if you draw a straight line
between them, the line will pass through the planet's center.

Antitrades - An extensive layer of westerly wind in the troposphere that exists above
the easterly trade winds.

Anvil Cloud - A cumulonimbus cloud that

has reached the bottom of the stratosphere
and has subsequently stop its vertical
development, forming an anvil-shaped top.
Also called cumulonimbus incus. Shown is an
anvil cloud that formed over the border of
Italy and France on June 23, 2008. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, photograph by
Hussein Kefel. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.

Aphelion - The point in the Earth's orbit when it is farthest from the Sun. This
distance is about 152.1 million kilometers (94.5 million miles). Aphelion occurs on
the 3rd or 4th of July. Compare with perihelion.

Aphotic Zone - The layer of water in a lake, sea, or ocean where little or no sunlight
penetrates the water column. Technically this layer begins when less than 1% of the
sunlight is available in the water column. Many organisms found at this depth create
their own light via bioluminescence. In an ocean, this layer starts at a depth of

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between 200 and 1,000 meters (660 to 3,300 feet) and extends to the ocean floor. The
aphotic zone is further subdivided into the bathyal zone, abyssal zone, and hadal
zone. Also see (in order of depth in a water body) pelagic zone, photic zone,
mesopelagic zone, demersal zone, and benthic zone.

Aphytic Zone - The portion of the floor of a lake, sea, or ocean that is devoid of plant
growth because it is too deep for significant light penetration.

Apogean Tide - A type of tide that occurs when the Moon is farthest from the Earth
(apogee). Apogean tides have a less range between successive high tide and low tide
events because of reduced tide producing power from the Moon.

Apogee - The point along a celestial body's orbit (for example, the Moon) when it is
farthest from the Earth.

Apparent Dip - The perceived angle of dip of a geologic layer based on information
from a two-dimensional vertical cross-section. If the cross-section is perpendicular
to the strike of the layer, the apparent dip will be equal to the true dip.

Applied Physical Geography - A field of applied science that uses theoretical

information from the various sub-disciplines of Physical Geography to manage and
solve problems related to natural phenomena found in the real world.

Apposed Glacier - A glacier produced by the meeting and joining of two separate
glaciers.

Apron - The outer edge of shallow angle alluvial sediment associated with an
alluvial fan.

Aquaculture - The human activity of raising of freshwater and seawater populations

of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants under controlled and often artificial
conditions for resource use and consumption. Also called aquafarming.

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Aquatic - With reference to water.

Aquatic Macrophyte - A plant that grows in an aquatic environment and has parts of
its body involved in photosynthesis that is emergent, submerged, or floating on the
water surface for at least part of the time.

Aquatic Plant - See hydrophyte.

Aquiclude - Rock formations that are impermeable to groundwater. These

formations do not absorb or transmit significant amounts of water vertically or
horizontally. Also called aquifuge.

Aquifer - Rock formations that store groundwater.

Aquifer Recharge Area - The surface area that provides water for an aquifer.

Aquifuge - See aquiclude.

Arboreal - Something related to or living in a tree.

Arch - A natural formation in rock that contains a

curved arch. Such landscape features are
common along coastlines and form because of
wave erosion. Arches can also be found in arid
landscapes. In this environment, the process
responsible for the formation is wind erosion.
Shown is a wind caused arch formation in Arches
National Park, Utah, United States. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 2.5 Generic license.

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Archaea - A group of recently discovered organisms that visually resemble bacteria.
However, these organisms are biochemically and genetically very different from
bacteria. Some species of the domain Archaea live in the most extreme environments
found on our planet. See the Encyclopedia of Earth for more information on this group
of organisms. [Link]

Archaeological Dating - The dating of a thing or event using a chronological

calendar associated with the known historical accomplishments of humans.

Archaebacteria - A term used to describe organisms that belong to the biological

domain Archaea.

Archean - Geologic eon that occurred from 2.5 to 3.8 billion years ago. During this
period, the first single-celled prokaryote organisms evolved and developed. Also see
Hadean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic Eons. See the International Commission on
Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Archipelago - A group of islands arranged in an arc shape. These islands are usually
of volcanic origin and are associated with subduction zones.

Arctic - The region of the Earth found north of 66.5° North latitude. The Arctic
consists of the Arctic Ocean and all or parts of the United States, Canada, Russia,
Greenland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland.

Arctic Air Mass - See Continental Arctic Air Mass.

Arctic Circle - Latitude of 66.5° North. The southern limit of the area of the Earth
that experiences 24 hours of darkness or 24 hours of day at least one day during the
year.

Arctic Front - Is a weather front (line with triangles on it) that separates a
Continental Arctic (cA) air mass from a Continental Polar (cP) air mass (Image Source:

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Wikipedia Commons, NOAA). Arctic fronts are
not very active in terms of the weather they
create because they involve the interaction of
air masses with similar temperature and
moisture characteristics. Compare with polar
front.

Arctic Haze - A reddish-brown haze that

develops in the springtime at high latitude
locations. This form of air pollution is the result
of human activities. Tends to persist for an extended period because of a lack of
atmospheric mixing and limited precipitation to wash out pollution.

Arctic Ocean - The smallest of the world's five ocean regions, covering about 3% of
the Earth's total surface area and has a total area of
about 14,056,000 square kilometers (5,426,000
square miles). Most of this nearly landlocked ocean
region is located north of the Arctic Circle (see figure,
Map Source: CIA Factbook, Wikimedia Commons). The
Arctic Ocean is also the shallowest ocean region with
an average depth of 1,050 meters (3,450 feet). The
Arctic Ocean is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the
Greenland Sea, and the Pacific Ocean via the Bering
Strait. Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice.

Arctic Smoke - A type of evaporation fog that commonly forms over water bodies in
the Arctic. This fog can be composed of minute water droplets and/or ice crystals.
Also called frost smoke when it is mainly composed of ice crystals.

Arcuate Delta - A delta with an edge that is convex outward into its adjacent water
body. The Nile delta would be an example of an arcuate delta.

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Area Studies Tradition - Academic tradition in modern Geography that investigates
an area on the Earth from a geographic perspective at either the local, regional, or
global scale.

Areic - A landscape without any significant surface drainage or streams.

Arena - A surface landscape feature that consists of wide circular shallow basin
surrounded by an edge of higher land.

Arenaceous - Any type of sedimentary rock that contains sand, for example,
sandstone.

Arête - A sharp topographic ridge that separates cirques on a mountain that is or has
been glaciated.

Argillaceous - Something that contains, resembles, or is associated with clay. For

example, an argillaceous rock would be a rock that is composed of lithified clay
particles.

Arid Zone - A region of the Earth that is roughly found between 15 to 30° N and S
latitude and is characterized by very low rainfall, high temperatures, and desert or
semi-desert vegetation.

Aridisols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System (Image Source: U.S.
Department of Agriculture). Aridisols are commonly found in dry
environments that are low in organic matter and rich in deposited
salts.

Arkose - A type of sedimentary sandstone that contains a significant quantity of

weathered feldspar grains. This type of sedimentary rock tends to form under arid
climate conditions.

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Armouring - A situation where a layer coarse-grained sediments found at the top of
stream bed inhibit the transport of smaller sized particles.

Arroyo - A stream bed found in an arid climate that is rectangular in shape and is
filled with stream flow occasionally or seasonally, usually after rainfall events.
Stream bed may completely lack any stream flow during extended periods of
drought.

Artesian Water - Groundwater that is confined by two impermeable layers beneath

the Earth's surface.

Artesian Well - A well where hydrostatic pressure forces groundwater to rise and
flow out to the ground surface.

Arthropod - Is an invertebrate animal that has an external skeleton, segmented body,

and jointed appendages (legs, wings, mouthparts, antennae, etc.). Insects, arachnids,
and crustaceans are organisms common to this group. See the Encyclopedia of Life for
more information on this group of organisms.
[Link]

Asbestos - General term used to describe the following six fibrous minerals:
Chrysotile, tremolite, anthophyllite, amosite
(grunerite), crocidolite (riebeckite), and
actinolite. Shown in the image is a closeup of the
fibers found in a sample of [Link]
became widely used starting in the 19th century
for a variety of applications. However, medical
science determined that asbestos fibers can
accumulate in the lungs of humans and can
cause deadly health conditions like
mesothelioma. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
this image is in the public domain.

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Asexual Reproduction - Any process of reproduction where the genes used to create
a new individual comes from just a single parent. Compare with sexual
reproduction.

Ash - See volcanic ash.

Ash Cone - A volcanic cone composed mostly

of ash. Most ash cones are small in size relative
to volcanic cones composed of lava and tephra.
Elevation from the crater floor to the rim of the
cone is typically between 100 to 800 meters.
Koko Crater in Oahu, Hawaii is an example of
an ash cone (see image - Image Source: Google
Earth).

Ash Fall - The downward movement of ejected volcanic ash from an ash cloud to the
ground surface.

Aspect - The direction that a slope faces. See term slope aspect.

Asphalt - A thick sticky, black liquid to a semi-solid form of petroleum that will only
flow if diluted or heated. In its unrefined form, asphalt is used in road construction
and as a sealant for roofs. The largest reserves of asphalt are found in Alberta,
Canada covering about 140,000 square kilometers. Also called bitumen.

Assemblage Zone - A unique rock stratum that is identified by its particular

collection of three or more fossil taxa.

Assimilation - (1) The creation and absorption of food resources by an organism. (2)
The organic metabolic byproducts of food digestion (the various organic constituents
of an organism).

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Association - (1) A grouping of things. (2) A collection of plants with similar
physiological and structural characteristics that occur in a specific type of habitat.

Asteroid - A small, often irregularly shaped, celestial body

made of rock that orbits around a star. Our Solar System has
millions of asteroids many of which have orbits in between
the planets Mars and Jupiter. Shown is an image of Gaspra
an asteroid that orbits inside our Solar System's asteroid belt
(Image Source: NASA).

Asteroid Belt - A region in our Solar System

located between the planets of Mars and
Jupiter were more than 700,000 asteroids
larger than 1 kilometer in diameter orbit
around the Sun. The total mass of the
asteroid belt is approximately 4% of the
Moon. About half of this mass is found in
just four very large asteroids named: Ceres,
Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea.

Asthenosphere - An upper layer in the

Earth's mantle where rock is highly viscous and exhibits plastic properties. The
asthenosphere is located just
below the lithosphere at a depth of
between 100 to 200 kilometers (62
to 124 miles) below the surface.
The lower boundary of the
asthenosphere is not well defined
and in some areas of plate
subduction, the bottom of the
asthenosphere may be much
deeper than 200 kilometers. The
asthenosphere has a role in plate
tectonics, isostatic depression, and isostatic rebound.

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Astronomy - A field of science that studies the nature, motion, origin, and
composition of celestial bodies in the Universe.

Asymmetrical Fold - An anticline or syncline fold that is not symmetrical.

Atlantic Ocean - A relatively narrow body of ocean water that snakes between
nearly parallel continental masses (see figure, Map Source: CIA Factbook, Wikipedia).
North and South America are found on its west side, while Europe and Africa are on
its east side. The average depth of the Atlantic Ocean is
about 3,300 meters (10,800 feet). The Atlantic Ocean is
the second-largest of the five oceans recognized on our
planet. It covers about 21% of the Earth's total surface
area and has a total area of about 76,762,000 square
kilometers (29,630,000 square miles). The Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, running roughly down the center of this ocean
region, separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large
basins.

Atmometer - Scientific instrument designed to measure the rate of evaporation. Also

called evaporimeter.

Atmosphere - The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope of air and suspended liquid

and solid particles that surround large celestial bodies like the Earth. This zone of air
is held to the object because of gravitational forces. Layers of differing physical and
chemical characteristics, defined by altitude, often exist in the atmosphere of celestial
bodies. The atmosphere contains a complex system of gases that behave in many
ways like fluids. Most of the constituents of the atmosphere are derived from the
celestial body by way of chemical and biochemical reactions.

Atmospheric Pollution - See air pollution.

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Atmospheric Pressure - The weight of the atmosphere on a surface. At sea level, the
average atmospheric pressure is 1013.25 millibars (29.92 inches of mercury).
Atmospheric pressure can be measured by a device called a barometer.

Atmospheric Stability - Term refers to the relative stability of parcels of air relative
to the atmosphere that surrounds them. Three conditions of atmospheric stability are
generally described: stable, unstable, and neutral.

Atmospheric Transmission - The amount of sunlight that passes through the

atmosphere and is received at the Earth's surface. Loses of sunlight traveling through
the atmosphere can occur by way of atmospheric absorption, reflection, and
scattering.

Atmospheric Window - Refers to the various wavelengths of electromagnetic

radiation that is transmitted through Earth's atmosphere without being greatly
absorbed. Three atmospheric windows are recognized: 11 meters to 1.0 centimeter
(radio window); 14 micrometers to 8 micrometers, 4.0 micrometers to 3.0
micrometers, 2.4 micrometers to 2.0 micrometers, and 1.8 micrometers to 1.1
micrometers (infrared window); and 1100 nanometers to 300 nanometers (optical
window).

Atoll - A ring-shaped reef composed largely of coral. Atolls are quite common in the
tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean.

Atom - Smallest unit of an element that still maintains its chemical characteristics.

Atomic Energy - Energy released from an atomic nucleus because of a change in its
subatomic mass.

Atomic Mass Number - Combined number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Atomic Number - Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

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Atomic Weight - Combined weight of an atom's electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Atterberg Limits - A test used in Civil Engineering, Geomorphology, and Soil

Science to determine the strength and settlement characteristics of fine-grained soils.
In Civil Engineering, these tests are commonly used when building structures to
ascertain soil shear strength, and to determine how much soil volume change will
occur under different moisture characteristics. This test can also be used to determine
whether a soil is mainly composed of silt or clay particles. Also called liquid limit.

Attribute (System) - See system attribute.

Attrition - Process where the individual particles of moving matter are reduced in
size because of friction in the transport mediums of wind, water, or ice.

Augite - A common inosilicate mineral rich in aluminum, calcium, magnesium,

sodium, titanium, and iron found in mafic igneous rocks.

Aurora - Multicolored lights that appear in the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) over
the polar regions and visible from
locations in the middle and high latitudes
(Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photo by
Joshua Strang, this image is in the public
domain). Caused by the interaction of solar
wind with oxygen and nitrogen gas in the
atmosphere. Aurora in the Northern
Hemisphere are called Aurora Borealis
and Aurora Australis in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Aurora Australis - Aurora located in the Southern Hemisphere.

Aurora Borealis - Aurora located in the Northern Hemisphere.

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Australasian - One of eight biogeographic realms found on Earth, where many
species have a unique evolutionary history
because of geographic isolation.
Geographically, this realm covers all of
Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and
nearby islands (see Map). This realm is
separated from the Indomalaya realm by
Wallace's Line. The climate of this realm is
mainly tropical, subtropical, and mid-
latitudinal. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons.
This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
license.

Autecology - The ecological study of a single individual or a specific species with the
biotic and abiotic components of its environment.

Autocorrelation - This term refers to the correlation of a measured temporal variable

with its past and future values or the correlation of a measured spatial variable with
values adjacent to it in space. Applying parametric statistics with autocorrelated data
breaks the independence requirements of these tests making their interpretation
possibly invalid.

Autoecology - A field of Ecology that studies individual organisms and specific

species.

Autogenic Succession - A type of plant succession where the plant community

causes the environment to change and this modification drives the succession.

Autotroph - An organism that produces food molecules inorganically by using

visual light or chemical-based sources of external energy. This organism does not
require outside sources of organic food energy for its survival. Also see chemical
autotroph and photosynthetic autotroph.

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Autumnal Equinox - One of two days during the year when the declination of the
Sun is at the equator. The autumnal equinox denotes the first day of the fall season.
For the Northern Hemisphere, the date of autumnal equinox is either September 22
or 23 (changes yearly). March 20 or 21 is the date of the autumnal equinox in the
Southern Hemisphere. During the autumnal equinox, all locations on the Earth
(except the poles) experience equal periods (12 hours) of day and night.

Available Nutrients - Nutrient found in the soil solution which is easily absorbed by
roots for plant nutrition.

Available Water - The portion of the soil capillary water that is available for plant
root uptake.

Avalanche - (1) The instantaneous and swift

movement of snow and/or ice down a slope.
Shown is an avalanche in dry powder snow.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. (2)
Can also refer to the instantaneous and swift
movement of material (like soil and sediment)
down a slope.

Avalanche Wind - The fast-moving air created in front of avalanche by moving snow
and ice. The destructive force of such winds is directly related to the size of the
avalanche.

Average Global Temperature - Average annual temperature of the Earth's

atmosphere as measured just above the ground surface.

Avulsion - The process where a section of stream channel becomes used in terms of
stream flow in favor of another section of channel located at a lower elevation.

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Azimuth - Is the angular measurement of direction between
a projected vector and a reference vector on a reference plane.
Examples include the angular measurement of a star with
reference to the horizon or the measurement of wind
direction in relation to the cardinal points of a compass and
the 360° found in a circle (see figure). Compare with bearing.

Azimuthal Map Projection - Is a two-dimensional map

projection system that projects the Earth onto a flat surface or plane. The Earth's
surface touches this plane at only one single point or tangent. These maps are
plagued by area and shape distortion that increases from the tangent point. The
ancient Greeks constructed the first planar maps in about 600 BC. Modern versions
of this projection are often used to illustrate our planet's polar regions. An alternative
name for this system is Planar Map Projection.

Azoic - (1) Without life. (2) A time before life existed on Earth.

Azonal Soil - Any young soil that does not show well-developed soil profile
characteristics because of insufficient time for pedogenesis to occur. Compare with
intrazonal soil and zonal soil.

Azores High - See Bermuda High.

Azotobacter - Is a genus of bacteria that are aerobic and commonly found free-living
in soil and aquatic environments. They play an important role in the nitrogen cycle,
by having the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) for their nutrition. This
nitrogen is released into the surrounding soil upon their death and decay in the form
of ammonium ions.

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 B
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

B Horizon - Soil horizon normally found below the A horizon and above the C
horizon. This layer is characterized by the following features: (1) Enrichment of clay
because of illuviation from the A horizon; (2) Enrichment of iron and aluminum
oxides because of illuviation from the A horizon; In some cases, the precipitation of
iron can cause the development of a hardpan; (3) Accumulation of calcium
carbonate, calcium sulfate, and other salts; and (4) Higher bulk density because of
the illuvial deposition of clay particles.

Back Slope - The slope on the side of a cuesta that is more gradual. Compare with
front slope.

Background Extinction - A normal extinction of species that occurs over time as the
result of changes in its environmental conditions. Compare with mass extinction.

Backscattering - The portion of solar radiation directed back into space as a result of
scattering in the atmosphere.

Backshore - Simply the area behind the shore. This coastal feature is located between
the average spring high tide mark and the backshore slope. The backshore is
occasionally influenced by wave action processes during strong cyclonic storms or
extraordinary high tides.

Backshore Slope - A coastal feature consisting of a sloping bank found landward of

the shore. This coastal feature is composed of relatively non-mobile sediments.

Backswamp - Marshy low lying areas located on a stream's floodplain. Commonly

found behind levees.

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Backwash - The return water flow of swash. This sheet of water flows back to the
ocean because of gravity.

Backwater - A location in a stream channel where a body of water becomes stagnant

because of reduced stream flow.

Bacteria - Simple single-celled prokaryotic organisms. Many different species of

bacteria exist. Some species of bacteria can be pathogenic causing disease in larger
more complex organisms. Many species of bacteria play a major role in the cycling of
nutrients in ecosystems through aerobic and anaerobic decomposition. Finally, some
species form symbiotic relationships with more complex organisms and help these
organisms survive in the environment by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. See the
Encyclopedia of Life for more information on this group of organisms. [Link]
288

Badlands - (1) Term used to describe a

particular landscape found in South
Dakota, USA (see image, Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, this image is in the
public domain). See Badlands National Park.
(2) Term used to describe a semiarid
landscape that has been influenced by
heavy fluvial erosion. Characterized by
deep ravines and gullies, round-shaped
ridges, and a generally barren surface.

Bajada - A consecutive series of alluvial fans forming along the periphery of a linear
mountain range. The surface of this feature undulates in a rolling fashion as one
moves from the center of one alluvial fan to another. Commonly found in arid
climates.

Bamboo - A flowering perennial evergreen grass that belongs to the subfamily

Bambusoideae and family Poaceae. Species of bamboo can be found in a range of

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tropical and subtropical climates. Some species of bamboo are found at a latitude as
high as 47° south. Humans are using bamboo for food, medicine, textiles, and in the
construction of a variety of products as a replacement for wood.

Bank - (1) Common term describing a slope or hillside. (2) An area of shallow
seawater along a coast that has deposits that are clay, silt, sand, and shells. For
example - the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, Canada. (3) A raised area adjacent to
the edge of a stream channel. Beyond the bank is the stream's floodplain.

Bank Caving - The process of stream bank material falling into the flowing water of
a stream channel due to localized instabilities and variations in flow volume.

Bank Erosion - The removal of soil and sediment from the side of a stream channel
because of erosion. Bank erosion is usually associated with an increase in stream
flow. Vegetation located at the side of a stream channel is very effective at reducing
the potential for this type of erosion.

Bank Gravel - A natural deposit of sediment that consists of a mix of gravel with
sand or clay. The result of deposition along the side of a stream channel.

Bank Storage - Transient water stored in the permeable sediments found in the
banks of a stream. This water often adds to stream flow as it seeps into the stream
channel.

Bar - (1) Coarse-grained deposit of sediment from a stream or ocean currents. Also
see bedforms. (2) A unit of measurement for quantifying force. Equivalent to
1,000,000 dynes per square centimeter.

Barchan Dune - Crescent-shaped sand dune that has its long axis crosswise to the
wind and its crescent tips pointed downwind. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
artist Po ke jung. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Unported license.

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Barchanoid Ridge - Is a lengthy, uneven sand dune that runs at 90 degrees to the
prevailing wind direction. Each
barchanoid ridge consists of several
barchan dunes that are joined, looking
like a series of connected crescents. Each
of the barchan dunes produces a wave in
the barchanoid ridge. These aeolian
landforms occur when sand supply is
greater than in the conditions that create
a barchan dune.

Baroclinic - A condition in the atmosphere where the density of air is dependent on

both temperature and atmospheric pressure. Compare with barotropic.

Barogram - A meteorological instrument that incorporates a barometer and a data

recording device to produce a continuous recording of atmospheric pressure over
time.

Barograph - The continuous record of atmospheric pressure produced by a

barogram.

Barometer - A scientific instrument that is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Barotropic - A condition in the atmosphere where the density of air is dependent

only on atmospheric pressure. Compare with baroclinic.

Barranca - A deep steep-sided ravine or gully.

Barrier Beach - A long and narrow beach of sand and/or gravel that runs parallel to
the coastline and is not submerged by the action of tides.

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Barrier Island - Long, narrow islands of sand and/or gravel that usually run parallel
to the shore of some coasts.

Barrier Reef - A type of coral reef that is characterized by a lagoon or a body of water
that is between the coastline and the coral reef. For example, the Great Barrier Reef
which consists of over 2,900 individual reef systems that stretch over a distance of
2,600 kilometers (1,600 miles) off the coast of Queensland, Australia.

Barysphere - A zone within the Earth that extends from the bottom of the lithosphere
to the center of the core.

Basal Complex - The rocks found underneath the Precambrian shield deposits.

Basal Ice - A zone of ice-rich in sediment found at the base of a glacier. The vertical
extent of this layer may reach tens of meters (feet). Much of the sediment found in
this ice layer is derived from the surface the glacier is sliding over.

Basal Sapping - Situation where a slope is eroded and undercut at its base.

Basal Sliding - The action of a glacier sliding over the ground surface it rests on.
Caused by the gradient of the slope, the weight of the glacier's mass, and gravity.

Basal Till - Sediments rich in clay that are moved along at the base of a glacier.

Basalt - A dark colored, fine-grained igneous rock formed

from mafic magma (Image Source: U.S. Geological Survey).
This common rock is normally colored grey to black.
Mainly contains the minerals pyroxene, plagioclase
feldspar, olivine, and amphibole.

Basalt Plateau - Extensive deposits of basalt rich volcanic rock that have form
extensive plateaus and mountain ranges located on our planet's continents. Also

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called flood basalts, these deposits have occurred randomly during the Earth's
geologic history during periods of enhanced volcanic activity. One explanation for
their formation is the occurrence of a mantle plume in combination continental
rifting which should produce large quantities of basaltic magma with low viscosity.

Basaltic Magma - Mafic magma that forms basaltic igneous rocks.

Base - (1) Substance having a pH greater than 7. (2) Substance that releases
hydroxide ions (OH-).

Base Cation - Soil cations belonging to the elements calcium (Ca2+), magnesium
(Mg2+), potassium (K+), and sodium (Na+).

Base Exchange - See cation exchange.

Base Flow - The rate of discharge in a stream where only the throughflow and
groundwater flow from subsurface aquifers contribute to the overall stream flow.

Base-level - The elevation below-ground level which a stream cannot vertically

erode sediment. For many streams, this hypothetical elevation is sea level.

Base Map - A primary map layer that is used in a geographic information system as
a foundation to build a more complex mapping system. Base maps often contain
spatial information like political boundaries, water bodies, road systems,
topographic information, coastlines, feature names, etc.

Base Saturation - Refers to the proportion of soil cation exchange sites that are
occupied by cations with a positive charge.

Baseline - A measured starting point used to compare other gathered measurements,

to make subsequent needed calculations, and to determine the accurate spatial
location of things.

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Basement Complex - Refers to an assemblage of very old igneous and metamorphic
rocks created during the Archean. These rocks are found in ancient shield areas of
the continents and often have sedimentary rock strata deposited on top of them.

Basement Rock - Very old igneous and metamorphic rocks found in continental
crust. These rocks make up the continental shield.

Basic - Substance having a pH greater than 7. Compare with acidic.

Basic Rocks - An igneous rock that is less than 55% silica by composition. Compare
this with acid rocks.

Basic Solution - Any water based solution that is basic (pH greater than 7) or has
less hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH-). Also see acidic solution and
neutral solution.

Basin - A topographic structure in the landscape whose shape is concave

downwards.

Basin Discharge - The total outflow of surface stream flow and subsurface
groundwater flow from a drainage basin. For some streams, basin discharge is
similar to stream flow because most of the groundwater flow ends up in the stream
channel. Basin discharge can be much larger than stream flow in drainage basin
where considerable groundwater flow occurs in an extensive floodplain or
considerable movement of water occurs in wetlands found outside of the stream
channel.

Basin Order - A morphometric calculation used in Hortonian analysis to describe the

hierarchical value given to a drainage basin based on the quantitative analysis of
stream segments in a drainage network.

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Basin-and-Range - Term used to describe a landscape found in Nevada and Utah,
USA. Characterized by mountains formed from normal fault and numerous basins
that often contain lakes.

Batholith - An extremely large mass of subsurface intrusive igneous rock that has its
origins from mantle magma. Compare with dyke, sill, laccolith, lopolith, and
phacolith.

Bathyal Zone - A vertical zone in the oceans that has a depth of between 1,000 and
4,000 meters (3,300 to 13,100 feet). This zone has no light penetration from the
surface and therefore no plant life. Seawater temperature at this depth is about 4°C
(39°F) and it generally lacks nutrients. Life is rare in this environment and the
organisms that do exist here have specific adaptations for survival. Also see (in order
of depth in a water body) pelagic zone, photic zone, aphotic zone, mesopelagic zone,
abyssal zone, hadal zone, demersal zone, and benthic zone.

Bathymetric - Related to the depth of water bodies.

Bathymetry - The scientific study and measurement of the depth of features in water
bodies.

Bauxite - A sedimentary rock rich in aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3]. This

economically valuable ore forms from the weathering of volcanic rocks.

Bay - A body of sheltered water found in a crescent-shaped coastal configuration of

land.

Bay-Mouth Bar - A narrow deposit of sand and/or gravel found across the mouth of
a bay.

Bayhead Beach - An extensive deposit of sand and/or gravel existing as a beach at

the back of a bay.

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Bayou - Term used in the United States to describe an extensive body of water
located in an area with little relief that is associated with a stream with low stream
flow, a shallow marshy lake, or a wetland.

Beach - The terrestrial interface area in between land and

a water body where there are accumulations of
unconsolidated sediments like sand and gravel. These
deposits are laid down by the action of breaking waves.

Beach Cusp - Crescent-shaped beach deposit that forms

because of wave action. Particle size is coarse on the crescent horns and finer in the
middle of the feature.

Beach Drift - The lateral movement of sediments on a beach when the angles of
swash and backwash differ.

Beach Face - The part of the beach that is influenced and shaped by wave action.

Beach Ridge - A long wave-deposited ridge of sand and sometimes coarser material
running parallel to a shoreline. A beach can have multiple beach ridges as the result
of successive cyclonic storms of different intensities.

Beach Rock - A sedimentary rock composed of silt, sand, gravel, shells, and coral
that has formed along a shoreline. This rock tends to form in the intertidal zone and
can vary from being easily breakable to well-cemented.

Beaded Drainage - A drainage pattern that consists of a number of ponds connected

by a single length of stream. This pattern is commonly found in areas of permafrost,
with the ponds being caused by the localized melting of ground ice.

Beaded Esker - An esker that contains some areas of widening and narrowing in its
width along its length.

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Bearing - A system that measures direction relative to the four cardinal points of a
compass in 90-degree quadrants. Compare with azimuth.

Bearing Capacity - The maximum average load pressure, measured in kilograms per
square meter, that a soil can receive before shear failure occurs.

Beaufort Wind Scale - A descriptive system of measuring wind speed. It is

accomplished by noting the effect of the wind on the environment. This system was
developed in 1806 by Admiral Beaufort of the British Navy.

Bed - (1) Sedimentary structure found in streams that usually represents a layer of
deposited sediment. (2) A layer of identifiable deposition in a sedimentary rock.
Usually, a centimeter (half an inch) to several meters (6 to 9 feet) thick. Compare with
lamina.

Bed Load - Portion of the stream load that is carried along the stream bed without
permanent suspension in the flowing water. Also see dissolved load.

Bed Roughness - Normally refers to the frictional roughness of a stream bed.

Roughness can be due to several factors including: bed particle size and types of
bedforms found in the stream channel.

Bedding Plane - A layer in a series of sedimentary strata that marks a change in the
type of deposits.

Bedforms - Depositional and erosional features found on a stream bed because of

fluid flow dynamics. These features include ripples, riffles, dunes, antidunes, pools,
and bars.

Bedrock - Rock at or near the Earth's surface that is solid and relatively
unweathered. Bedrock is found beneath soil and regolith.

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Before Present (BP) - A time scale used in Geology and other scientific disciplines
that dates events and things relative to the year 1950 AD.

Belt - Term used to describe a belt-shaped zone of vegetation, climate, or geologic

terrain.

Bench - A relatively narrow band of flat or gradually sloping terrain embedded in a

much steeper slope.

Bench Mark - (1) A standard value used to make comparisons within a system of
measurements. (2) A natural or artificial point of reference used in a topographic
survey.

Beniof Zone - A zone of seismic activity descending into the upper mantle at a
subduction zone that extends from near the Earth's surface to a maximum depth of
about 670 kilometers (415 miles).

Benthic Zone - The ecological zone found at the lowest level of a water body, like a
lake, sea, or ocean. This zone includes the surface and sub-surface of the sediments
found here. The various organisms found in this zone are known as the benthos.
Also see (in order of depth in a water body) pelagic zone, photic zone, aphotic zone,
mesopelagic zone, bathyal zone, abyssal zone, hadal zone, and demersal zone.

Benthos - The plant and animal organisms that live on the seafloor or the bottom of a
lake. In oceans and seas, the benthos is usually divided into two categories: deep-sea
benthos, below 200 meters (655 feet) and the littoral benthos, from 200 meters (655
feet) to the high-water spring tide level.

Bentonite - An impure clay aluminum phyllosilicate mineral that contains a

significant amount of montmorillonite clay. Often forms from weathering of volcanic
ash.

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Berg Wind - A type of Föhn wind.

Bergschrund - A deep crevasse commonly found at the head of an alpine glacier.

Develops when the glacial ice pulls away from the mountainside.

Berm - A low hill of sand that forms along coastal beaches.

Bermuda High - High pressure system that develops over the western subtropical
North Atlantic. Also called Azores High.

Bernoulli Effect - Describes what

happens to the static pressure exerted
on an object relative (at 90°) to the
dynamic pressure that occurs when
the object travels through a fluid like a
gas or liquid. The upward lift
associated with an airplane wing is an
example of the Bernoulli Effect
(however, it is only one of two factors
that cause planes to fly). As air passes either side of the wing it travels at different
speeds because of the wing's shape. The curved shape of the wing top causes the air
to travel faster than the air below. This increase in speed initiates a lowering of
atmospheric pressure and results in a lifting force causing the plane to fly. Also called
the Bernoulli Principle.

Beta Diversity - A measure of species diversity that focuses on the difference in the
number of species between smaller subunits located in the broader landscape.
Introduced by ecologist R. H. Whittaker. Compare with alpha diversity and gamma
diversity.

Beta Particle - A electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive isotope. Also see
alpha particle and gamma rays.

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Biennial Plant - A plant species that completes its life in two growing seasons.

Bifurcation Ratio - Quantitative ratio determined between the parts of systems that
display branching. For example, trees have a main stem that bifurcates into smaller
and smaller branches. The ratio between the branches that are derived from a larger
branch or main stem is the bifurcation ratio.

Big Bang - Theory that suggests about 13.7 billion years ago all the matter and
energy in the Universe was concentrated into an extremely small area. At this
instant, matter, energy, space, and time did not exist. Then suddenly, the Universe
began to expand at an incredible rate and matter, energy, space, and time came into
being. As the Universe inflated, matter began to coalesce into gas clouds, and then
stars and planets. Some scientists believe that this expansion is finite and will one
day cease. After this time, the Universe will begin to collapse until a Big Crunch
occurs.

Big Crunch - Collapse of the Universe into its original form before the Big Bang. At
the end of this process matter, energy, space, and time will not exist.

Bight - A large scale, long indent, or open bay along a coastline.

Billabong - An aboriginal term from Australia that describes a stream with a

temporary flow because of variations in precipitation.

Billow Clouds - See wave clouds.

Bimodal Distribution - A common probability distribution displayed by a

representative data sample or the whole
population of some quantitatively
measurable variable. If the values of this
distribution are plotted on a graph's
horizontal axis and their frequency on

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the vertical axis, the pattern displayed has two distinct peaks (see graph). Compare
with normal distribution.

Bioaccumulate - Is the buildup of a substance inside an organism to levels that are

much higher than its concentration in the surrounding environment. This condition
can occur with substances that are harmful to the organism, like pesticides, heavy
metals, and other toxic substances.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - A commonly used measure of organic

pollution in water. The measurement of BOD involves quantifying the amount of
oxygen [in milligrams (mg)] consumed by microorganisms over 5 days at a
temperature of 20°C (68°F) in a liter of water. Pristine water can have a BOD that is
less than 1 mg/liter, while untreated sewage can have values between 200 to 600
mg/liter.

Biochore - A collection of similar biotopes.

Biochronology - (1) A time scale used in science-based on changes in the fossil

record. (2) The study of the evolution of life as it relates to the geologic time scale. (3)
Relative dating of geologic events based on information in a biostratigraphy.

Biocide - A chemical substance or organism that is used to attract, deter, cause

reduced growth or reproduction or the death of a living organism. Some biocides are
toxic. The following are considered a type of biocide: herbicide, insecticide,
fungicide, and pesticide. Some other examples of biocides include antibiotics,
disinfectants, antiseptics, and preservatives.

Bioclastic - Made from shell fragments or other types of organic remains. In Geology,
this term is often used to describe the physical characteristics of a rock.

Bioclimatology - The scientific study of the cause and effect relationships and
processes that exist between climate and living organisms, including human beings.

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Biocoenosis - Refers to the biological community for a particular habitat that consists
of both plants and animals.

Biodegradation - This term refers to microorganisms degrading or altering organic

or inorganic chemicals found in the environment through metabolic or enzymic
processes.

Biodiversity - A term describing the assortment of living organisms through the

combined effect of three different measures: species diversity, genetic variability
among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), and the variety of
ecosystems (ecosystem diversity). Abbreviation of the term biological diversity.

Biodiversity Hotspots - Is a biogeographic region on the Earth that has levels of

genetic diversity, species diversity, and/or ecosystem diversity that is considerably
higher than the surrounding areas. These locations are often under the threat of
losing biodiversity because of human activity. This concept was first described by
Norman Myers in 1988. In 2000, Myers and others developed specific criteria for the
identification of biodiversity hotspots which was published in the journal Nature. In
this publication, twenty-five regions were recognized as biodiversity hotspots. Much
more work has been done on this idea since it was first proposed.

Biofacies - (1) Within strata differences in fossils that occur across the horizontal
distribution of the sedimentary rock layer. (2) Collections of living organisms that
formed at the same point in time but under different environmental conditions.

Biogenic Sediment - Sediment that forms from the remains of living organisms.

Biogeochemical Cycling - Cycling of a single element, compound, or chemicals by

various abiotic and biotic processes through the various stores found in the
biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

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Biogeocoenosis - Refers to the biological community that consists of both plants and
animals and the interacting physical (abiotic) environment for a particular habitat.

Biogeographic Realm - The classification of the Earth's terrestrial surface into eight
regions (realms) where the geographic distribution (biogeography) of plants and
animals is unique and overlapping. These regions differ between each other in terms
of species because of geographic barriers that restrict migration between realms. As a
result of geographic isolation, the species common to a realm have a shared
evolutionary history. The names of the eight realms are (World Wildlife Fund
scheme): Paleoarctic; Nearctic; Afrotropic; Neotropic; Australasian; Indomalaya;
Oceania; and Antarctic.

Biogeography - (1) A field of physical geography that studies the spatial pattern of
living organisms. (2) The geographic distribution of plants and animals on the Earth.

Biogeomorphology - The geomorphological study of plants and animals as agents in

landscape processes and forms.

Bioherm - An ancient coral reef from Earth's geologic past.

Biokarst - A type of karst landform composed of limestone bedrock and dominated

by geomorphic features created by biotic processes of plants and animals. These
biotic processes can include enhanced solution chemical weathering because of the
creation of chelates and erosion through boring, digging, and digestive action.

Biological Amplification - Increase in concentration of toxic fat-soluble chemicals in

organisms at successively higher trophic levels of a grazing food chain or food web
because of the consumption of organisms at lower trophic levels.

Biological Control - The suppression of pest organism numbers by biological means.

Many different techniques have been used to achieve this goal, for example: using

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insect herbivores to consume weeds, using predator organisms to consume pests,
and using pathogens and parasites to control pests.

Biological Magnification - Is the increased concentration of substances in the bodies

of organisms as one moves up the grazing food chain or through a food web because
of consumption. One of the most famous examples of biological magnification
involved the insecticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and predatory birds
in the United States. Starting in the late 1930s and early 40s, DDT was heavily used
in the United States to control many common insect pests. DDT was quite persistent
in the environment and some of it ended up in aquatic systems, incorporated the
bodies of phytoplankton, which were eaten by zooplankton (primary consumers). In
phytoplankton and zooplankton, the concentration of the DDT in their tissues was
about 0.04 ppm. The zooplankton were then consumed by fish (secondary
consumers) in great numbers and the DDT became highly concentrated in the fatty
tissues (between 0.5 and 2.0 ppm). In turn, the fish were consumed by predatory
birds like hawks, peregrine falcons, bald eagles, osprey, and brown pelicans (tertiary
consumers). In these birds, concentrations of DDT in their tissues reached about 25
ppm. By the 1950s, it became quite apparent that these birds were suffering
significant declines in their numbers. This decline was believed to be caused by the
DDT making eggshells too thin for successful hatching. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency banned DDT in 1971. Also referred to as
biomagnify and biomagnification.

Biological Productivity - Is the amount of biomass or its equivalent (in the form of
dry matter, carbon, or energy content) produced for some unit area per interval of
time. Consists of two related and overlapping parts: primary productivity and
secondary productivity. Also see gross primary productivity, net primary
productivity, gross secondary productivity, and net secondary productivity.

Biological Resource - A substance or thing (resource) required by a living organism

for its survival and fitness.

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Biological Weathering - The disintegration of rock and mineral due to the chemical
and/or physical agents of an organism. Compare with physical
weathering and chemical weathering.

Bioluminescence - Is the ability of an organism to produce and

emit light. Some species of jellyfish can to do this (see image).

Biomass - The weight of living tissues usually measured per unit

area over a particular time interval. Biomass can include the dead
parts of organisms like bark, hair, and nails.

Biome - The largest recognizable assemblage of plants and animals on the Earth. The
distribution of the biomes is controlled mainly by climate.

Biometeorology - A subfield of meteorology that studies the effects of weather and

climate on life, including humans.

Bioregion - A unique region on the Earth that has distinct soils, landforms,
watersheds, climates, native plants, and animals, and/or other particular natural
characteristics.

Biosphere - Part of the Earth where life is found. The biosphere consists of all living
things, plant and animal. This sphere is characterized by life in profusion, diversity,
and clever complexity. Cycling of matter in this biosphere involves not only
metabolic reactions in organisms but also many abiotic chemical reactions. Also
called ecosphere.

Biostratigraphy - A series of layers in a stratum that can be differentiated from

sedimentary layers above and below it by its unique assemblage of fossils.

Biota - Refers to all of the species of organisms found in a given area.

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Biotechnology - Is the application of scientific knowledge regarding organisms and
biological processes to industry, engineering, or any other practical purpose related
to human needs and well-being.

Biotic - (1) Referring to life. (2) An influence caused by living organisms.

Biotic Interaction - Mutual or reciprocal influence between two or more similar

organisms or individuals of different species. Major biotic interactions are:
competition, mutualism, predation, parasitism, amensalism, and commensalism.

Biotic Isolation - The isolation of one species from other similar related cohabiting
species because hereditary mechanisms do not allow for interbreeding. Compare
with geographic isolation.

Biotic Potential - Maximum rate that a population of a given species can increase in
size (number of individuals) when there are no limits on growth rate.

Biotite - A rock-forming mineral of the mica group.

Biotope - A small area or habitat of relatively uniform environmental conditions

found within a more complex and environmentally variable ecosystem.

Bioturbation - The mixing and displacement of soil or sediments because of the

action of organisms. For example, the mixing a soil because of an animal's
burrowing.

Birch Discontinuity - See Repetti Discontinuity.

Bird - Group of warm-blooded vertebrate animals whose

body is covered with feathers (see image). There are about
10,000 different species of birds living on our planet today.
The fossil record suggests that birds first evolved on Earth

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about 160 million years ago. About 120 to 130 species have become extinct in the last
300 years because of direct and indirect human activities. See the Encyclopedia of Life
for more information on this group of organisms.
[Link]

Bise (Bize) - A term used in France and Switzerland to describe a cold and often dry
winter wind that comes from the north or the northeast.

Bishop's Ring - A diffused reddish-brown halo layer seen circling the Sun after
sizeable explosive volcanic eruptions.

Bitumen - See asphalt.

Bituminous - Something that contains or is related to bitumen/asphalt.

Black Body - A body or object that emits electromagnetic radiation, at any

temperature, at the maximum possible emission rate per unit surface area. A black
body also absorbs all electromagnetic radiation it intercepts.

Black Box System - A system that is understood only in terms of input and output.
Nothing is known about the cause and effect processing working inside the black
box that produces the output.

Black Smoker - A common type of hydrothermal vent found on the ocean floor that
emits black smoke. The particular black color occurs because of the presence of
sulfides.

Blanket Bog - A large expanse of peat of variable depth that exists not only in
hollows but over undulating topography. Blanket bogs are found in the middle to
high latitudes all across the Northern Hemisphere where a cool climate, high rainfall,
and low evapotranspiration favor the growth of peat. Also called blanket mire and
featherbed bog.

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Blind Valley - Refers to a deep, narrow, flat bottomed stream-eroded valley that
suddenly ends. This type of valley commonly forms in karst landscapes when a
stream flows over limestone bedrock cutting a deep valley and then abruptly
dropping below-ground into a subterranean cave.

Blizzard - Severe weather condition that occurs in winter and is characterized by

strong winds, blowing snow, and cold temperatures. Often cause by an intense mid-
latitude cyclone.

Block - A boulder-sized fragment of rock that is very angular in shape. More than
200 millimeters or 7.9 inches in diameter (256 millimeters or 10 inches in the USA).

Block Diagram - An illustration technique used in the sciences to represent a

phenomenon in a three-dimensional rectangle where up to three sides can be
observed.

Block Faulting - Tectonic process where tensional stresses cause the landscape to
fracture and fault into blocks. This process causes some blocks of land to subside
while other pieces are pushed up. Produces normal, reverse, graben, and horst faults.

Block Fields - A continuous stretch of angular boulders created by frost action acting
on the bedrock. Common in periglacial environments.

Blocking - A meteorological term that refers to the stagnation of atmospheric

circulation in the surface westerlies near the polar front. This results in changes in
the usual west-to-east migration patterns of mid-latitude cyclones and associated
high pressure systems. Blocking causes the persistence of weather conditions over
effected areas for extended periods.

Blocking High - A high pressure system that is nearly stationary or moves slowly
relative to the usual west-to-east flow of surface westerlies near the polar front. This

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condition also restricts the west-to-east migration of mid-latitude cyclones. Also
called blocking anticyclone.

Blood Rain - Rare meteorological event where rain is colored red because of the
presence of dust. Blood rain occurs occasionally in Europe when dust from the
Sahara is carried into the atmosphere by wind.

Blowhole - A vertical shaft that connects a horizontal sea cave to

the ground surface. Seawater from incoming waves or rising tides
can be forced through this opening with great force forming a
powerful vertical jet of water. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
photographer Sarah Kelemen. This image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

Blowout Depression - Saucer shaped depressions created by wind erosion. At the

leeward end of the feature there usually is a deposit of sand. Blowouts are found in
coastal beach areas and in arid and semiarid regions of the world. These features are
smaller than a deflation hollow.

Blue Hole - A roughly circular-submarine sinkhole

located in limestone sedimentary deposits found along
the coast. Shown is the Great Blue Hole which is over
300 meters (984 feet) wide and 124 meters (407 feet) deep
and located near Ambergris Caye, Belize (Image Source:
U.S. Geological Survey).

Blue Mud - A sediment deposit found at deep depths in the ocean that is composed
of a mixture of clay, silt, and organic matter. Blue mud gets its color from iron sulfide
and chemical reduction.

Bluff - Term commonly used to describe a cliff with a steep vertical edge.

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Bodden - A term used to describe irregularly shaped inlets found along the Baltic
coast of Germany.

Body Wave - Type of seismic wave that travels through the interior of Earth.

Bog - A low-lying, flooded habitat that consists of waterlogged spongy ground, with
deep accumulations of acidic peat. Surface water and groundwater of bogs are
usually acidic and nutrient-poor. Often found in association with boreal forest.
Vegetation commonly found in these habitats include various species of sedges and
sphagnum moss. Bogs are common in Canada, Russia, and Scandinavia. Compare
with fen.

Bog Burst - A sudden release of water and saturated loose peat from a bog. Bog
bursts can be triggered by excessive precipitation that causes water and saturated
peat to spill over somewhere along the bog's edge.

Boghead Coal - A brown or black colored form of bituminous coal or oil shale. Also
called cannel coal.

Bole - Another term commonly used to describe a tree trunk.

Bølling Interstadial - Relatively short interstadial that occurred from 12,000 to 13,000
BP (before present) during the last major glacial advance of the Pleistocene Epoch.

Bolson - Is a closed desert basin surrounded by mountains. Any water entering this
basin has no way to drain out.

Bone Bed - A sedimentary rock stratum or other deposit rich in the (fossilized) bones
of organisms.

Bora - Term used to describe a katabatic wind in Yugoslavia.

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Bore - Is a wave or series of waves associated with an incoming flood tide flowing
into a stream or a narrow bay. Bores are uncommon, occurring only areas of the
world that have a large tidal range, usually greater than 6 meters (20 feet).

Boreal Climate - The climate associated with the boreal forest biome. According to
the Köppen Climate Classification system this climate is found under the Moist Mid-
Latitude Climates with Cold Winters (D Climate) major climatic type and has the
specific designations Dfc, Dwc, and Dsc.

Boreal Forest - High to mid-latitude biome dominated by coniferous forest.

Predominant vegetation of this biome is various coniferous tree species including
spruce, fir, pine, and cedars. Also called Taiga.

Borehole - A hole drilled into the Earth's crust for commercial or scientific analysis.
The most common purpose of drilling a borehole is for resource exploration.

Bottom Water - Usually refers to the bottommost layer of seawater in an ocean.

Three important characteristics of ocean bottom water include it has a temperature
between 0°C to 3°C, a salinity if 3.5%, and is very dense. Also called deep ocean
water.

Bottomset Bed - Horizontal deltaic deposit of alluvial sediment composed of fine silt
and clay.

Boulder - Large fragment of rock that is more than 200 millimeters or 7.9 inches in
diameter (256 millimeters or 10 inches in the USA). Compare with clay, silt, sand,
gravel, and cobble.

Boulder Clay - Another term used to describe glacial till.

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Boulder Train - A linear or fan-shaped deposit of boulders that were glacially
transported from an identifiable bedrock source. The presence of these features is
often used to determine past movements of glaciers.

Boundary - A division that separates two measurably different phenomena across

space or time.

Boundary Current - A major ocean current that has its pattern of flow influenced by
the presence of a continental coastline. There are two types of boundary currents:
western boundary currents and eastern boundary currents.

Boundary Layer - A layer of air found immediately above the surface of an object.
This layer interacts with the object and the atmosphere above it. This concept can be
applied to objects of greatly varying sizes. Meteorologists considered our planet's
boundary layer to be a zone about one to two kilometers (0.5 to 1.2 miles) adjacent to
the ground surface. The boundary layer of a leaf on a plant may be only a few
millimeters (about 0.1 inches) thick.

Boundary Waves - Waves that exist within a water body that are different from the
waves seen on its surface. Also called internal waves.

Bowen Ratio - The calculated ratio of sensible heat to latent heat transfer from the
Earth's ground surface up into the atmosphere. Mathematical it can be expressed as:

Bowen Ratio = Sensible Heat Flux / Latent Heat Flux

Bowen Reaction Series - Model that explains the origin of the various types of
igneous rocks. This model suggests that the presence or absence of particular
minerals in igneous rocks depends on the temperature of crystallization and the
magma's original chemical composition.

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Boyle's Law - Law describing the ideal relationship of gas between pressure and
volume. Expressed by scientist Robert Boyle in 1662. This law suggests that in a
closed system the absolute pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume
when temperature and the amount of gas are held constant,

BP - Abbreviation for before present.

Brackish - An environment that is influenced by seawater and has a salinity of less

than 35 parts per thousand (usually caused by the presence of an inflow of
freshwater).

Braided Stream - Shallow stream channel that is subdivided into a number of

continually shifting smaller channels that are separated by bar deposits.

Brash - (1) An accumulation of fractured rock that has been weathered in place. (2) A
mixture of broken rock or ice.

Braunerde - A German term that simply translates to brown earth soil.

Breached Anticline - A deeply eroded anticline where the strata layers become
younger as one moves away from the center of rock formation.

Breaker - The quick collapse of an overextended water wave as it approaches the

shoreline. The collapse occurs when the ratio of wave height to wavelength exceeds
1:7. This phenomenon also produces swash.

Breakpoint Bar - Zone of coarse-grained bar deposits found offshore where ocean
waves first break.

Breccia - A coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of cemented angular rock

fragments.

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Breeze - A low-speed wind. The Beaufort Wind Scale defines five types of breeze:
light breeze from 6 to 11 kph (kilometers per hour); gentle breeze from 12 to 19 kph;
moderate breeze from 20 to 28 kph; fresh breeze from 29 to 38 kph; and strong breeze
from 39 to 49 kph.

Brine - Seawater with a salinity greater than 35 parts per thousand. Brine usually
occurs in isolated bodies of seawater that have high amounts of water loss due to
evaporation.

British Thermal Unit (Btu) - Measurement unit for heat. It is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree from 62 to 63°
Fahrenheit. One Btu is equal to 252 calories and to 1,055 joules.

Bromeliad - Plants of the bromeliad family (Bromeliaceae). These plants grow in a

variety of different habitats found in the dry deserts of the subtropics to equatorial
tropical rain forests. Many bromeliads grow high up on the branches and trunks of
trees in the tropical rainforest. Relative to growth habits and other characteristics,
Bromeliaceae is divided into the subfamilies Pitcairnioideae, Tillandsioideae, and
Bromelioideae. See the Encyclopedia of Life for more information on this group of
organisms. [Link]

Bronze Age - Period in human history defined by the use of bronze, development of
early writing systems, and the early development of urban culture. Dates for the
Bronze Age differ with the geographical region: Near East, 3300 to 1200 BC; South
Asia, 3000 to 1200 BC; Europe, 3200 to 600 BC; and China, 2000 to 700 BC.

Brown Coal - See lignite.

Brown Earth Soil - Is a soil that commonly develops under deciduous forest in the
mid-latitudes. Their red-to-brown color develops because of the translocation of
aluminum and iron oxides in the A horizon down to the B horizon. These soils are
generally well-drained, have a litter layer rich in nutrients, and have vigorous
biological activity. These soils are extensively used for agriculture.

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Brückner Cycle - A climate cycle of about 33 to 36 years in length where a series of
seasons with wet and cold weather is followed by a series of dry hot seasons.

Brunisol Soil - Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of Soil

Classification. This soil type is associated with forest vegetation. It
is usually poorly developed and immature. The most identifying
trait of this soil is the presence of a brown B horizon. For more
information on this soil type, see the textbook Canadian System of
Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available online - [Link]
cansis/taxa/cssc3/[Link]. Image Source: Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada.

Brunizem - A brown soil that develops under semiarid grassland vegetation in the
mid-latitudes. Similar to a mollisol.

Bruun Rule - A model that mathematically predicts how a change in local sea level
will change the horizontal position of the shoreline. This model works on the
assumption that a beach profile is generally concave-upward. Further, a rise in sea
level will cause the erosion of sand from the beach face and deposition of these
sediments offshore in order to maintain constant water depth. Bruun rule is
described by the following equation:

r = ls/h

where r is shoreline change, s is the change in sea level, l cross-shore distance, and h
the height of the equilibrium cross-shore profile from beach crest to offshore.

Bubnoff Units (B) - Standard unit of measurement used to quantify erosion rates on
slopes or ground surfaces. One Bubnoff unit is equal to 1 millimeter in 1,000 years or
it is equal to 1 m³ of material being removed from an area of 1 square kilometer in 1
year.

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Buffer - Is a natural or human-made solution that can keep pH at a nearly constant
value even when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it. Human blood
is an example of a natural buffer.

Bulk Density - Is a measure of a soil's mass relative to the volume it occupies. Bulk
density is mainly influenced by two factors: soil mineral content and inter-particle
compaction. Usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter after the soil has been
dried to a constant weight at 105°C.

Bulk Specific Gravity - Measurement used in soil science used to determine the
relative density of a soil or sediment. Determined by finding the ratio of the bulk
density of a soil to the mass of the same unit volume of water.

Buried Topography - A landscape terrain that has become subsequently buried over
by deposited sediments.

Bush Encroachment - (1) The natural transformation of a grass-dominated habitat to

a tree and/or shrub-dominated habitat because of plant succession. This change can
be due to a reduction of disturbance by fire. (2) The transformation of a once
cultivated area previously cleared of natural vegetation into a tree and/or shrub-
dominated habitat because of plant succession.

Bushveld - Specific name given to a region of savanna

vegetation found in South Africa, Botswana, and
Zimbabwe (see map). The grassed plain of this habitat is
interspersed with dense groups of trees and shrubs.
During the winter dry season, the grasses stop growing,
turn yellow or brown and many of the trees and shrubs
drop their leaves. This habitat is home to White Rhino,
Black Rhino, Blue Wildebeest, Kudu, Impala, and various
species of antelope.

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Butte - Is an isolated hill on a relatively level plain,
with steep sides and a flat top. These landscape
features are common in arid to semiarid climates
and often represent a remnant of a much older
land surface that has survived erosion processes
because of the presence of a caprock. Shown are
two buttes in Monument Valley, Utah, USA. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, photographer Gerd A.T.
Mueller. This image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Buys Ballot's Law - Describes the spatial relationship between wind direction and
atmospheric pressure distribution. In the Northern Hemisphere it states: for a person
who has his back to the wind, the high pressure system would on their right and the
low pressure system on their left. In the Southern Hemisphere it states: for a person
who has his back to the wind, the high pressure system would on their right and the
low pressure system on their left. First stated in 1857 by Dutch meteorologist C.H.D.
Buys Ballot.

Bysmalith - An igneous intrusion of rock that is roughly cylindrical and vertically

oriented. This geologic feature is forced upward into overlying strata causing these
layers to dome and fracture. Bysmaliths are typically composed of granite or
granodiorite rock and they often form mountains.

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 C
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

C Horizon - Soil horizon normally found below the B horizon and above the R
horizon. This layer is composed of weathered bedrock that has not yet been
significantly influenced by the pedogenic processes.

Caatinga - A thorny woodland with many xerophytic species that is found in

northeastern Brazil.

Caballing - This term refers to the mixing of two water masses with the same
densities but different salinities and temperatures. The result of this mixture is a
blend that is denser than its original parts and as a result, the blend sinks.

Calcareous - Something containing calcium carbonate.

Calcareous Ooze - An ocean floor deposit consisting of at least 30% calcareous

plankton shells. This unconsolidated soft ocean floor deposit accumulates in areas
where the seawater is saturated with dissolved calcium. Covers about 48% of the
ocean floor. Compare with diatom ooze.

Calcareous Soils - A soil that is rich in calcium carbonate.

Calcicole - A plant species that thrives best in a soil rich in the nutrient calcium.

Calcification - A dry environment soil-forming process that results in the

accumulation of calcium carbonate in surface soil layers.

Calcifuge - A plant species that thrives best in soils with a low pH (acidic).

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Calcite - Mineral formed from calcium carbonate. A common mineral found in
limestone.

Calcium Carbonate - Compound consisting of calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate (CO32-).

Calcium carbonate has the following chemical formula CaCO3.

Calcrete - A layer found in soils or sediments that is concentrated with calcium

carbonate. This layer is often compact, quite dense, hard, and sometimes impervious.
These layers are common in arid and semiarid climates where the movement of soil
water causes the transport and deposition of calcium carbonate to a specific zone of
the soil profile where the soil particles become cemented together. Also called a
hardpan.

Caldera - A large circular depression in a volcano.

Caldera Volcano - Explosive type of volcano that leaves a large circular depression.
Some of these depressions can be as large as 40 kilometers (25 miles) in diameter.
These volcanoes form when wet granitic magma rises quickly to the surface of the
Earth.

Calf - A relatively small piece of free-floating ice in a water body that has broken off
a much larger piece of sea ice or glacier ice at lands edge.

Caliche - An accumulation of calcium carbonate at or near the soil surface.

California Current - A major relatively cold boundary ocean current found along the
western margin of North America in the Pacific Ocean. See map associated with the
definition of global ocean circulation for location information.

Calms - Wind with a speed of less than one knot (1.85 kilometers per hour or
1.11 miles per hour).

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Calorie (cal) - A measured quantity of energy. Equals the amount of heat required to
raise 1 gram of pure water from 14.5 to 15.5°C at standard atmospheric pressure.

Calving - The loss of glacier mass when ice breaks off into a large water body like an
ocean or a lake.

Cambrian - The first of six geologic periods that occurred from 542 to 488 million
years ago during the Paleozoic Era. During this time, seas were relatively warm,
polar ice was absent, invertebrates become common in the oceans, and the fossils of
the Burgess Shale were laid down. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy for
the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Cambrian Explosion - Great diversification of multicellular life forms in the Earth's

oceans that started during the Cambrian about 542 million years ago.

Campbell-Stokes Recorder - Instrument used to

measure the amount of bright sunshine during a
day. Consists of a glass sphere that focusses the
Sun's light so it burns a record onto a piece of
specially designed indexed paper (see image).
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Unported license. Also called a sunshine recorder.

Canadian High - High pressure system that develops in winter over north-central
North America.

Canadian Shield - Very old igneous and metamorphic shield rock that covers much
of northern Canada. Created more than two to three billion years ago.

Canadian System of Soil Classification - A hierarchical system that is used in

Canada to classify soils. This system has five levels: order, great group, subgroup,

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family, and series. At the order level, ten types of soils are recognized: Brunisol,
Chernozem, Cryosol, Gleysol, Luvisol, Organic, Podzol, Regosol, Vertisol, and
Solonetzic. For more information on this soil classification system see the textbook
Canadian System of Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available online - http://
[Link]/cansis/taxa/cssc3/[Link].

Canal - An artificial channel made to supply water for crop irrigation or to transport
boats and ships.

Canary Current - A major relatively cold boundary ocean current found along the
western margin of North Africa in the Atlantic Ocean. See map associated with the
definition of global ocean circulation for location information.

Canopy - The uppermost layer of leaves, branches,

and stems of trees in a forest ecosystem. This layer
plays an important role in intercepting sunlight and
precipitation, and for providing habitat for many
different kinds of animal and plant species.

Canopy Drip - Redirection of a proportion of the rain

or snow falling on a plant to the edge of its canopy.

Canyon - Steep-sided valley where depth is considerably greater than width. These
features are normally the result of stream erosion.

Cape - A large headland protruding from the coastline into the ocean.

Capillary Action - The movement of water along microscopic channels found within
a soil. This movement is the result of two forces: the adhesion and absorption of
water to the walls of the channels; and cohesion of water molecules to each other.

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Capillary Water - Water that moves horizontally and vertically in soils by the process
of capillary action. This water is available for plant use.

Caprock - A layer of more resistant rock that lies on top of a less resistant rock and
protects this layer from erosion. Sandstone and ultramafic igneous rock are common
caprocks.

Capture - The diversion of part of a stream drainage network into another drainage
system. Several different mechanisms can cause this to happen, including: tectonic
activity, glaciation, karst processes, and headward erosion.

Carapace - (1) The surface exposure of a calcrete or other type of hardpan layer
found in a soil. (2) The upper limb of a recumbent fold having an orientation that is
very close to being horizontal.

Carbohydrate - Is an organic compound composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen

atoms. Some examples are sugars, starch, and cellulose.

Carbon Cycle - Chemical model showing the storage and cyclic movement of
organic and inorganic forms of carbon between the biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

Carbon Dating - See radiocarbon dating.

Carbon Dioxide - Common gas found in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide can
selectively absorb radiation in the longwave band. This absorption causes the
greenhouse effect. The concentration of this gas has been steadily increasing in the
atmosphere over the last three centuries due to the burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation, and land-use change. Some scientists believe higher concentrations of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases will result in an enhancement of the
greenhouse effect and global warming. The chemical formula for carbon dioxide is
CO2.

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Carbon Monoxide - A colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is produced by the
incomplete burning of fossil fuels. The chemical formula for carbon monoxide is CO.

Carbonate - Compound consisting of a single atom of carbon and three atoms of

oxygen. Carbonate has the following chemical formula CO3.

Carbonation - Is a form of chemical weathering where carbonate and bicarbonate

ions react with minerals that contain calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium.

Carboniferous - One of six geologic periods that occurred from 359 to 299 million
years ago during the Paleozoic Era. During this time vast regions of forest are found
on Earth's land surface, amphibians were the dominant land vertebrate, and
arthropods were very common. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Carcinogenic - Substance or thing that has the potential ability to cause cancer in an
organism.

Cardinal Direction - The four main navigational directions

(North, East, South, and West) found on a compass or a map. For
navigational purposes, these directional names are given the
following values relative to the degrees found in a circle:
North = 0 or 360°, East = 90°, South = 180°, and West = 270°. In
between the cardinal points are four intercardinal directions:
Northeast (45°), Southeast (135°), Southwest (225°), and
Northwest (315°). The figure shows the four cardinal directions, the four
intercardinal directions, and eight other trigonometric divisions. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Cardinal Temperature - The lowest and highest air temperatures that determine the
range of temperatures at which the growth and development of an organism can
occur with a positive effect on fitness. Within this range, there is an optimum

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temperature that produces the maximum rates of growth. Cardinal temperatures can
vary with the stage of organism development.

Carnivore - Heterotrophic organism that consumes living animals or the parts of

living animals for food. Examples of carnivores include lions, cheetahs, leopards,
frogs, snakes, hawks, and spiders. A carnivore can also be called a secondary
consumer or tertiary consumer. Also see herbivore, detritivore, scavenger, and
omnivore.

Carr -A past bog and/or marsh habitat that has been reclaimed by humans through
drainage.

Carrying Capacity (K) - The maximum size of the population of a single species that
a certain habitat can support.

Cartographer - An individual who studies and practices the field of knowledge

known as cartography.

Cartography - (1) Field of knowledge that studies the construction of maps. (2) The
act of creating a map.

Cascade - A series of small waterfalls one after another.

Cascading System - A system where we are primarily interested in the flow of

energy and/or matter from one system element to another and understand the
processes that cause this movement. In a cascading system, we do not fully
understand quantitative relationships that exist between elements related to the
transfer of energy and/or matter.

Case Hardening - Is the process of forming a hard and resistant crust on the surface
of boulders or outcrops composed of soft, porous rock. This crust contains a

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naturally occurring cementing agent like iron oxide, manganese oxide, silica, and/or
calcium carbonate.

Cataclinal - A geologic feature oriented in the same direction as the dip of the
surrounding rock strata.

Cataclysm - A sudden extreme natural event that has a profound effect on the
environment.

Catalytic Converter - A device found in most vehicle exhaust systems that uses a
chemical catalyst to convert harmful air pollutants from fossil fuel combustion into
less harmful substances.

Catastrophism - General theory that suggests that certain phenomena on the Earth
are the result of catastrophic events. For example, the Biblical Flood is responsible for
sedimentary rock formations and the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Catena - Describes a sequence of soils that developed from the same parent material
and general climate but have locations along a topographical (slope) gradient. As a
result, relief is the dominant factor influencing pedogenic processes and profile
development in these soils. A soil found on the of the slope would have better
drainage, low humus content, and relatively thin profile because of erosion of
surface soil. Soil at the slope bottom, would have poor drainage, high humus
content, be gleyed, and have a relatively thick profile because of sediment
deposition.

Cation - A chemical ion carrying a positive atomic charge. Examples of cations

include calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), and potassium (K+).

Cation Exchange - Chemical trading of cations between the soil minerals and
organic matter with the soil solution and plant roots.

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Cation Exchange Capacity - The capacity of a soil to exchange cations with the soil
solution. Often used as a measure of potential soil fertility.

Causality - (1) The idea that all phenomena in the Universe operate under some type
of cause and effect process. (2) The relationship between effects (events) and their
causes (other events).

Cause - A process that results in the creation of an effect.

Cave - A natural cavity or recess that is roughly positioned horizontally to the

surface of the Earth.

Cavitation - Process of intense erosion due to the surface collapse of air bubbles
found in constricted rapid flows of water. Cavitation causes the detachment of
material from a surface.

Ceiling - The base altitude of a layer of clouds in the atmosphere.

Celestial Body - Is any natural aggregation of matter found in the Universe that is
surrounded by a layer of space. Examples include asteroids, moons, planets, nebula,
and galaxies.

Celestial Sphere - An abstract concentric sphere viewed upward from the round
surface of the Earth that is embedded with the various celestial objects seen in the
day or night sky. The temporal location of specific stars seen at night in the celestial
sphere has been used for navigation for thousands of years by travellers.

Cell - A cell is the smallest self-functioning unit found in living organisms. Each cell
is enclosed by an outer membrane or wall and contains genetic material (DNA) and
other parts to carry out its metabolic functions. Some organisms such as bacteria
consist of only one cell, but most of the organisms found on the Earth are made up of
many cells.

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Cellular - (1) Composed of cells. (2) A process occurring between or within cells.

Cellular Respiration - Is the process where the mitochondria of cells of an organism

release chemical energy from sugar and other organic molecules through chemical
oxidation. This process occurs in both plants and animals. In most organisms,
respiration releases the energy required for all metabolic processes. This chemical
reaction can be described by the following simple equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➜ 6CO2 + 6H2O + released energy

Cellulose - A type of carbohydrate. The primary organic substance used in the

construction of plant cell walls.

Celsius Scale - Common scale used in the measurement of temperature. In this scale,
water boils at 100° and freezes at 0°. This scale is used in most countries. One notable
exception is the United States where the Fahrenheit scale is used for weather
forecasting and other non-scientific purposes. Compare with Fahrenheit and Kelvin
temperature scales.

Cement - (1) Natural substance that binds together loose mineral particles to
produce a clastic sedimentary rock. Some common substances that do this include
silica, iron, and calcium. (2) Human-made industrial binding material used in the
construction of things.

Cenozoic - One of three geologic eras that occurred during the Phanerozoic Eon
from 65.5 million years ago to today. The Cenozoic is subdivided into three periods:
Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary; and seven epochs: Paleocene, Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene. At the beginning of the
Cenozoic mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians were relatively small in size.
However, with the demise of large dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous
evolutionary forces caused body size to increase significantly in all of these organism
types. We also see a significant diversification of mammals as they filled niches once
occupied by dinosaurs and other extinct species. In terms of climate, the Earth

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became cooler and drier during this era. Also called the Cænozoic and Cainozoic.
See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent
version of the geologic time scale.

Central Eruption - A volcanic eruption that involves only a single volcanic vent or a
group of vents close to each other.

Central Meridian - A particular line of longitude used as a starting point for map
construction and the projection of spatial information.

Central Vent - The main passage in a volcano that allows magma to travel to the
Earth's surface.

Centripetal Force - Force required to keep an object moving in a circular pattern

around a center of rotation. This force is directed towards the center of rotation.
Common in meteorological phenomena like tornadoes and hurricanes.

Cerrado - A name given to describe a type of savanna ecosystem found in Brazil.

Chain - (1) A linear spatial pattern of natural phenomena that may be connected or
associated with each other. (2) A unit of length measurement equal to 66 feet.

Chain Reaction (Nuclear) - A large number of nuclear fissions, taking place within a
certain mass of a fissionable isotope, This process releases a great quantity of energy
in a short time.

Chalk - A form of limestone. This sedimentary rock is composed of the shells and
skeletons of marine microorganisms.

Channel Capacity - Refers to the cross-sectional area of some slice through a stream
channel along its course. The height of this cross-section extends from the channel

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bottom up to the point where the stream's flow is just below the channel banks. This
measurement is used to determine the stream's maximum volume of flow.

Channel Cross-Sectional Area (A) - The area on a plane cutting perpendicular (90°)
through a point on the length of a stream channel that is occupied with water flow.
Mathematically if the channel had a rectangle shape, channel cross-sectional area (A)
could be determined by multiplying channel depth (D) with channel width (W) [A =
D x W]. Other formulas exist for determining channel cross-sectional area for
particular channel shapes including circular, triangular, and trapezoidal.

Channel Depth (D) - The height of the stream flow from the stream bed to the water
surface. Usually measured as an average across the width of the stream channel. To
get this average value, a number measurements equal distance apart are made across
the channel and then averaged.

Channel Geometry - Refers to various quantitative characteristics of a stream

channel including channel depth, channel width, channel cross-sectional area,
wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, bed roughness, and channel slope gradient.

Channel Resistance - Is the frictional roughness experienced by water flowing in a

stream channel. This roughness consists of many different factors, including stream
bed sediment size, obstacles found in the channel, and channel form.

Channel Slope Gradient - The change in the elevation of the water surface for two
points along the length of stream channel. This value is then divided by the distance
between these points.

Channel Storage - The maximum volume of water that can be held in a particular
length of stream channel.

Channel Width (W) - The distance across the stream channel from one bank to the
opposite bank along the water surface.

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Channelization - A human caused modification of a stream channel with the aim of
flood control, enhanced fish production, better land drainage, improved navigation,
and erosion control.

Chaos Theory - Is the mathematical study of nonlinear dynamics, where random

events and unpredictable phenomena can arise from the sensitivity of simple
deterministic equations to initial value input. This area of knowledge has been
applied to problems in meteorology and hydrology to explain phenomena. One of
the pioneering researchers in chaos theory was meteorologist Edward N. Lorenz. In
the 1960s, Lorenz constructed a computerized global circulation model for weather
forecasting and discovered that small changes in model input would create
drastically different weather forecasts. This fact was called the butterfly effect
because Lorenz suggested that in theory, a hurricane's formation could be dependent
on whether or not a butterfly in some other part of the world had flapped its wings
several weeks in the past.

Chapada - Refers to a ridge or elevated plateau with savanna vegetation found in

Brazil and other areas of South America.

Chaparral - A type of plant community common to areas of the world that have a
Mediterranean climate (for example, California and Italy). It is characterized by
shrubs, shrubby thickets, and small trees that are adapted to seasonally occurring
dry conditions. Also called Mediterranean Scrubland.

Chattermarks (Chatter Marks) - (1) Are a series of crescent-shaped groves associated

with glacier movement found on bedrock surfaces. These groves are oriented at right
angles to the direction of ice flow. They form when rock debris at the base of the
glacier repetitively chisels into the bedrock surface. (2) Small crescent-shaped marks
on beach pebbles. Form when pebbles bash into each other because of wave action.

Chelate - Organic substances that cause the chemical process of chelation.

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Chelation - Chemical weathering process that involves the extraction of metallic
cations (Fe, Al, and Mg as examples) from rocks and minerals by chelates.

Cheluviation - The downward leaching or eluviation of soluble complexes or

chelates - the combination of organic acids with metallic cations such as Fe, Al, and
Mg.

Chemical - One of the millions of different elements and compounds found

naturally and synthesized by humans.

Chemical Autotroph - Organism that uses the external energy found in chemical
compounds to produce food molecules. The process used to produce food by these
organisms is known as chemosynthesis.

Chemical Energy - (1) Energy consumed or produced in chemical reactions. (2)

Energy stored in chemical structures.

Chemical Reaction - Reaction between chemicals where there is a change in the

chemical composition of the elements or compounds involved.

Chemical Weathering - The breakdown of rocks and minerals into small-sized

particles through chemical decomposition.

Chemosphere - A layer in the atmosphere between 30 and 80 kilometers (19 and 50

miles) where photochemical processes are very active.

Chemosynthesis - Process where specific autotrophic organisms extract inorganic

compounds from their environment and convert them into organic nutrient
compounds without the use of sunlight. Also see photosynthesis.

Chenier Ridge - A long beach ridge associated with a stream delta that is made of
sand and/or shells and surrounded by low-lying wetland deposits. These ridges can

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be 1 to 6 meters (3 to 18 feet) in height, several hundred meters (300 to 600 feet) wide,
and up to 50 kilometers (30 miles) long. They often support woody vegetation.
Chenier ridges are found off the Mississippi delta.

Chernozem Soil - (1) Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of

Soil Classification. These soils are rich in humus, black in color,
and have a well developed A horizon. This soil is common in the
Canadian Prairies. For more information on this soil type, see the
textbook Canadian System of Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available
online - [Link] Image
Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. (2) Type of soil found in
grassland environments. These common grassland soils are
generally colored black and have a pronounced A horizon rich in
humus.

Chert - A microcrystalline silica-rich (quartz) sedimentary rock

that may contain tiny fossils (Image Source: U.S. Geological
Survey). This rock varies greatly in color: white to black, brown,
greyish brown, light green, to rusty red. The color is associated
with trace elements present in the rock.

Chevron Crevasse - A crevasse that has a V-

shape because the moving ice experiences
frictional resistance along the sides of the glacier
with the alpine valley wall (see image). Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
3.0 Unported license.

Chimney - (1) A tall rock pillar created by erosion. (2) A volcanic vent. (3) A vertical
tunnel that connects to a below-ground cave.

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Chinook Wind - The name of a North American regional wind system that occurs on
the leeward side of mountains. This wind is warm, has low humidity, and tends to
form mainly in winter.

Chloride - A compound composed of negatively charged chlorine anion and one

positively charged cation element.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - A human-created gas that has become concentrated in

the Earth's atmosphere. This very strong greenhouse gas is released from aerosol
sprays, refrigerants, and the production of foams. Chlorofluorocarbons play a role in
the seasonal development of ozone holes at the Earth's polar regions. The basic
chemical formula for chlorofluorocarbons is CFXClX.

Chlorophyll - A natural green pigment found in plants and some bacteria used to
capture the energy contained in light through photosynthesis.

Chloroplast - Organelle in a cell that contains chlorophyll and produces organic

energy through photosynthesis.

Chott - A seasonal lake of North Africa that becomes flooded during the winter
months because of precipitation associate with mid-latitude cyclones. These lakes are
often saline.

Chromosome - Organic structure that carries an organism's genetic code (DNA).

Chronosequence - Is a sequence of soils of differing ages, that have been influenced

by climate, parent material, relief, and organisms (soil formation factors) and should
be approximately the same in terms of pedogenesis. As a result, any difference in the
soils is primarily caused by the time available for soil formation.

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Chute - A constricted channel with relatively fast flow. This term is applied to both
streams and a stretch of water associated with a lake or ocean located between the
mainland and surrounding islands.

Cinder Cone Volcano - A small volcano, between 100 and 400 meters (330 to 1,310
feet) tall, made up of exploded rock blasted out of a central vent at a high velocity.
These volcanoes develop from magma of basaltic to intermediate composition.

Circadian Rhythm - Any biological process that shows an oscillation or cycle that is
roughly 24-hours long. Often these rhythms play an important role in maintaining
an organism's physiology and metabolic activity.

Circle of Illumination - A line that bisects areas on the Earth receiving sunlight and
those areas in darkness. Cuts the spherical Earth into day and night halves.

Circum-Pacific Belt - A zone circling the edge of the Pacific Ocean basin where
subduction due to plate tectonics causes the formation of volcanoes and ocean
trenches. Also called the Ring of Fire.

Cirque - Glacially eroded rock basin found on mountains. Most alpine glaciers
originate from a cirque.

Cirque Glacier - Small glacier that just occupies a cirque. Compare with an alpine
glacier, piedmont glacier, and continental glacier.

Cirque Lake - A permanent water body that occupies a cirque.

Cirrocumulus Cloud - Patchy white high altitude cloud composed of ice crystals.
Found in an altitude range from 5,000 to 18,000 meters (16,400 to 59,050 feet).

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Cirrostratus Cloud - High altitude sheet-like cloud composed of ice crystals. These
thin clouds often cover an extensive area of the sky. Found in an altitude range from
5,000 to 18,000 meters (16,400 to 59,050 feet).

Cirrus Cloud - High altitude cloud composed of ice crystals. The appearance of
these clouds is white feather-like patches, filaments or thin bands. Found in an
altitude range between 5,000 to 18,000 meters (16,400 to 59,050 feet).

Cladistics - A field of biology that analyzes the traits or adaptation seen within and
between groups of organisms to construct hierarchical diagrams (cladograms) that
illustrate evolutionary associations. From this analysis, organisms can then be
classified into species.

Class - A group or category used in the taxonomic and/or phylogenic classification

of organisms. Found between a phylum and an order, and made up of more than one
class.

Classification - The procedure of grouping things into categories based on some

observable differences in properties.

Clast - (1) A single fragment of mineral or rock that is part of a sedimentary rock or a
deposit of sediment. Often these fragments are created by the weathering of some
larger piece. (2) A fragment of rock ejected by a volcanic eruption.

Clastic - Sedimentary rock or sediment deposit composed of clasts that have been
physically transported and deposited.

Clastic Sedimentary Rock - Sedimentary rocks that are formed by the lithification of
weathered mineral or rock debris that has been physically transported and
deposited.

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Clathrate - A substance where an element or compound (guest) is found within the
crystalline lattice of another element or compound (host). See methane clathrate.

Clay - A mineral particle with a size less than 0.002 millimeters (0.00008 inches) in
diameter (less than 0.004 millimeters or 0.00016 inches in the USA). Compare with
silt, sand, gravel, cobble, and boulder.

Clay Dunes - Dunes composed of about 30 percent clay-sized grains relative to silt
and sand-sized particles. These features form from finer deposits, like dried lake and
lagoon sediments. These dunes can be found in southern Australia, North Africa, the
coastal plain of Argentina, Kalahari Desert, and northern and western Texas.

Clay Loam - A type of soil defined by its relative proportions of clay, silt, and sand
particles. A clay loam soil has between 27-40% clay and 20-45% sand.

Clay Mineral - A variety of different chemical forms of hydrous aluminum

phyllosilicates minerals that produce clay particles. Some common types of clay
minerals include kaolinite, dickite, halloysite, nacrite, montmorillonite, nontronite,
illite, bentonite, and sepiolite.

Clay-Humus Complex - Is the mixture of clay particles and humus commonly found
in the A horizon of many soils. This mixture is an important source of nutrient
cations consumed by plants for growth.

Claypan - Is a dense and compact clay-rich layer in a soil. These layers are often
semi-permeable, reducing the downward movement of water in soil. Not considered
a hardpan.

Clean Air Act (Canada) - Federal laws created to stop, reduce, and regulate air
pollution at a national level in Canada. This Act was passed in 2006. Environment
Canada is the main agency that enforces these laws.

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Clean Air Act (United States) - Federal laws created to stop, reduce, and regulate air
pollution at a national level in the United States. This Act was first passed in 1963
and expanded in 1967. Major amendments to the Clean Air Act occurred in 1970,
1977, and 1990. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the main agency that
enforces these laws.

Cleavage - The tendency of some minerals or rocks to break along planes of

weakness. This weakness occurs because of the nature of the bonds between mineral
grains or sedimentary layers.

Cliff - A common phrase used to describe a tall steep rock face.

CLIMAP Project - Multi-university research project that reconstructed the Earth's

climate for the last million years by examining proxy data from ocean sediment
cores. This research project took place during the 1970s and early 1980s.

Climate - General pattern of weather conditions for a region over an extended

period (at least 30 years).

Climate Change - A measurable change in the long-term statistics of climate

variables such as surface air temperature, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, wind
speed, or wind direction that continues over several decades or longer.

Climate Classification - The grouping of the climates of locations and regions based
on a quantitative analysis of long-term statistics of climate variables such as surface
air temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used climate classification is
the Köppen Climate Classification system.

Climate Modeling - The application of quantitative methods to simulate the Earth's

weather and climate system. This numerical analysis involves dynamic interactions
between numerous components found in the atmosphere, on the Earth's land
surface, and within the ocean system. The primary input for this model is the Sun's

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emission of shortwave radiation which can be influenced by several extraterrestrial
factors. These models are used to make short-term weather forecast and to determine
Earth's climate in the past and future under various input scenarios.

Climate Normal - A term used in climatology and meteorology for a period of time
(usually 30 years) from which means, standard deviations, and extremes values for a
climate variable are calculated. Sometimes referred to as a normal.

Climatic Geomorphology - The geomorphological study of weather and climate as

agents in landscape processes and forms.

Climatic Optimum - Warmest period during the Holocene Epoch. This period is
dated from about 7,000 to 3,000 BC. During this time, average global temperatures
were 1 to 3°C (2 to 5°F) warmer than they are today. Also called Altithermal,
Holocene Megathermal, Holocene Optimum, Holocene Thermal Maximum, and
Hypsithermal.

Climatic Region - An area found on the Earth that has climate characteristics that
sets it apart from adjacent areas.

Climatology - Scientific study of the Earth's climate over long time spans (greater
than several days). May also involve the investigation of climate's influence on
phenomena in the biotic and the abiotic environment.

Climatotherapy - The treatment of a medical condition or disease by placing the

inflicted individual into a beneficial climate. For example, doctors sometimes
recommend people suffering from asthma should not live in locations where the
climate favors high atmospheric humidities.

Climax Community - A plant community that no longer undergoes changes in

species composition due to the process of plant succession.

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Climbing Dune - A stationary accumulation of well-sorted sand that forms up
against the windward side of a large vertical obstruction in the landscape like a hill,
butte, mesa, or mountain. For this dune to form, there must be a source of sand and
consistent winds from mainly one direction. Climbing dunes can be steeper than
sand dunes. Compare with falling dune.

Climograph - Two-dimensional graph that plots a location's surface air temperature

and precipitation on time scales that range from a 24-hours to a year.

Cline - The gradual change in physiology and genetic characteristics (adaptations)

that occur with a species over a geographical gradient because of adaptations to
different environmental conditions.

Clinometer - An instrument that is used to measure the slope or

angle of an object. One can combine this slope calculation with a
measurement of distance to determine elevation change or object
height. Shown is a Suunto PM5 clinometer. Also called an
inclinometer.

Clinosequence - A contiguous series of related soils across space that differs in

characteristics because of local differences in micro-climate caused by topography or
relief. In these soils, the influence of other soil formation factors is assumed to be
approximately the same.

Clone - (1) A group of genetically similar plants that have originated by vegetative
asexual reproduction from a single parent. (2) The replication of an individual who is
genetically identical to a parent.

Closed System - A system that transfers energy, but not matter, across its boundary
to the surrounding environment. Our planet is often viewed as a closed system.

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Closed Talik - A form of localized unfrozen ground (talik) in an area of permafrost.
These formations are completely enclosed by permafrost in all directions.

Cloud - A collection of tiny particles of water and/or ice occurring above the Earth's
surface. Clouds are classified accord to their height of occurrence and shape. The
major types of clouds include cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, altocumulus,
altostratus, nimbostratus, stratocumulus, stratus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus.

Cloud Forest - A forest that is frequently

immersed in clouds. These forests are often found
in mountainous regions of the world and the
clouds act as an important source of water for the
trees. Shown is a cloud forest near Mindo,
Ecuador. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, this
image is in the public domain.

Cloud Seeding - An artificial technique of weather modification used to enhance the

amount of precipitation falling from clouds. Cloud seeding is done by adding
minute particles of silver iodide and potassium iodide to clouds. These particles act
as condensation nuclei and deposition nuclei increasing the number of water
droplets and ice crystals found in the cloud and improving the chance that
precipitation will take place.

Cloud Streets - A formation where cumulus or

stratocumulus clouds arrange themselves in
numerous long rows. These rows are oriented along
the direction of dominant wind flow. Shown is a
satellite view of cloud streets that formed off the
coast of New England, January 24, 2011 (Image
Source: NASA Earth Observatory).

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Cloudburst - An occurrence of a large amount of rain and/or hail released from a
cumulonimbus cloud over a short-time period, usually a few minutes. These events
are capable of causing a flash flood.

Coal - Sedimentary rock composed of the compacted, lithified, and altered remains
of plants. Coal is a solid, combustible mixture
of organic compounds, hydrocarbons, with 30
to 98 percent carbon by weight, mixed with
various amounts of water and small amounts
of sulfur and nitrogen compounds. It is
formed in several stages as the remains of
plants are subjected to heat and pressure over
millions of years. The image shows
bituminous coal (Image Source: U.S. Geological
Survey, Wikimedia Commons).

Coalescence - Process where two or more falling raindrops join into a single larger
drop because of a mid-air collision.

Coastal Cliff - A tall steep rock face found along the coast.

Coastal Dune - A type of sand dune that forms in coastal areas. The sand for its
formation is supplied from a beach.

Coastal Landform - A landform that is located at or near the coast and owes its
formation to coastal geomorphic processes.

Coastal Wetland - Wetland habitat found along a coastline and is covered with ocean
seawater for all or part of the year. Examples of this type of habitat include tidal
marshes, bays, lagoons, tidal flats, and mangrove swamps.

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Coastal Zone - Relatively nutrient-rich, shallow part of the ocean that extends from
the high tide mark on land to the edge of the continental shelf.

Coastline - Specific term used to describe the shoreline of the Earth's coasts. The line
that separates a land surface from an ocean or sea. Note that this line varies in
elevation over time because of changes in sea level. These changes in sea level can be
caused by tides, atmospheric pressure, the inflow of water, winds, climate change,
etc.

Cobble - A term used to describe unconsolidated sediments composed of rock

fragments. These rock fragments have a size between 63 millimeters (2.48 inches)
and 200 millimeters (7.87 inches). Compare with clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulder.

Coefficient of Determination - Statistic that measures the proportion of the variation

in the dependent variable that is associated with the statistical regression of an
independent variable. Calculated by taking the square of the correlation coefficient.

Coevolution - The coordinated evolution of two or more species that interact and
exert selective pressures on each other causing each species to develop associated
adaptations. Also see evolution and natural selection.

Cohesion - (1) The intermolecular attraction that occurs between molecules of a

similar substance. (2) The property of clay particles in a soil being attracted to each
other because of electrostatic interaction.

Col - Saddle like depression found between two mountain peaks. Form when two
opposing cirque glaciers back erode an arête.

Cold Desert - A type of desert found in the high latitudes or at high altitudes where
precipitation is low and surface air temperatures are generally cold.

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Cold Front - A transition zone in the
atmosphere where an advancing cold
air mass displaces a warm air mass. A
shallow zone of cloud development
and heavy precipitation usually
occurs behind of the front. Compare
with occluded front and warm front.
Normally associated with mid-
latitude cyclones.

Cold Glacier - Glacier in which the ice found from its surface to base has a
temperature as cold as -30°C (-22°F) throughout the year. This is well below the
pressure melting point. Pressure melting can cause the melting of ice at the base of
these glaciers. One of the three types of glaciers: cold glacier; temperate glacier; and
subpolar glacier.

Cold Low - A cyclonic low pressure system that has a central pool of cold air that
extends upward from the ground surface. In these storm systems, wind speed
generally increases with altitude above the ground. Most mid-latitude cyclones are
cold lows. Also called an upper level low, cold cyclone, cold-core low, or a cold-core
cyclone. Compare with warm low.

Cold Wall - (1) A narrow zone of cold seawater that separates the Gulf Stream from
the North American coastline. (2) Zone separating two masses of seawater with very
different temperatures.

Cold Wave - Term used by the United States National Weather Service that describes
a forecasted sudden drop in surface air temperature within a period of 24-hours. The
exact definition of this weather phenomenon depends on the rate of temperature
decline, minimum temperature achieve, the time of year, and the geographical region
where it is occurring. Forecasting a cold wave provides a warning to various human
activities of possible hazards and damage that could be caused by this event.

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Collision - The formation of rain often involves air turbulence and the collision of
small water droplets which then coalesce into larger droplets.

Colloid - Is a substance mixed throughout another substance at the microscopic

scale.

Colluvium - An unconsolidated deposit of soil, sediment, and rock debris that has
amassed at the base of a cliff or slope because of gravity. Compare with alluvium.

Colonization - The movement of individuals or propagules of a species to a new

geographical location.

Colony - A group of individuals, usually of the same species, living in close

association with each other.

Columnar Jointing - A common structural pattern seen in

igneous rocks of basaltic origin. Columnar jointing occurs
because of the contraction and solidification of basaltic lava
when cooled. Shown is an example of columnar jointing of
rock found at the Giant's Causeway, northeast coast of
Northern Ireland. Also called columnar structure. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, this image is in the public domain.

Comet - A large mass of ice and dust found in outer space that has an orbit around a
star.

Comfort Zone - Meteorological term used to describe the weather or climate

conditions the majority of the human population finds pleasant.

Commensalism - Biological interaction between a pair of species where one species

benefits in fitness while the other species experiences no effect on its fitness.

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Commercial Hunting - Is a type of hunting where humans kill animals to make a
financial gain. This type of hunting is normally done legally. Compare with sport
hunting, subsistence hunting, and poaching.

Comminution - The process of reducing the size of rock fragments naturally by

erosion and weathering or artificially by pulverizing the material using mechanical
techniques.

Community - Refers to all the populations of interacting species found in a specific

area or region at a certain time.

Community Boundary - The spatial edge of a unique biological community.

Community Ecology - A subfield of ecology that studies the relationships and

interactions between species in a community at various scales of time and space.
Also called synecology.

Compaction - The loss of porosity in a deposit of sediment because of the overhead

compressing effects of new deposits because of their weight.

Compass - Navigation instrument that uses the Earth's magnetic field to find
direction.

Compensation Flow - A rate of stream flow that is established legally for a stream to
manage this water for resource use or conservation purposes.

Competence - This term refers to the maximum size of particle that flowing water
can transport in a stream as bed load. The size of the particle transported increases as
stream flow velocity increases.

Competition - Biological interaction where two or more organisms (of the same or
different species) in close proximity to each other require the same resource (e.g.,

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nutrients, food, water, nesting space, and ground space) which is in limited supply.
The outcome of this interaction is that all of the organisms involved have their fitness
reduced to some level, because the amount of the limiting resource they receive is
less than what is needed for optimum health and survival. This reduction in fitness
can lead to the death of one or more of the competing individuals, freeing up
resources to the remaining competitors, and increasing their fitness. Competition
may also be the result of two different processes: exploitation or interference.
Competition can occur as an interspecific or intraspecific interaction.

Competitive Exclusion - Situation where no two competitively interacting species

can occupy exactly the same fundamental niche indefinitely because of resource
limitations. The outcome of this process is the local extinction of the species that is a
poorer competitor.

Competitive Species - According to J.P. Grime's theory of plant strategies, these

species of plants have the highest fitness in habitats with a low intensity of stress and
a low intensity of disturbance. These plants can out-compete other plants by having
adaptations to efficiently consume resources required for growth (for example, light,
soil nutrients, and soil water). Competitive plant species also have adaptations for
rapid growth, high biological productivity, and the ability to respond to
environmental change by way of significant morphological and physiological
adjustments. Compare with ruderal and stress-tolerant species.

Compiled Map - A map, usually of a reduced scale, that is generated from data
found on another map. A compiled map is not drawn from original real-world
measurements.

Composite Coast - A coastline that has been created by alternating tectonic forces
producing bays due to subsidence and headlands because of tectonic uplift.

Composite Map - A map that is produced to display compiled information from

several other maps.

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Composite Volcano - A type of volcano
created from alternating layers of lava flows
and exploded volcanic rock. These
volcanoes can range in height from 100 to
3,500 meters (330 to 11,480 feet) tall. The
chemistry of the magma that produces
composite volcanoes varies from basalt to
granite. Mount Fuji is considered a
composite volcano. Also called a
stratovolcano. Image Source: Wikipedia, this image is in the public domain.

Composites - The various plant species that belong to the Compositae family (also
called Asteraceae). Some common examples of these flowering plants are thistles,
dandelion, and sunflowers.

Compound - A compound is a mass of matter created by the atoms of different

elements joined together.

Compressibility - The ability of a substance to change its volume and density when
subject to compressional forces.

Compressing Flow - Compressing flow occurs when a glacier experiences a

reduction in the area over which it is flowing causing the compression of glacier ice.
For example, an alpine glacier responds to compressing flow by thickening and
increasing its depth in the valley where it flows. Compare with extending flow.

Compressional Wave - See P-wave.

Computer Model - An abstract representation of some phenomena (model) in the

form of data, set of rules, logical decisions, and mathematical equations that are
executed and calculated in a computer to create output.

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Concavity - A structural property of a slope where the gradient of the slope surface
becomes less steep as one moves to its bottom lower edge. Compare with convexity.

Concordant - A term used in Geomorphology and Geology to describe a situation

where surface morphology of a feature or landscape matches underlying geological
structure.

Concordant Coast - A situation where the shape of a coastline mirrors the geologic
structure and local topography of the land adjacent to it. Compare with discordant
coast.

Concordant Intrusion - An igneous intrusion that forms parallel to the orientation of

rock bedding adjacent to it.

Concrete Space - Actual geographic space of the Earth or some other celestial object.
Geographers approximate concrete space when they try to represent it in a model or
map. This estimation is referred to as abstract space.

Concretion - A nodule of more resistant rock located inside a larger mass of less
resistant rock.

Condensation - The change in the state of matter from vapor to liquid that occurs
with cooling. This term is often used in meteorology when discussing the formation
of liquid water from water vapor. This process releases latent heat energy to the
environment.

Condensation Nuclei - Microscopic particle of dust, smoke, or salt that allows for
the condensation of water vapor into water droplets in the atmosphere. The nucleus
for the formation of a raindrop. Condensation normally occurs on these particles
when relative humidity becomes 100%. Some condensation nuclei, like salt, are
hygroscopic and water can condense on them at relative humidities lower than
100%.

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Conditional Instability - Situation in the atmosphere where the stability of a rising
air parcel is determined by its altitude, the formation of water droplets and ice
crystals, and the release of latent heat energy when water makes a phase change. In
conditional instability, the air parcel begins adiabatic cooling with uplift at the dry
adiabatic lapse rate and remains stable because the air surrounding it is warmer. At
some altitude above the ground the dew point is reached, condensation and/or
deposition occurs, and the parcel of air continues its cooling now at the saturated
adiabatic lapse rate. With further assent, the release of latent heat will at some
altitude cause the parcel of air to become warmer than the air around it. When this
occurs the air parcel becomes unstable.

Conduction - (1) The direct transfer of heat energy from atom to atom through a
substance along a temperature gradient. (2) The transfer of electrical energy from
atom-to-atom through a substance when a difference in electrical potential exists.

Conductivity - A method used to measure the ionic content of a solution. Most

instruments used for this measurement determine electrical resistance between two
electrodes that are placed at a fixed distance. As a result, the lower the resistance the
higher the conductivity. The conductivity of water is often strongly correlated to total
dissolved solids.

Conduit - (1) A vertical channel in a volcano that allows for the upward flow of
magma to a surface volcanic vent. (2) Below-ground channel filled with water that
connects two larger subterranean cavities containing water.

Cone - (1) A funnel-shaped mass of natural sediments in the landscape. This term is
often used to describe conical shaped features related to volcanic activity (ash cone,
adventive cone, cinder cone volcano, and volcanic cone). (2) The fruiting body of
coniferous vegetation.

Cone of Depression - Cone-shaped depression occurring horizontally across a water

table. Caused by excessive removal of groundwater by a surface well.

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Conference of the Parties - An official meeting of all the parties (nation states)
involved in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change that is
held annually. This event started in 1995 to guarantee that the process of mitigating
human caused global climate change was always ongoing as new information and
recommendations from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment
Reports were considered by nation governments.

Confined Aquifer - Aquifer between two layers of relatively impermeable earth

materials, such as clay or shale.

Confined Groundwater - Groundwater trapped between two impervious layers of

rock.

Confluence - (1) A flow of air that moves toward the

center and becomes less spread out with distance
traveled (see image). Compare with diffluence. (2)
Describes two or more expanses of water coming
together.

Congeliflucation - The downslope mass movement of soil, sediment, and rock by

way of repeated freeze-thaw action.

Congelifraction - The weathering of minerals and rocks by way of repeated freeze-

thaw action.

Congeliturbation - The heaving and mixing of soil and sediment at the ground
surface way of repeated freeze-thaw action.

Conglomerate - Coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of rounded rock

fragments cemented in a mixture of clay and silt.

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Conic Map Projection - Is a two-dimensional map projection
system that creates its maps by projecting the Earth's surface
onto a cone. This cone can be placed on the Earth so that its edge
runs parallel to a particular line of latitude. Conic map
projections are common in atlases and are often used for maps
of large countries. See Albers Equal Area Map Projection.

Coniferous Forest - Cone-bearing vegetation of the middle and

high latitudes that are mostly evergreen and that have needle-shaped or scale like
leaves. Compare with deciduous forest.

Coniology - See koniology.

Conjunction - The perceived meeting or passing of two or more celestial bodies.

Earth's moon is in conjunction with the Sun every 29.53 days producing a new moon.
Conjunction also occurs with the Sun, Earth, and the various planets in our Solar
System.

Connate Water - Seawater or freshwater trapped in the internal spaces found within
sedimentary rock from the time the rock was originally formed.

Connectivity - A term used in science to describe the number of connections

between things in a networked system.

Consequent Stream - A stream whose course is a direct outcome of the slope of the
land surface.

Conservation - Philosophical belief in the preservation, protection, and/or

restoration of the Earth's natural abiotic environment, natural biomes and
ecosystems, and wild species.

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Conservation Biology - Multidisciplinary science that deals with the conservation of
genes, species, communities, and ecosystems that makeup Earth's biodiversity. This
science often investigates human effects on biodiversity and tries to develop
practical approaches to preserving biodiversity and ecological integrity.

Conservation International - Is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that

focuses on protecting biodiversity on our planet. This nonprofit organization was
founded in 1987 and has its headquarters in Arlington, Virginia, USA. Conservation
International's website can be found at [Link]

Consistence - (1) A soil's resistance to deformation and fracturing. (2) The relative
amount of particle cohesion in a soil.

Consociation - A plant community that is dominated by just one species of plant.

Consolidation - (1) Any process that converts loose soil or sediment into more
compressed materials. (2) The reduction of the volume of a soil mass through
compression.

Constructive Wave - Are shallow ocean waves with a long wavelength that wash up
on shoreline. These waves produce a strong swash that transports material up the
beach, forming a berm. The wave energy dissipates over a wide area which results in
a weak backwash and a wide beach profile. Constructive waves have a low
frequency, producing only about 6 and 8 waves per minute. Compare with
destructive wave.

Consumer - An organism that receives the nutrients (food) required for maintenance,
growth, and reproduction from the consumption of tissues of producers and/or
other consumers. Also called a heterotroph. Several different kinds of consumers
have been recognized including: carnivores, omnivores, scavengers, herbivores,
detritivores, secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers.

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Contact - The physical interface between two different masses of rock that touch
each other.

Contact Metamorphism - The small scale thermal metamorphic alteration of rock

because of localized heating. It is usually caused by an igneous intrusion like a sill or
a dyke.

Continental Antarctic Air Mass (cAA) - Air mass that forms over the Antarctic
landmass in the
Southern Hemisphere.
These air mass systems
form during the entire
year. Continental
Antarctic air masses are
very cold, extremely
dry, and very stable. On
weather maps, the
symbol cAA is used to
identify a Continental
Antarctic air mass. On the map, the typical source regions for these air masses are
shown (see image - Image Source: Wikipedia Commons, NASA). Also see Continental
Arctic air mass, Continental Polar air mass, Maritime Polar air mass, Maritime
Tropical air mass, Continental Tropical air mass, and Maritime Equatorial air mass.

Continental Arctic Air

Mass (cA) - Air mass that
forms over extensive
landmass areas in the
high latitudes of the
Northern Hemisphere.
These air mass systems
form only in winter over
Greenland, northern
Canada, northern Siberia, and the Arctic Basin. Continental Arctic air masses are

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very cold, extremely dry, and very stable. On weather maps, the symbol cA is used to
identify a Continental Arctic air mass. On the map, the typical source regions for
these air masses are shown (see image - Image Source: Wikipedia Commons, NASA).
Also see Continental Antarctic air mass, Continental Polar air mass, Maritime Polar
air mass, Maritime Tropical air mass, Continental Tropical air mass, and Maritime
Equatorial air mass.

Continental Climate - The typical climate of locations found in the interior of a

continent. Seasonal variations in temperature are large due to the heating and
cooling characteristics of land. For middle and high latitude locations, summers tend
to be warm to hot, while winters are cold to very cold relative to maritime locations
at the same latitude. Continental climates generally have less precipitation because
of their distance from sources of moisture, the oceans. See continental effect.
Compare with maritime climate.

Continental Crust - Granitic portion of the Earth's crust that makes up the
continents. The thickness of the continental crust varies between 20 to 75 kilometers
(12 to 47 miles). See sial layer.

Continental Divide - The elevated area that occurs on a continent that divides
continental scale drainage basins.

Continental Drift - Theory that suggests that the Earth's crust is composed of several
continental plates that can move. First proposed by A. Snider in 1858 and further
developed by F.B. Taylor (1908) and Alfred Wegener (1915).

Continental Effect - The effect that continental surfaces have on the weather and
climate of locations or regions. This effect results in a greater range in surface air
temperature at both daily and annual scales. Compare with maritime effect.

Continental Glacier - The largest type of glacier with a surface coverage of about 5
million square kilometers (2 million square miles). Compare with the piedmont
glacier, alpine glacier, and cirque glacier.

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Continental Ice Sheet - See continental glacier.

Continental Islands - Islands that are found close to the coastline but who have a
geological origin similar to the adjacent continent. These islands were once part of
the continent but became separated from the mainland by the presence of the ocean.
Compare with oceanic islands.

Continental Margin - The area between a continent's coastline and the beginning of
the ocean floor. It includes the continental shelf, continental rise, and continental
slope.

Continental Plate - A rigid, independent segment of the lithosphere mainly

composed of granite that floats on the viscous plastic asthenosphere and moves over
the surface of the Earth. The Earth's continental plates are an average 125 kilometers
(78 miles) thick and were formed more than 3 billion years ago. Also see oceanic
plate.

Continental Polar Air Mass (cP) - Air mass that forms over extensive landmass areas
of middle to high
latitudes. In North
America, these systems
form over northern
Canada. Continental Polar
air masses are cold and
very dry in the winter and
cool and dry in the
summer. These air masses
are also atmospherically
stable in all seasons. On
weather maps, the symbol cP is used to identify a Continental Polar air mass. On the
map, the typical source regions for these air masses are shown (see image - Image
Source: Wikipedia Commons, NASA). Also see Continental Arctic air mass, Continental

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Antarctic air mass, Maritime Polar air mass, Maritime Tropical air mass, Continental
Tropical air mass, and Maritime Equatorial air mass.

Continental Rift Zone - The pulling apart of continental crust along a relatively
linear stretch because of upwelling magma beneath the Earth's surface. This may
cause volcanic activity and lava flows along this rift zone. Examples include East
African Rift, Red Sea Rift, Oslo Graben, Rio Grande Rift, Baikal Rift Zone, and Gulf
of Suez Rift.

Continental Rise - Thick layers of sediment found between the continental slope and
the ocean floor. Also called continental apron.

Continental Shelf - Shallow submerged margin of the continents that lies between
the edge of the coastline and the continental slope. This nearly level area of the
continental crust generally has surface layers made of sediment or sedimentary rock.

Continental Shelf Break - Boundary zone between the continental shelf and
continental slope.

Continental Shield - See shield.

Continental Slope - Steeply sloping portion of continental crust found between the
continental shelf and continental rise.

Continental Tropical Air

Mass (cT) - Air mass that
forms over extensive
landmasses areas of the low
latitudes. In North America,
these systems form over the
southwestern United States
and northern Mexico.

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Continental Tropical air masses are warm and dry in the winter and hot and dry in
the summer. These air masses are also generally unstable in the winter but stable in
the summer. On weather maps, the symbol cT is used to identify a Continental
Tropical air mass. On the map, the typical source regions for these air masses are
shown (see image - Image Source: Wikipedia Commons, NASA). Also see Continental
Arctic air mass, Continental Antarctic air mass, Continental Polar air mass, Maritime
Polar air mass, Maritime Tropical air mass, and Maritime Equatorial air mass.

Continentality - The tendency of terrestrial surfaces on Earth to experience more

temperature variation than ocean surfaces. The main factor responsible for this fact is
that the soil, sediment, and rock that makes up land has a lower specific heat than
water.

Continuous Permafrost - Form of permafrost that exists across a landscape as an

unbroken layer.

Contour Interval - Difference in elevation between two successive contour lines. The
interval at which contours are drawn on a map depends on the amount of the relief
depicted and the scale of the map.

Contour Line - Lines (isolines) on a topographic map that connect all points with the
same elevation.

Contrail - Are long thin artificial clouds composed

of water droplets or ice crystals that can form
behind aircraft when their engines cause water
vapor to condense or freeze. Abbreviation for
condensation trail.

Contributing Area - The region within a drainage basin that is providing water for
runoff after precipitation falls from a storm.

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Control System - A system that is intelligently controlled by the activities of humans.
For example, a human-controlled dam on a stream.

Convection - Process that involves the transfer of mass and heat energy using
vertical motions through a fluid substance like air or water. Also see advection.

Convection Current - The movement of a gas or a fluid in chaotic vertical mass

motions because of localized heating.

Convectional Lifting - The vertical lifting of air parcels through convective heating
of the atmosphere. This process can initiate adiabatic processes inside the air parcel.

Convectional Precipitation - The formation of precipitation because of surface

heating of the air at the ground surface. If enough heating occurs, the mass of air
becomes warmer and lighter than the air in the surrounding environment initiating
convection, and just like a hot air balloon it begins to rise, expand, and cool. When
sufficient cooling has taken place saturation occurs forming precipitation. This
process is active in the interior of continents and near the equator forming cumulus
clouds and possible thunderstorms. Rain is usually the precipitation type that is
formed, and in most cases, this moisture is delivered in large amounts over short
periods of time in extremely localized areas.

Convention on Biological Diversity - A legally binding international treaty dealing

with regional and global biodiversity issues that was first available for signing by
nations at the United Nations Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, on June 5, 1992. This
treaty has three primary goals: (1) to advance the conservation of biodiversity; (2) the
promotion of the sustainable use of biodiversity; and (3) the just sharing of genetic
resources between nations. The Convention on Biological Diversity website can be
found at [Link]

Convergence - Horizontal inflow of wind into an area. Once in the area, the wind
then travels upward. Associated with cyclonic airflow.

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Convergence Lifting - The vertical lifting of parcels of air through the convergence
of opposing air masses in the atmosphere. This process can initiate adiabatic
processes inside the air parcel.

Convergence Precipitation - The formation of precipitation due to the convergence

of two air masses. In most cases, the two air masses have different climatological
characteristics. One is usually warm and moist, while the other is cold and dry. The
leading edge of the latter air mass acts as an inclined wall or front causing the moist
warm air to be lifted. The lifting causes the warm moist air mass to cool due to
expansion resulting in saturation. This precipitation type is common at the mid-
latitudes where cyclones form along the polar front. Also called frontal precipitation.

Convergent Evolution - The independent evolution of similar adaptations in

organisms that are not closely genetically related because they live in similar
environments. Convergent evolution occurs because natural selection picks similar
adaptations that are optimal for survival in like environments.

Convexity - A structural property of a slope where its surface gradient becomes

steeper as one moves to its top. Compare with concavity.

Convolute Bed - A visually disturbed or crumpled sedimentary layer found between

undisturbed strata deposits in a sedimentary rock bedding sequence. Such
convoluted beds can be caused by slumping (see rotational slide) or some type of
erosional disturbance after deposition.

Cooling Degree Day - For a single day, this climatological measurement determines
the number of degrees that the daily mean temperature is above a specified base
temperature. For example, if the daily mean temperature was recorded as 30°C and
the base temperature was 24°C, the cooling degree day measurement would be 6°C.
Sometimes these daily departures are determined for longer than one day. In this
case, the departures are summed together to get a cumulative total of cooling degree
days for that period. Compare with heating degree day.

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Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) - Current official world time reference for civil
and scientific purposes. Simply, it is the current time at the Prime Meridian.
Coordinated Universal Time is measured from six standard atomic clocks at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Paris, France. Implemented in
1964. To find out the current Coordinated Universal Time go to the following
website: [Link]

Coprolite - Fossilized excrement, feces, or droppings from an organism.

Coquina - A sedimentary rock rich in the mineral calcite

composed mainly of fragments of marine shells that have
been transported, worn down, and sorted according to
size. The fragments making up this rock normally are
2 mm or greater in size. This rock can vary from being
crumbly to well-cemented. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, Photograph by Mark A. Wilson, Department of
Geology, The College of Wooster, this image is in the public
domain.

Coral - Simple marine animals that live symbiotically with

algae (Image Source: NOAA). In the symbiotic relationship, the
algae provides the coral with nutrients, while the coral
supplies the algae with a structure to live in. Coral animals
secrete calcium carbonate to produce a hard external skeleton.

Coral Bleaching - Situation where corals loose their colorful

symbiotic algae. Believed to be caused by unusually warm water, changes in the
salinity of ocean seawater, or excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

Coral Mud - A deposit of fine-textured coral fragments often found around coral
reefs and parts of the continental slope. Compare with coral sand.

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Coral Reef - A ridge of limestone found generally below the ocean surface. This
marine feature is produced by numerous colonies of tiny coral animals, called
polyps, that create calcium carbonate structures around themselves for protection.
When the corals die, their vacant exterior skeletons form layers that cause the reef to
grow. Coral reefs are found in the coastal zones of warm tropical and subtropical
oceans.

Coral Sand - A deposit of coarse-textured, sand-sized, coral fragments often found

around coral reefs. Compare with coral mud.

Cordillera - A term used to describe a group of mountains or a larger region of

numerous mountains.

Core - The core is a layer rich in iron and nickel

found in the interior of the Earth. The core is
composed of two sub-layers: the inner core and
outer core. The core is about 7,000 kilometers
(4,350 miles) in diameter. The density of the core
is estimated to vary from 10.0 to 13.0 g/cm3 -
grams per cubic centimeter (roughly 0.36 to 0.47
pounds per cubic inch).

Core Sampling - Technique used to sample soil, peat, ice, sediments, and rock by
using a drill and a hollow tube to extract a cylinder of material for investigation and
scientific analysis.

Corestone - A relatively unweathered boulder found inside weathered rock.

Coriolis Effect - An apparent force due to the Earth rotation and the spherical shape
of our planet's surface. This apparent force causes moving objects to be deflected to
the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Coriolis effect does not exist on the equator. This force is responsible for the direction
of flow in meteorological phenomena like mid-latitude cyclones, hurricanes, and

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anticyclones. Coriolis effect also has a role in the formation of the Ekman spiral and
Ekman transport in ocean bodies.

Cornice - A relatively large overhanging mass of snow and

ice located on the ridge of a mountain or at the edge of a
cliff. Cornice forms when prevailing winds blow snow over
the mountain ridge or a cliff. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, this image is in the public domain.

Corona - A common optical phenomenon that produces a

perimeter rings of bright diffused light of various colors around the Moon and the
Sun.

Corrasion - The erosion of rock surfaces by collision or grinding action of material

being carried by wind, water, or ice.

Correlation - The degree of possible cause and effect influence that occurs between
two phenomena and the particular attributes that can be measured from them.

Correlation Coefficient - Statistic that measures the degree of linear association

between two variables. The values for this statistic vary from -1.0 and +1.0. Perfect
positive (the dependent variable increases with an increase in the independent
variable) linear association has a correlation coefficient of 1.0. Perfect negative (the
dependent variable decreases with an increase in the independent variable) linear
association has a correlation coefficient of -1.0. Absolutely no association between
variables has a value of zero.

Corrosion - The combination effects of chemical weathering of rock surfaces and the
active transport of the weathered material in solution by water. Very effective with
limestone and dolomite rocks rich in carbonate.

Cosmic - A phenomenon that is external to the Earth and exists somewhere in space.

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Cosmic Radiation - Refers to high-energy charged subatomic particles originating
from outer space. These particles are mainly protons from the nuclei of hydrogen
and helium and isolated electrons.

Cosmopolitan Species - Is a species that has a relatively broad ecological niche and a
geographic range over a large portion of the Earth. Cosmopolitan species live in a
wide range of habitat types, can live in various environmental conditions, and are
adapted to consume many types of food. Compare with endemic and specialist
species.

Cost-Benefit Ratio - An economic measure of the ratio of the costs of a venture or

financial activity relative to its anticipated benefits expressed in monetary terms.
Used to determine whether a project is a sound investment decision.

Coulee (or Coulée) - (1) Steep-sided flow of volcanic lava that has solidified. (2)
Abandoned glacial meltwater channel. (3) A term used in Canada and the United
States to describe a steep-sided stream valley.

Counter-Radiation - The redirection of the Earth's ground emitted longwave

radiation back to the surface because of the greenhouse effect.

Country Rock - Term used to describe the rock surrounding an igneous intrusion or
a vein of rock that has a concentrated occurrence of particular minerals.

Cove - A protective bay found along a coastline that has a relatively narrow
entryway.

Coversand - A relatively thin layer of sand deposited by wind action across vast
areas that may have been reworked by fluvial, glacial, periglacial, and other
geomorphic processes. The source of the sand can be coastal dune or continental
glacial outwash deposits.

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Crater - Circular depression in the ground surface created by volcanic activity or an
asteroid impact.

Craton - Stable foundation core of the Earth's various plates of continental crust.
Composed of the shield and platform.

Creationism - The religious belief that the Universe, Earth, humans, and other
lifeforms on our planet were brought into being by a supernatural entity or God.

Creek - A narrow natural watercourse the connects to a much larger stream.

Creep - (1) A very slow mass movement of soil

downslope (see image - Image Source: USGS). Creep
occurs when the stresses on the slope material are too
small to cause a rapid failure of the slope materials. See
soil creep. (2) Another term used to describe traction.

Crest - (1) The topmost point on an anticline. (2) The highest point on an ocean or
lake wave. (3) The highest point on a mountain ridge. (4) The highest point on a sand
dune, or stream bed ripple, antidune, or wind ripple. (5) The maximum stream
discharge attained for a flood as measured on a hydrograph.

Cretaceous - Geologic period that occurred roughly 65.5 to 145.5 million years ago.
During this period, the first flowering plant species appear and dinosaurs are at their
greatest diversity. Dinosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. Cretaceous
was a time of a relatively warm global climate. Coniferous forest was the dominant
plant community on the land surface. One of three geologic periods during the
Mesozoic. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the
most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Cretaceous–Paleogene Extinction Event - Mass extinction event that occurred 65.5 ±

0.3 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous. This event caused the complete

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loss of non-avian dinosaurs, many marine invertebrates, some mammals, and some
plants. One theory suggests this mass extinction event was caused by the impact of a
large asteroid with the Earth.

Crevasse - (1) Opening on a levee that allows for the drainage of

water from the floodplain to the stream channel. (2) A large and
deep fracture found on the brittle surface of a glacier (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, this image is in the public domain).

Crevice - A narrow crack on the surface of something.

Critical Entrainment Velocity - Velocity required to entrain a particular sized

particle into the moving medium of air or water. Also called critical erosion velocity.

Critical Erosion Velocity - See critical entrainment velocity.

Critical Load - This is a threshold level of pollution where any further increase in the
presence of polluting substances will cause harmful effects to organisms found in an
ecosystem.

Critical Temperature - A threshold temperature value for some condition or process.

For example, the growth of many species of bacteria is curtailed at 0°C or colder.

Critical Velocity - A threshold velocity value for some condition or process. For
example, the growth of many species of bacteria is curtailed at 0°C or colder.

Critically Endangered - One of the categories used by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List to describe the status of a species. This
category suggests the species has been evaluated to have an extremely high risk of
becoming extinct in the wild.

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Cropland - Land used to grow cultivated plants for human or animal consumption
and to produce industrial products. Estimates suggest that about 5% of our planet's
terrestrial surface is being continually cultivated to grow crops.

Cross-Bedding - These are inclined sub-layers found

within some larger sedimentary stratum or bed.
These sub-layers indicate the past occurrence of some
depositional process working to create the much
larger depositional layer (see top graphic). In the
second graphic shown, we can identify at least five
major sedimentary layers (Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, this image is in the public domain). Within
these layers are inclined sub-layers or cross-beds that
may have been formed by sand dune deposits in an
aeolian environment. Cross-bedding deposits
commonly form in stream beds, tidal flats, and
aeolian environments.

Cross-Lamination - Are inclined sub-layers found within some larger sedimentary

stratum or bed. These layers differ from cross-beds in that they are only millimeters
(fractions of an inch) thick. Each cross-laminae represents a unique sedimentation
event caused by minor fluctuations in velocity and/or rates of sediment supply in
the depositional environment.

Cross-Profile - See cross-section.

Cross-Section - An illustration that represents a slice or two-dimensional plane

cutting through some three-dimensional object, usually at right angles to its long
axis. Cross-sections are sometimes exaggerated along the vertical axis of the diagram
to make details more apparent. Also called cross-profile.

Crude Oil - A natural liquid mainly found in subsurface geologic formations that
contains various hydrocarbons and other liquid organic compounds. When refined

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crude oil can be used to produce various types of fuels, lubricants, wax, asphalt,
plastics, and pharmaceuticals.

Crumb Structure - Refers to soils where particles accumulate to form larger

aggregates. Soils rich in humus and clay form these aggregates. Soils with this
property are much easier to work for agriculture.

Crushing Strength - The amount of sustained force needed to cause solid material to
fracture.

Crust - Earth's outer-most layer of solid rock. The crust is between 7 to 70 kilometers
(4.4 to 43.5 miles) thick. Two types of crust have been recognized: oceanic crust and
continental crust.

Cryergic - Some feature or process that is associated with periglacial environmental

conditions.

Cryophyte - A plant that has adaptations for survival in extremely cold

environments.

Cryoplanation - The lowering of relief and flattening of the landscape by way of

processes that involve frost action.

Cryoplankton - Species of plankton that have adaptations

to survive in extremely cold environments.

Cryosol Soil - Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of

Soil Classification. This soil is common to high latitude
tundra environments. The main identifying feature of this
soil is a layer of permafrost within one meter (3 feet) of
the soil surface. For more information on this soil type,
see the textbook Canadian System of Soil Classification, 3rd

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Edition available online - [Link] Image
Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

Cryostatic Pressure - The pressure applied on a substance or feature by ice while it is

motionless.

Cryosphere - Components of the Earth system where frozen water is a dominant

feature. The cryosphere includes seasonal snow, snowfields, river ice, lake ice, sea
ice, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground.

Cryotic - Something that is in a frozen state.

Cryoturbation - The active mixing of soil, sediment, and rock by repeated freezing
and thawing. A common feature of cryosol and gelisol soils.

Cryovegetation - Plants that are adapted to live in habitats where there is permanent
snow and ice. Common plant types include algae, lichens, and mosses.

Cryptovolcano - A landscape feature on Earth or other planets that resembles a

volcano but which may or may not be of volcanic origin.

Cryptozoic - Later part of the Precambrian fossil record where there are only some
indications that primitive lifeforms exist. Distinct from the Phanerozoic when fossils
of lifeforms are common.

Crystallography - The scientific study of mineral crystals.

Cuesta - A hill or ridge with a gradual

slope on one side (back slope) and a sharp
slope (front slope) on the opposite side
(see image - Image Source: Wikipedia
Commons, this image is in the public domain). Cusetas often form on rock outcrops

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composed of sedimentary rock strata that have gentle dip angles. In these geologic
formations, erosion cuts into the strata creating the front slope. The back slope of the
Cuseta normally runs parallel to the top of the stratum that is harder to erode.

Culmination - (1) In Geology, this term refers to the highest point in a fold. (2) A
term used in astronomy to describe the highest point achieved by the transit of a
celestial body, seen from Earth, across the horizon.

Cultural Services - One of four benefits humans receive from ecosystems as describe
in the United Nation's Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. This service suggests that
humans can benefit from ecosystems through spiritual enhancement, recreation, and
aesthetic experience. Compare with provisioning services, regulating services, and
supporting services.

Cultural Vegetation - Vegetation that has been influenced by the direct or indirect
activities of humans.

Cumec - Abbreviation for cubic meters per second. A measurement unit used for
stream discharge.

Cumulonimbus Cloud - A well developed vertical cloud that often displays a top
shaped like an anvil. Cumulonimbus clouds are very dense with condensed water
droplets and deposited ice crystals. Common weather associated with this cloud
includes: strong winds; hail; lightning; tornadoes; thunder; and heavy rain. When
this weather occurs these clouds are then officially called thunderstorms. These
clouds can extend in altitude from a few hundred meters above the surface to more
than 12,000 meters (39,400 feet).

Cumulose Deposits - Deposits rich in organic matter located at or near the ground
surface.

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Cumulus Cloud - Puffy clouds with relatively flat bases. Cumulus clouds form when
moist warm air bubbles vertically escape from the Earth's surface. Found in an
altitude range between 300 to 2,000 meters (984 to 6,560 feet).

Cupola - A large dome-shaped mass of igneous rock that extends from the top of a
batholith.

Current Bedding - The accumulated cross-beds of sediment laid down by the flow of
water or air.

Current - (1) An isolated moving mass of water within the flow of a stream. (2)
Vertical movement of a relatively small isolated mass of air within the atmosphere.
(3) A relatively small isolated moving mass of near-surface seawater within the
ocean. (4) Movement of near-surface seawater through a channel because of tidal
forces.

Current Base - The maximum depth, as measured from the surface of the water
body, that near-surface currents are unable to cause the movement of bottom
sediments.

Current Meter - An instrument used to measure the flow velocity of water in

freshwater and marine environments. In streams, the measurement of flow velocity
combined with volumetric measurements of the cross-sectional area of the stream
channel can be used to determine stream discharge.

Current Ripple - A type of ripple produced by consistent stream flow.

Cuspate Delta - A type of delta that normally forms when a stream empties its
stream flow and carried sediment into a standing water body like a large lake or
ocean and producing a cuspate foreland.

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Cuspate Foreland - Is a triangular accumulation of sand and/or gravel located along
the coastline. This feature is formed by the joining of two spits.

Cut-Off - A section of stream channel (usually a

meander loop) that has become disconnected from the
rest of the stream because of lateral erosion. The
disconnected channel section becomes an oxbow lake
which will overtime fill in with sediment. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, U.S. Department of
Agriculture.

Cyanobacteria - A phylum of bacteria that can carry out photosynthesis as part of

their metabolism. Scientists hypothesized that
Cyanobacteria have played an important role in adding
oxygen to the Earth's ancient atmosphere. This process is
believed to have begun between 2.5 to 3.5 billion years ago.
Shown via a microscope is the species Tolypothrix sp. Also
called cyanophyta and blue-green algae. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, photo by Matthew J. Parker. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.

Cycle - A repeating sequence of events.

Cycle of Erosion - Concept of landscape development first proposed by William

Morris Davis in 1899. This concept, originally called the geographical cycle, suggests
how a block of uplift land overtime becomes reduced to a peneplain through the
processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition.

Cyclogenesis - The process of cyclone formation, maturation, and death. Associated

with tropical storms, hurricanes, and mid-latitude cyclones.

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Cyclone - Area of low pressure in the atmosphere that displays circular inward
movement of air near the ground surface. In the Northern Hemisphere circulation is
counterclockwise, while Southern Hemisphere cyclones have clockwise wind
patterns. A term can be used to refer to mid-latitude cyclones, tropical storms, and
hurricanes. Compare with anticyclone.

Cyclostrophic - A type of wind flow where there is a balance between the

atmospheric pressure gradient force and the centripetal force. Cyclostrophic winds
occur in situations where air is flowing in a curved fashion around a cyclone or
anticyclone.

Cyclothem - (1) A stratigraphic unit composed of a series of rock strata deposited

during one sedimentary cycle. (2) A repeating sequence of marine and non-marine
strata that suggests a cyclical depositional environment.

Cylindrical Map Projection - Is a map projection system that creates two-

dimensional maps by projecting the Earth's surface onto a cylinder. On this map
system lines of longitude are portrayed as being equally spaced apart from the
equator to the poles. On the Earth's surface, lines of longitude converge on each
other as one goes from the equator to the poles. Lines of latitude retain the property
of being parallel to each other but are distorted for distance. The distance between
consecutive lines of latitude becomes progressively greater as one moves from the
equator to the poles. See Mercator Map Projection.

Cymatogeny - The large scale horizontal warping of the Earth's crust on a scale of
10s to 100s kilometers (6+ to 60+ miles) with vertical movement in the 1000s of
meters (3,000+ feet). Produces minimal rock folding and faulting. Caused by tectonic
activity.

Cytoplasm - All the protoplasm in an organism's cell except for what is contained in
the nucleus.

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 D
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Dacite - An igneous rock of volcanic origin containing plagioclase feldspar, biotite,

hornblende, quartz, and pyroxene minerals. Has intermediate composition between
andesite and rhyolite.

Daily Maximum Temperature - The highest surface air temperature recorded at a

meteorological station during the course of one day (midnight to midnight).

Daily Mean Temperature - The average surface air temperature as recorded at a

meteorological station for a location for a particular day. Usually, it is calculated by
finding the difference between the warmest (daily maximum temperature) and
coldest (daily minimum temperature) temperature recorded during a particular day
and then dividing this value by 2.

Daily Minimum Temperature - The lowest surface air temperature recorded at a

meteorological station during the course of one day (midnight to midnight).

Daily Temperature Range - The difference between the warmest (daily maximum
temperature) and coldest (daily minimum temperature) temperatures recorded at a
meteorological station during a particular day (midnight to midnight).

Dalmation Coast - A coastline that has a string of islands located parallel to the
mainland with deep bays and steep coastal cliffs. These islands represent the tops of
mountains in a mountain range that has subsided because of tectonic forces.

Dam - A natural or human-constructed barrier that impounds water behind it. The
creation of artificial reservoirs by dams allows humans to use this water for
irrigation and power generation. However, several environmental problems have

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been documented by the creation of dams including changes in stream hydrology,
seismic activity, sedimentation in the reservoir, biodiversity loss and migration, and
changes to riparian habitats.

Dambo - Term used to describe shallow wetlands sometimes found at the

headwaters of streams in central, southern, and eastern Africa. These wetland
ecosystems are dominated by grasses, sedges, and rushes and are surrounded by
vegetation that generally belongs to the tropical and subtropical grasslands,
savannas, and shrublands biome.

Darcy (unit) - A non SI unit used to measure the permeability of a porous solid
substance (usually soil, sediment, or rock). 1 darcy allows a flow of 1 cm³ per second
(1 cm³/s) of a liquid with viscosity roughly equal to water at 20°C under a pressure
gradient of 1 standard atmosphere per centimeter (1 atm/cm) acting across an area
of 1 cm².

Darcy's Law - Is a hydrological equation that models the flow of a fluid through a
porous medium. This law was first formulated by Henri Darcy in 1856, but has been
subsequently modified. The law states:

Q = kiA
where Q is the flow rate, k the hydraulic conductivity, i is the hydraulic gradient, and
A is the flow cross-section area.

Darwinism - Is a theory of biological evolution first developed by Charles Darwin

(1859) and subsequently modified by others, that suggests all species of organisms
originate and develop through the process of natural selection which acts on
inherited adaptations that influence an individual's capacity to compete, survive,
and reproduce. Also called Darwinian Theory.

Datum - (1) A single piece of data. (2) The standard from which measurements of
altitude, elevation, or spatial location are calculated.

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Day Length - The period of time for a location on the Earth when insolation from the
Sun can be potentially received during a day.

Daylight Savings Time - The setting of time so it is one hour ahead starting in the
spring and one hour back beginning in the fall in the Northern Hemisphere. In
Canada and the United States, the dates for these events are the first Sunday in April
(spring ahead) and the last Sunday in October (fall back).

Debacle - The annual break up of ice on streams in the spring.

Debris Avalanche - A type of rapid mass movement that involves the disordered
movement of water, ice, soil, sediment, and rock debris down a slope. Also called a
landslide.

Debris Fan - Large fan-shaped terrestrial deposit of coarse sediment found in

mountainous locations with steep slopes. Debris fans form when the stream load
being carried by a fast-moving stream is deposited because of a sudden reduction in
the velocity of stream flow. Similar to an alluvial fan but with deposits that have a
much coarser texture.

Debris Flow - A type of mass movement where there is a rapid downslope flow of a
saturated mass of soil, sediment, and rock debris down a slope.

Decalcification - The permanent removal or translocation of calcium ions from a soil

by leaching.

December Solstice - Date during the year when the declination of the Sun is at 23.5°
South of the equator. During the December Solstice, locations in the Northern
Hemisphere experience their shortest day. The December Solstice is also the first day
of winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Locations in the Southern Hemisphere have
their longest day on the December Solstice. This date also marks the first day of
summer in the Southern Hemisphere.

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Deciduous Forest - Type of forest that sheds its leaves during winter or dry seasons.
Compare this with coniferous forest.

Deciduous Vegetation - Plants that drop their leaves during winter or dry seasons.

Declination - Location (latitude) on the Earth where the position of the Sun on a
particular day is directly overhead (90° from the horizon) at solar noon. This location
is found somewhere between 23.5° North and 23.5° South depending on the time of
the year.

Declination Diagram - Graphic found on a topographic map that shows the angular
difference between Grid North, True North, and Magnetic North or Grid South, True
South, and Magnetic South.

Décollement - Is a geological term that

describes the deformation of an upper
layer of rock by way of folding and
faulting with the lower layer being
unaffected by these processes. This
usually occurs when the stress
associated with deformation causes the
upper layer to slide over the lower layer
of rock. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, artist Tberli3. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Decomposition - (1) To chemically or physically breakdown a mass of matter into

smaller parts or chemical elements. (2) The breakdown of organic matter into smaller
parts or inorganic constituents by decomposing organisms.

Decomposer - A type of detritivore. Decomposers play an important role in recycling

organic matter back into inorganic nutrients in ecosystems. This recycling is done by
decomposing complex organic matter and then converting the less complex organic

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products into inorganic compounds and atoms. Most of the recycled inorganic
nutrients are then consumed by producers. Bacteria and fungi are the most common
decomposers found in many ecosystems. Also see detritus feeders.

Deduction - A form of logical speculation where the explanation about some cause
and effect process involves first proposing a hypothesis, and then trying to find
empirical facts that accept or reject this idea. Compare this form of logic with
induction.

Deep Ocean - Bottom most layer in an ocean or a sea with great depth. Normally
found at a distance beyond 1800 meters (5900 feet) from the seawater surface. This
layer receives no sunlight and the many living organisms that live here mainly
consume organic matter received from shallower depths. Also called deep sea.

Deep Ocean Water - See bottom water.

Deep Sea - See deep ocean.

Deep Weathering - A term that refers to the very active weathering that occurs in
warm and moist tropical climates. Often rock outcrop surfaces have a weathered
covering that is up to 30 meters (100 feet) deep. This deep weathering occurs because
the combination of warm temperatures, abundant moisture, and humic acid from
vegetation maximize the effectiveness of chemical weathering.

Deepening - Refers to a forecasted lowering in atmospheric pressure for a cyclonic

low pressure system. Such a weather condition will often initiate higher wind
speeds, an increase in cloud development, and an increase in precipitation associated
with the low pressure system.

Deflation - Process where wind erosion creates blowout depressions or deflation

hollows by removing and transporting sediment and soil.

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Deflation Hollow - A ground surface depression or hollow commonly found in arid
and semiarid regions caused by wind erosion. Also see the related blowout
depressions.

Deflocculate - The physical or chemical caused dispersion of the mineral and organic
particles making up soil aggregates. In natural conditions, deflocculation of
aggregates in a soil can be caused by the addition of sodium.

Deforestation - The removal of many trees from a habitat dominated by forest. Over
the last three centuries a significant proportion of Earth's forest cover has been lost to
this process, much of it converted into agricultural fields, grazing land for livestock,
and urban land-use. Currently, high rates of deforestation are taking place in the
tropical and subtropical regions of our planet. In some parts of the world, like the
USA, forest cover is increasing.

Deformation - (1) A change in the volume or shape of solid matter. (2) A change in
the nature of a mass of rock because of applied force.

Deglaciation - The loss of glaciers or ice sheets from the Earth's surface because of
melting and sublimation due to warmer temperatures, a decline in snowfall, or both.

Degradation - The readjustment of the stream long profile where the stream channel
is lowered by the erosion of the stream bed. Usually associated with an increase in
stream discharge.

Degree - (1) An angular unit of measurement equal to 1/360 of the circumference of

a circle. (2) A unit used to measure temperature using Celsius, Kelvin, or Fahrenheit
scales.

Degree Day - A measurement that determines the difference between an actual

temperature for a particular day relative to a base temperature (Actual Temperature -
Base Temperature). Often degree days are calculated for a defined period that is

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longer than one day. Also see heating degree day, cooling degree day, and growing
degree day.

Delta - Large deposit of alluvial sediment located at the mouth of a stream where it
enters a body of standing water like a lake or an ocean.

Demersal Zone - Also see (in order of depth in a water body) pelagic zone, photic
zone, aphotic zone, mesopelagic zone, bathyal zone, abyssal zone, hadal zone, and
benthic zone.

Demographer - Someone who studies the numerical and statistical characteristics of

a human population (population dynamics), at the local, regional or global scale.

Demography - The science that studies the numerical and statistical characteristics of
a human population (population dynamics), at the local, regional or global scale.

Demoiselle - A column of unconsolidated sediment with a boulder at its top which

protects it from erosion.

Dendritic - Term used to describe the stream channel pattern that is completely
random. This pattern resembles the branching pattern of blood vessels or tree
branches.

Dendrochronology - The science that analyzes the annual growth rings of some
species of woody plants. This analysis is used to investigate factors in the plant's
surrounding environment that influence its growth. This technique has been used to
successfully to reconstruct historical patterns of change in climate variables like
temperature and precipitation.

Dendroecology - Is the scientific field of knowledge that applies tree-ring analysis to

understanding phenomena in Ecology.

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Denitrification - Conversion of nitrates into gaseous nitrogen (N2) and nitrous oxide
(N2O).

Densitometer - (1) An instrument used to measure the density of a substance. (2) An

instrument used to measure the optical density of photographic film.

Density (of Matter) - Refers to the quantity of mass per unit volume. For gases,
density involves the number of atoms and molecules per unit volume.

Density Current - A current of gas or liquid which is kept in motion because of

gravity and the fact that the current has a greater density than the gas or liquid
around it. Density contrasts
between the current and the
surrounding material can occur
because of differences in
temperature, salinity, or the
concentration of suspended
sediment. The thermohaline
circulation ocean current system is
an example of a density current
(Image Source: Wikipedia Commons,
NASA). In specific areas of the
North Atlantic Ocean and Southern Ocean, high rates of evaporation cause seawater
to cool in temperature and increase in salinity which in turn increases its density.
This higher density seawater then sinks initiating the deep ocean currents.

Density Dependent - Factors that vary in their ability to control the population size
of organisms. These factors are most effective when population densities are high.
Such factors include the availability of resources including food and shelter, biotic
competition, predation, and pathogens. Compare with density independent factors.

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Density Independent - Factors that can control the population size of organisms
regardless of density. Such factors include weather, floods, fire, and asteroid impact.
Compare with density dependent factors.

Denudation - (1) The erosion or wearing down of a landmass. (2) Removal of the
vegetative cover from an area.

Denudation Chronology - The temporal reconstruction of how erosion has

influenced a landscape's development and form. Such reconstructions use available
geological and geomorphological evidence.

Denudation Rates - The rate of land surface reduction due to erosional processes.
Usually expressed in millimeters per 1000 years.

Denudation Slope - A hill slope that experiences a net loss of material from its
surface because weathering and erosion cause a net export of soil and sediment. This
loss of material results in a progressive lowering of the slope's surface over time.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - A form of nucleic acid that is organized into a

double-helix molecule. DNA is used by most organisms to chemically code their
genetics and to direct the development and functioning of cells. This direction
requires RNA which represents a copy of a portion of DNA. Found in the nucleus of
cells.

Dependent Variable - A variable in a statistical test whose observation's values are

thought to be controlled through cause and effect by another independent variable
modeled in the test.

Depleted Soil - A soil that has suffered significant nutrient loss because of poor
cropping practices or excessive leaching.

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Depletion Curve - A graph that describes the discharge of water within a drainage
basin from the various components of storage (throughflow and groundwater flow)
as measured at a particular location on a stream. This graph can be used to predict
the gradual reduction in base flow over time. Also called base flow recession curve.

Deposit - (1) An accumulation of something within or on top of a larger mass of

some substance. (2) A layer of sediment laid down after being transported by wind,
water, or ice.

Deposition - (1) The process involved in depositing something. (2) The change in the
state of matter from gas to solid that occurs with cooling. This term is usually used in
meteorology when discussing the formation of ice from water vapor. This process
releases latent heat energy to the environment. (3) The laying down of sediment
transported by wind, water, or ice.

Deposition Nuclei - Six-sided microscopic particle that allows for the deposition of
water as ice crystals in the atmosphere. This is the required starting point for the
formation of snowflakes. Deposition normally occurs on these particles when
relative humidity becomes 100%.

Depositional Landform - Is a landform formed from the deposition of weathered

and eroded surface materials. On occasion, these deposits can be compressed, altered
by pressure, heat, and chemical processes to become sedimentary rocks. This
includes landforms with some of the following geomorphic features: beaches, deltas,
floodplains, and glacial moraines.

Depression - (1) Concave hollow found on the Earth's surface. (2) A term used to
describe a cyclone or an atmospheric low pressure system.

Depression Storage - This refers to the capture of water in depressions found on the
ground surface during a precipitation event. When enough water accumulates and
the depressions overflow, overland flow begins. Over time the water in the hollows
will eventually infiltrate into the ground and evaporate back to the atmosphere.

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Depth Hoar - An accumulation of large (up to 10 mm), faceted cup-shaped ice
crystals at the base of a snowfield or snowpack. Depth hoar forms when rising water
vapor deposits around existing ice crystals. Depth hoar crystals form in isolation to
each other creating a layer that is prone to sliding accumulated snow above it. This
process can produce a snow avalanche. Also called sugar snow.

Deranged Drainage - A landscape drainage pattern that is highly irregular. Areas

that have experienced continental glaciation may have this type of drainage pattern.

Desalinization (or Desalination) - Is the conversion seawater or any other saline

brine into freshwater. Several different processes are now in use to remove salts and
minerals from saline water. The freshwater produced from this process is often used
for human consumption, irrigation, and other agricultural uses.

Desert - (1) Biome that has plants and animals adapted to survive severe drought
conditions. In this habitat,
evaporation exceeds precipitation
and the average amount of
precipitation is less than 25
centimeters (10 inches) a year. (2)
An area that receives low
precipitation and has relatively
high evapotranspiration. The
photograph shows a location in the
Sonora Desert in Mexico. Also see
cold desert and warm desert. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, photo by
Tomas Castelazo. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Desert Pavement - A veneer of coarse particles left on the ground after the erosion of
finer particles by wind.

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Desert Varnish - Is a thin hard sometimes glassy coating found on rock surfaces in
arid environments that are not exposed to much
precipitation or wind. This very thin coating can be
colored yellow, orange, red, brown, or black. Black
colored desert varnish contains a high concentration
of the metal manganese. Shown is an example of
desert varnish on an outcrop in Horseshoe Canyon,
Canyonlands National Park, Utah (Image Source:
Wikipedia, this image is in the public domain). The
process that creates this coating involves thin clay
accumulations on the rock chemically reacting with
other deposited substances in the presence of
moisture and high temperatures. Also called rock
varnish, rock rust, and desert patina.

Desertification - Conversion of marginal rangeland or cropland to a more desert like

type of land. Desertification can be caused by overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged
drought, or climate change.

Desiccation - (1) A state of extreme dryness. (2) The process of drying causing
something to lose its water. (3) A climatic trend resulting in less precipitation and/or
greater evaporation for a particular location or region.

Desiccation Crack - Fracture in the surface of fine-textured soils subject to intense

solar heating.

Desiccation Polygons - Polygon shaped fractures in the surface of fine-textured soils

subject to intense solar heating.

Desilication - (1) The removal of silica from a layer in a soil profile because of
leaching. Common soil process in locations with high precipitation. (2) The removal
of silica from minerals and rocks because of chemical weathering.

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Desquammation - See exfoliation.

Destructive Wave - Are deep ocean waves with a short wavelength that wash up on
the shoreline. Because destructive waves are tall, they produce a very strong
downward force on the beach. The large amount of energy created by the downward
force causes active erosion of beach deposits and produces coastal cliffs. It also
creates a strong backwash and a narrow beach profile. Destructive waves have
a high frequency, producing only about 13 and 15 waves per minute. Compare with
constructive wave.

Detachment - One of the three distinct processes involved in erosion. This process
involves the disengagement of a particle from its surroundings. Also see entrainment
and transport.

Detrital Rock - Sedimentary rock that is composed of particles transported to their

place of deposition by erosional processes. Examples of such rock include sandstone
and shale.

Detritivore - Heterotrophic organism that feeds on detritus. Examples of such

organisms include earthworms, termites, slugs, snails, bacteria, and fungi. Two types
of detritivores are generally recognized: decomposers and detritus feeders.

Detritus - Shed tissues, dead body parts, and waste products of organisms. In most
ecosystems, detritus accumulates at the soil surface and other types of surface
sediments.

Detritus Feeder - A type of detritivore. Detritus feeders acquire the nutrients they
need from partially decomposed organic matter found in shed animal tissues, plant
litter, dead bodies of plants and animals, and animal waste products. Some examples
of detritus feeders include various species of beetles, various species of ants,
earthworms, and termites. Also see decomposer.

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Detritus Food Chain - Model describing the conversion of organic matter in a
community or ecosystem by organisms into inorganic elements and compounds
through decomposition. The organisms involved in this conversion are called
detritivores.

Deuterium - Isotope of hydrogen, with a nucleus containing one proton and one
neutron, and an atomic mass number of 2.

Devonian - One of six geologic periods that occurred from 416 to 359 million years
ago during the Paleozoic Era. During this time, terrestrial arthropods become
common, primitive sharks are numerous in the oceans, forests cover a large
proportion of the land surface, and the first amphibians appear. See the International
Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the
geologic time scale.

Dew - Condensation of water on the surface of an object because of atmospheric

cooling. Occurs when a mass of moist air is cooled to its dew point.

Dew Point - Is the temperature at which water vapor saturates from an air mass into
liquid forming rain or dew. Dew point normally occurs when a mass of air has a
relative humidity of 100% and temperatures are above 0°C. If the dew point is below
freezing, it is referred to as the frost point.

Diabase - See dolerite.

Diachronous - This is a bed or stratum of sedimentary rock that can be dated to two
or more points in geologic time.

Diaclinal Stream - A stream that flows in a direction that is perpendicular (90°) to

the strike of below-ground bedrock strata.

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Diagenesis - Refers to the changes that have occurred to a sediment after it has been
deposited. This can include processes like cementation and compaction.

Diapir - A type of rock intrusion where the movement of mobile salt deposits or gas-
rich muds can cause the overlying rocks to fold upward producing an anticline in the
strata. Diapirs can cause the ground surface to the dome.

Diastrophism - The tectonic altering of the shape of the Earth's surface through
faulting, folding, and orogenies.

Diatom - A specific type of unicellular algae that lives in freshwater or seawater.

Diatoms are different from other types of algae
because their cell walls are composed of hydrated
silicon dioxide. There are about 200 different genera
and about unique 100,000 species of diatoms.
Diatoms are a useful organism to science because
they can be used to monitor and reconstruct past
environmental conditions. Shown is the diatom
Paralia sulcata as imaged by a scanning electronic
microscope. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
University of Tasmania. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Diatomaceous Earth - A naturally occurring crumbly and soft sedimentary deposit

made of the fossilized remains diatoms. Diatomaceous earth has many uses by
humans including filtration medium, polish, abrasive insecticide, filler in plastics
and rubber, component in dynamite, and thermal insulator.

Diatom Ooze - A deep ocean deposit composed of at least 30% siliceous diatoms.
This unconsolidated soft ocean floor deposit accumulates in abyssal zones where
cold nutrient-rich waters occur and seawater is saturated with dissolved silica.
Covers about 15% of the ocean floor. Also called siliceous ooze. Compare with
calcareous ooze.

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Diatreme - A general term describing volcanic pipes and vents that cut through
overlying layers of sedimentary rock.

Dieback - A term describing a significant decline in health or death of a single plant

or many plants due to physical damage, pathogens, or the toxic effects of pollutants.
An example of a dieback is the reduced vigor and mortality of forests that occurred
in Germany and the northeast United States in the 1980s. Multiple factors were
implicated in this dieback including acid precipitation, drought, parasites, and
pathogens.

Differential Ablation - An uneven pattern of ablation on the top of a glacier caused

by spatial variations of surface albedo and solar radiation absorption.

Differential Erosion - An uneven pattern of erosion on some spatial scale caused by

differences in the factors responsible for erosion.

Differential Weathering - An uneven pattern of weathering caused by spatial

differences in the factors responsible for weathering.

Diffluence - (1) A flow of air that moves away from the

center becomes more spread out with distance traveled (see
image). Compare with confluence. (2) Term that refers to a
valley glacier overflowing its topographic enclosure into
neighboring valleys.

Diffused Solar Radiation - Solar radiation received by the Earth's atmosphere or

surface that has been modified by atmospheric scattering. Also called diffused
radiation.

Diffusion - (1) Molecular mixing of one substance into another substance. (2)
Redirection or refraction of solar insolation in many directions. This process causes
the beam of traveling radiation to become less intense.

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Digital Elevation Model (DEM) - A three-dimensional representation of the surface
of a planet or some other celestial body. Digital
elevation models can be constructed from
measurements made during a ground surface or
from some type of remote sensing instrument.
Elevation measurements can be represented in a
DEM in raster or vector form. DEMs are often used
in geographic information systems as a base layer.
Shown is a DEM of the Tithonium Chasma on the
planet Mars (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Digital Image Processing - The use of computer techniques and algorithms to

simplify, modify, and enhance image information numerically at the pixel level.
Sometimes image data involved in this procedure is captured in an analog format
and pre-processed to get it into a numerical value for pixel-level mathematical
processing. Digital image processing is commonly used in remote sensing, robotics,
and medical imaging.

Digitizing - The process of transforming analog information into digital form so it

can be used in a computer.

Dilation - (1) The enlargement or widening of some object. (2) The enlargement or
widening of fissures in rock because of the freezing of water into ice. (3) The
enlargement or widening of an opening in rock because of the igneous intrusion of
magma.

Dilution Effect - Describes the reduction in the concentration of dissolved

substances in a stream's flow after a storm runoff event. This is caused by the
dilution effect of water added from precipitation.

Dilution Gauging - Technique used in measuring stream discharge where a set

amount of tracer (like sodium chloride salt) is added to the stream's flow at some
point. At some location downstream a measurement is taken to determine the

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amount of dilution that has taken place and from this value stream discharge is
approximated mathematically.

Dimethyl Sulfide (DMS) - An organosulfur compound produced through organic

decay of dimethylsulfoniopropionate. Large amounts of this substance are released
into the atmosphere from marine phytoplankton. In the atmosphere, dimethyl
sulfide is oxidized to produce sulfur dioxide, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethyl sulfone,
methanesulfonic acid, and sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is important in creating
condensation nuclei which in turn influences cloud formation and precipitation.
Dimethyl sulfide has the chemical formula (CH3)2S.

Dinosaur - A diverse group of vertebrate animals that first appeared on Earth about
230 million years ago during the Triassic
period. More than a thousand different species
of dinosaurs have been identified and named
from the fossil record. These organisms died
out at the end of the Cretaceous period about
65.5 million years ago. This mass extinction is
thought to be caused by the impact of an
asteroid on the Earth's surface. This is known
as the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

Diorite - A coarse-grained igneous rock of intrusive origin that is darker and

chemically more mafic than granite.

Dip - One of the directional properties of a

geologic structure such as a fold or a fault. Dip
is the inclination angle of the formation as
measured at right angles to strike. The concept
of dip is illustrated in the diagram where N, E,
S and W cardinal directions, the blue plane is
an ideal horizontal plane, green plane is an
ideal vertical plane, red plane is the plane of the

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stratum bed we are measuring, z is the strike, Z is the strike direction, σ is the strike
angle (0-180°), F is the dip direction (0-360°), and φ is the dip angle (0-90°) (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons). Also see strike.

Dip Fault - A geologic fault that has a strike that is perpendicular to the strike of
surrounding rock strata. Dip faults are parallel to the true dip of the rock strata.

Dip Slope - A land surface that has a slope that is in the same direction as the dip of
underlying bedrock strata.

Dip Stream - A stream that is oriented in the same direction as the dip of the
underlying strata in the landscape.

Diphotic Zone - Depth below the surface of a water body where sunlight becomes to
dim to support photosynthesis.

Diploid - A cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. Also see haploid.

Direct Runoff - The water from a precipitation or snowmelt event that flows over
the ground surface directly into a stream or other water body. When viewed on a
stream hydrograph, direct runoff starts when stream discharge rises after a
precipitation event until the point when the flow declines back to being mainly
composed of contributions from base flow. Also called quickflow.

Direct Solar Radiation - Solar radiation received by the Earth's atmosphere or

surface which has not been modified by atmospheric scattering.

Dirt Band - A zone of discolored ice found in a glacier because of the presence of
sediment.

Dirt Cone - A mound of sediment on the surface of a glacier that has a cone shape.
Dirt cones can be several meters tall and have an ice core. They form when a patch of

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sediment protects the ice beneath it from melting. The ice
under the patch is protected from heating while the
surrounding ice melts. Over time the differential melting
causes the dirt cone to form. (Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license).

Disappearing Stream - A stream that flows underground for some portion of its
course. Common in karst landscapes.

Disaster - A natural or human-made occurrence that causes significant damage and

loss of life, human and other. Events caused by the forces of nature are specifically
called a natural disaster.

Discharge - See stream discharge.

Discomfort Index - This is a calculation that combines the effects of temperature and
humidity to measure the degree of discomfort an individual would experience with
warm weather. In the United States, depending on data availability, three different
equations are commonly used to determine the discomfort index:

Discomfort Index = 0.4 x (Td + Tw) + 15

Discomfort Index = (0.55 x Td) + (0.2 x Tdp) + 17.5
Discomfort Index = Td - (0.55 - 0.55RH) x (Td - 58)

where Td is the dry-bulb temperature in °F, Tw is the wet-bulb temperature in °F, Tdp
in the dew point temperature in °F, and RH is relative humidity (%) expressed as a
decimal. Approximately 50% of the population will be uncomfortable when the
discomfort index reaches 75 and almost everyone will be uncomfortable when the
discomfort index reaches 79. Also called the temperature humidity index (THI). In
Canada, this type of measurement involves a different calculation and is called the
humidex.

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Disconformity - Is a type of unconformity found in
strata lying between horizontal layers of sedimentary
rocks. Disconformities are identified by the presence of
surface erosional features. Shown is a disconformity
between Cretaceous sediments in the Chvaly Quarry,
Horni Pocernice, Prague, Czech Republic (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Discontinuity - (1) A change with depth beneath the ground surface in the physical
characteristics of the interior of the Earth as determined by seismic information. (2)
An abrupt change in meteorological measurements of air temperature, atmospheric
pressure, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and direction suggesting a frontal
boundary between different air masses.

Discontinuous Permafrost - A form of permafrost that contains numerous scattered

patches of unfrozen ground.

Discordance - Situation where adjacent rock strata in a bed are not aligned with each
other.

Discordant - (1) Something that not ordered as it should be. (2) An igneous intrusion
that has penetrated the layers of country rock. (3) A landscape with topographic
features that do not reflect the underlying structural geology.

Discordant Coast - A situation where the shape of a coastline is quite different from
the geologic structure and local topography of the land adjacent to it. Compare with
concordant coast.

Discordant Drainage - A pattern of stream drainage that is not being influenced by

the underlying geologic structure of the landscape. Compare with accordant
drainage.

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Discordant Junction - The joining of a tributary to a main stream channel that is not
at the same elevation and as a result produces a waterfall.

Disintegration - The process where weathering and erosion causes the breakdown of
rock into smaller fragments.

Disjunct Distribution - A pattern of geographical distribution where two or more

populations of a particular species or genus are very isolated from each other
because of distance or some other landscape feature.

Dislocation - The spatial displacement of once connected rock formations because of

tectonic movement either side of a fault.

Dispersal - The act of an organism leaving its place of birth or usual activity for
another location for a permanent establishment.

Dispersion - The pattern of things distributed spatially.

Dispersion Diagram - Graph used to display the numerical distribution of a set of

data.

Dissection - The modification of a previously flat landscape into one with many
incised valleys with steep slopes because of stream erosion.

Dissipative Beach - A type of beach that is characterized by being relatively wide

and having a gentle profile gradient. This particular morphology is the result of the
prevalence of constructive waves. On these beaches, breaking waves normally loose
much of their energy before reaching the beach face. Also, these beaches normally
have an abundant supply of medium to fine sand. Compare with reflective beach.

Dissociation - A chemical process where a compound or molecule breaks up into

simpler constituents.

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Dissolution - The process of a substance dissolving and dispersing within a liquid.

Dissolved Load - The portion of the stream load that is in solution in the flowing
water. Also see bed load.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) - A measurement made to determine the quantity of

dissolved oxygen in water. The quantity of dissolved oxygen in aquatic ecosystems is
extremely important to the survival of fish and other aquatic life. Oxygen can be
removed from water through plant and animal cellular respiration. The standard
unit of measurement is milligrams per liter (mg/l) or parts per million (ppm).
Dissolved oxygen levels above 5 milligrams per liter are considered ideal. Many fish
cannot survive for long at levels less than 3 milligrams per liter. Water becomes
hypoxic when DO is below 1 milligram per liter.

Dissolved Solids - See total dissolved solids.

Distance Ratio - Method for measuring the gradient of a slope. Simply involves
dividing the vertical change in distance (rise) by horizontal change in distance (run)
or rise/run. The measurement is usually presented as a percentage or relative to
some unit distance traveled in the horizontal.

Distributary - A smaller branching stream channel that flows away from a main
stream channel. These features are common on deltas. Opposite of tributary.

Distributional Limit - The spatial boundary that defines the edge of a species
geographical range.

Disturbance - (1) The partial or complete alteration of a community or an ecosystem

by a biotic or abiotic factor. (2) A cyclonic low pressure system. (3) An external event
that causes a temporary change in the usual cause and effect processes associated
with a system.

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Diurnal Range - The daily range between maximum and minimum values of some
meteorological like surface air temperature, relative humidity or atmospheric
pressure.

Diurnal Tide - A tide that has one high and one low water per tidal period.

Divergence - Horizontal outflow of wind from an area. In a surface divergence,

outflow originates from the upper atmosphere.

Divergent Evolution - Creation of two or more unique species from one ancestral
species through the differential evolution of isolated populations.

Diversity - See species diversity.

Diversivore - A species that has a varied diet that varies from plants to animals.

Divide - The topographic ridge that separates drainage basins.

Dobson Unit (DU) - A unit used to measure the density of ozone in the Earth's
atmosphere. One Dobson Unit equals a layer of pure ozone gas 10 microns (µm)
thick at standard temperature and pressure.

Doldrums - Area of low atmospheric pressure and calm prevailing winds located at
the equator. Similar to Intertropical Convergence Zone.

Dolerite - A medium grained, dark colored, mafic igneous rock containing the
minerals plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and olivine. This rock is often found in
dykes and sills. Also called diabase.

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Doline - A funnel-shaped surface depression in an area with limestone bedrock. This
landscape feature forms because of solution weathering and the underground
collapse of sedimentary layers.

Dolocrete - A magnesium carbonate-rich type of calcrete soil layer. Often forms near
the water table as a precipitate from brackish groundwater.

Dolomite - (1) Sedimentary rock formed from CaMg(CO3)2. (2) Mineral with the
chemical formula CaMg(CO3)2.

Domain - The highest level of organization in the taxonomic system currently

employed to classify a species. Currently, scientists recognize three domains:
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota.

Dome - (1) A topographically rounded mountain or hilltop. (2) A roughly

symmetrical anticline fold that dips equally in all directions. (3) A rounded
accumulation of snow on the top of a mountain. (4) A topographically rounded hill
composed of granite. (5) A topographically rounded igneous intrusion. (6) A natural
below-ground dome-shaped hollow containing salt, oil, or natural gas.

Dome Dune - A mound of sand that is circular or elliptical in shape and has no slip-
faces. This type of sand dune is formed by the modification of a stationary barchan
dune.

Domestication - The modification of genetic characteristics of plants and animals to

produce strains that are better suited and more productive for human use and
consumption. Often domesticated species of organisms no longer have the required
adaptations for successful survival in the wild.

Dominant Organism - A species that is extremely important to the abiotic and/or

biotic functioning of a habitat, community, or ecosystem.

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Dominant Wind - The wind direction that produces the highest wind speeds for a
location or region over a specific period. Compare with prevailing wind.

Doppler Radar - A specialized type of radar used in weather forecasting to image

areas where precipitation is falling. Precipitation patterns in thunderstorm clouds
can be used to identify where the storm may generate tornadoes.

Dormant Volcano - A volcano that is not extinct and should show activity sometime
in the future.

Downcutting - The lowering of a stream's base-level in the landscape because of

erosion at its stream bed.

Downdraft - The downward movement of a mass of air in the broader atmosphere.

Compare with updraft.

Downthrow - The downward displacement of rock strata along one side of a vertical
geological fault.

Downwasting - The reduction in the thickness of a continental glacier because of

increased ablation in a warming climate.

Downwelling - The accumulation and sinking of seawater at some location in an

ocean.

Downwelling Current - Ocean current that travels downward into the ocean
because of the convergence of opposing horizontal currents or because of an
accumulation of seawater.

Draa - An area of aeolian deposits, including various types of sand dunes, that is
smaller than a sand sea.

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Drain - A human-constructed channel for the unrestricted flow of water from an
area.

Drainage - (1) Can refer to a natural flow of surface water via overland flow and
stream flow from an area. (2) The downward movement of water received at the
ground surface through a soil because of percolation.

Drainage Basin - The land surface region drained by a length of stream channel.
Also called catchment area. In Canada and the USA, the term watershed is
synonymous with drainage basin.

Drainage Density - Is the measure of the length of stream channel per unit area of
drainage basin. Mathematically it is expressed as:

Drainage Density (Dd) = Stream Length / Basin Area

Drainage Divide - The topographic border between adjacent drainage basins.

Drainage Network - A system of interconnected stream channels found in a

drainage basin.

Drainage Pattern - The geometric pattern that a stream's channels take in the
landscape. These patterns are controlled by factors such as slope, climate, vegetation,
and bedrock resistance to erosion.

Drainage Wind - A wind common to mountainous regions that involves heavy cold
air flowing along the ground from high to low elevations because of gravity. Also see
katabatic wind.

Draw Down - The degree to which removing groundwater from a well lowers the
underground elevation of the water table.

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Drift - (1) Any solid material deposited by a glacier. (2) The movement of continents
across the Earth's surface because of tectonic forces. (3) The frictional movement of
near-surface ocean seawater because of large scale surface wind patterns.

Drift Ice - Pieces of broken sea ice that have freely moved away from the ice-shelf
where they formed.

Drift Potential - A vector measurement of the wind's ability to move sand in an

aeolian environment over some period, often a year. These measurements are
expressed proportionally on a sand rose over 360° of compass direction.

Dripstone - Deposits, like stalactites and stalagmites, that form from a salt-rich
solution on the roof, walls, and floor of a cave.

Drizzle - A form of precipitation where the water droplets are smaller than rain.
Drizzle has a size that is between 0.2 and 0.5 mm (0.008 to 0.02 in) in diameter. Often
falls from stratus and stratocumulus clouds.

Dropstone - A rock fragment once encased in floating ice that becomes free and falls
into soft sediments.

Drought - Climatic condition where water loss due to evapotranspiration is greater

than water inputs through precipitation.

Drowned Valley - A valley that has become submerged by seawater because of a rise
in sea level.

Drumlin - A hill shaped deposit of till. The shape of these

features resembles an elongated teaspoon laying bowl down.
The tapered end of the drumlin points to the direction of
glacier advance. Drumlins come in assorted sizes. Lengths can
range from 100 to 5,000 meters (330 to 16,400 feet) and heights

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can be as great as 200 meters (650 feet). Shown is a drumlin left by the Okanogan
Lobe of the Cordilleran Glacier. This drumlin is part of the Jameson Lake Drumlin
Field in Douglas County, Washington, USA (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, this
image is in the public domain).

Druse - A coating of mineral crystals on a rock fracture surface.

Shown is an example of a druse called an amethyst geode. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
license.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) - The rate of

decline in the temperature of a rising parcel of
air before it has reached saturation. This rate of
temperature decline is 9.8°C per 1,000 meters
(5.4°F per 1,000 feet) because of adiabatic
cooling (see graphic). Compare with saturated
adiabatic lapse rate.

Dry Deposition - The transport of gases and

minute liquid and solid particles from the
atmosphere to the ground surface without the
aid of precipitation or fog. This commonly happens for the nutrients nitrogen, sulfur,
chloride, calcium, and sodium. Compare with wet deposition.

Dry Line - A boundary that separates dry and moist air in the warm sector of a mid-
latitude cyclone wave. Found ahead of the cold front.

Dry Snow - A powdery type of snow that forms in very cold atmospheric conditions.
Individual snow crystals of dry snow do not stick together. Dry snow has a density
of less than 0.1 kilograms per cubic meter.

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Dry Spell - A prolonged period without precipitation. In the United States it is
defined as 14 consecutive days with precipitation, while in Britain it is defined as 15
straight days where no more than 1 mm (0.04 inches) of precipitation has fallen on
any one day.

Dry Valley - A valley that rarely has a stream channel with water flowing in it. There
are many explanations as to why these features occur.

Dry-Bulb Thermometer - One of two thermometers on a sling psychrometer used to

measure current air temperature. This measurement and the reading from a wet-bulb
thermometer are then used for the determination of relative humidity or dew point
from a psychrometric table.

Dumpy Level - An optically based surveying instrument used to confirm and

establish points along the same horizontal plane (levelling).

Dune - (1) Stream bed alluvial deposit found streams whose channel is composed
mainly of sand and silt. Dunes are about 10 or more centimeters (4 or more inches) in
height and are spaced a meter or more (3 or more feet) apart and are common in
streams with high velocities. Also see bedforms. (2) Terrestrial deposit of sand that
resembles a mound or ridge that was formed from aeolian processes. Also see sand
dune.

Dune Field - An extensive region covered by numerous sand dunes.

Duricrust - A hard crust that forms at or near the ground surface because of chemical
processes associated with soil formation and rock weathering. Common in desert
and tropical regions of our planet. Types of duricrusts include alcrete, calcrete,
ferricrete, and silcrette.

Duripan - A hardpan soil layer created when soil particles are cemented together by
silica deposited by illuviation.

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Dust - Very small particles or organic and inorganic matter that can remain
suspended in the atmosphere for some time. Humans have increased the
concentration of dust in the atmosphere through activities like livestock grazing,
industrial emissions, vehicle use, and soil plowing.

Dust Bowl - A period during the 1930s when wind erosion from major dust storms
caused significant loss of topsoil in the United States and Canadian prairies. This
environmental problem was due to the combined result of prolonged drought and
poor agricultural soil management techniques. Also called the Dirty Thirties.

Dust Devil - Vortex of rapidly moving air and loose

soil created by a strong localized convection current
in the atmosphere. Dust devils range in size from 1 to
10 meters (3 to 30 feet) wide to more than 1000
meters (3000 feet) in height. Shown is dust devil that
formed out in a desert region of Arizona (Image
Source: NASA).

Dust Dome - Dome of air that surrounds a city created from the urban heat island
effect that traps air pollutants like particulate matter.

Dust Storm - A wind storm that carries a considerable load of loose soil because of
high wind speeds. Dust storms are often associated with thunderstorm gust fronts
that occur in arid and semi-arid locations that have limited vegetation protecting
topsoil from wind erosion.

Dust Veil Index (DVI) - A numerical estimate of the impact that volcanic dust and
ash can have on short term cooling of the Earth's climate. This index was developed
by climatologist Hubert Lamb in 1970. The eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 has a dust
veil index of 1000.

Dwarf Planet - (1) According to the International Astronomical Union (IAU) this is a
celestial body orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to be spherical because of its

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gravity. However, this celestial body has not cleared its orbital path through space of
objects. Pluto is considered a dwarf planet. (2) A similar body orbiting another star.

Dyke - Thin vertical veins of igneous rock that form when

magma enters and cools in fissures and faults found within the
crust. Also see intrusive igneous rock. Compare with batholith,
sill, laccolith, lopolith, and phacolith.

Dyke Spring - A spring of water that is associated with a dyke that has produced a
below-ground channel that moves groundwater to the surface.

Dyke Swarm - An extensive area of numerous dykes that have all formed because of
the same single igneous intrusion.

Dynamic Equilibrium - A dynamic

equilibrium occurs when the measured state of
a system displays many unrepeated averages
through time.

Dynamic Metamorphism - Form of metamorphism that causes only the structural

alteration of rock through pressure. The minerals in the altered rocks do not change
chemically. The extreme pressures associated with mountain building can cause this
type of metamorphism.

Dyne - A unit of force acting on a mass of 1 gram creating a rate of acceleration equal
to 1 centimeter per second for every second the force is applied in the same direction.
100,000 dynes equals one newton.

Dystrophic Lake - A lake with high concentrations of humic acid and substances
derived from organic matter decomposition in its waters. The water of this type of
lake is tea-colored, nutrient-poor, has a low pH, and low plant productivity.

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 E
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Early Atmosphere - A stage in the development of the Earth's atmosphere that

existed between 4.4 and 4.0 billion years ago. During this stage, the atmosphere was
mainly composed of the gases water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), a carbon
monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH3), nitrogen (N2), methane (CH4), and sulfur (SO2 and
S2). Compare with secondary atmosphere and living atmosphere.

Earth Albedo - Is the reflectivity of the Earth's atmosphere and surface combined.
Measurements indicate that the average Earth albedo is approximately 30%.

Earth Hummocks - A series of small

rounded mounds forming a distinct
pattern on the ground surface. Thought
to be of cryogenic origin where the
ground surface is subject to repeated
freeze-thaw cycles. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, photo by Mehmet
Karatay. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
3.0 Unported license.

Earth Pillar - A column of loose, fine-textured sediment that is capped by a large

rock or boulder (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons). The caprock keeps the column of
soft sediment from eroding away by the impact of rainfall.

Earth Revolution - Refers to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. This celestial
motion takes 365.25 days to complete one cycle. Further, the Earth's orbit around the
Sun is not circular, but elliptical.

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Earth Rotation - Term that refers to the spinning of the Earth on its polar axis.

Earth Science - An all encompassing term for the various fields of science that study
the natural phenomena associated with our planet. Some of the science disciplines
considered part of Earth Science include Biogeography, Climatology, Ecology,
Environmental Science, Forestry, Geochemistry, Geology, Geophysics, Hydrology,
Meteorology, Oceanography, and Physical Geography.

Earth Science Tradition - Academic tradition in modern Geography that investigates

natural phenomena from a spatial perspective.

Earthflow - A rapid type of downslope mass movement that involves soil and other
loose sediments. Usually triggered by water saturation from rainfall.

Earthquake - Is a sudden motion or trembling within and at the surface of the Earth.
This motion is caused by the quick release of slowly accumulated energy as seismic
waves. Most earthquakes are produced along faults, tectonic plate boundaries, or
along the mid-oceanic ridges.

Earthquake Focus - Point of stress release in an earthquake.

Earthslide - The sudden downslope mass movement of consolidated sediment or

soil along a failure plane. Earthslides are often triggered when the presence of water
along the failure plane reduces friction.

Easterly Wave - An atmospheric trough in the tropical trade winds. Occasionally,

these systems intensify into tropical storms and hurricanes.

Eastern Boundary Current - A boundary ocean current found along the western
margin of Earth's major continental masses. Subtropical eastern boundary currents
flow from the mid-latitudes to the equator and transport relatively cold seawater.
Examples of such currents include the Canary Current and California Current. Polar

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eastern boundary currents flow from the mid-latitudes to one of the poles and
transport relatively warm seawater. Compare with western boundary current.

Easting - First measurement of a grid reference used to specify the location of a point
on a rectangular coordinate system. The distance measured eastward from the origin
of a rectangular coordinate system. Also see northing.

Ebb Current - The flow of seawater from a tidal current that is moving from shore
back to the sea. When it finishes its flow a low tide will occur. Compare with flood
current.

Ebb Tide - Time during the tidal period when the tide is falling. Compare with flood
tide.

Eccentricity - Term that describes the geometric shape of the Earth's orbit. This shape
varies from being elliptical to almost circular.

Echo Dunes - A type of sand dunes, long and linear in shape, that form upwind and
parallel to a vertical obstacle like a cliff.

Echo Sounder - An instrument that measures the depth of the water with sonar
sound pulses. The time interval between the emission and reception of the returning
pulse is used to determine depth.

Ecliptic Plane - Hypothetical two-dimensional surface on which the Earth's orbit

around the Sun occurs.

Ecoclimate - The climate associated with a community of flora and fauna.

Ecological Diversity - See ecosystem diversity.

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Ecological Explosion - A substantial increase in the population size of a species or
group of organisms over a relatively short time. This increase occurs when factors
moderating population growth relax or when factors that feed population growth
become available.

Ecological Niche - Is all the physical, chemical, and biological conditions required by
a species for survival, growth, and reproduction. This concept is fundamental to
explaining the spatial patterns of species presence and abundance across ecological
communities. Two further abstractions of this concept are the fundamental niche and
the realized niche.

Ecological Succession - The gradual change in the species found in a community of

flora and fauna driven by an abiotic and/or biotic cause. Compare with plant
succession.

Ecology - The scientific study of the abiotic and biotic factors that influence the
distribution and abundance of species. Ecology is very interdisciplinary employing
information from biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science.

Economic Basement - Zone of rocks that are too deep to mine for their minerals
economically for profit. For the mineral resource oil, this depth is around 6 to 7
kilometers (3.7 to 4.3 miles).

Economic Resource - A commodity, service, or other resource that is used to produce

goods and services that meet human needs and wants.

Ecosphere - See biosphere.

Ecosystem - An ecosystem is a system where populations of various species group

together into communities and interact with each other and the abiotic environment.

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Ecosystem Diversity - The variety of unique ecosystems found on the Earth. One of
the three components of biodiversity. Also see genetic diversity and species diversity.

Ecosystem Services - This term refers to the four types of benefits humans receive
from ecosystems as describe in the United Nation's Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
Also see Cultural, Provisioning, Regulating, and Supporting Services.

Ecotone - The boundary zone between two different community types.

Ecotope - (1) The abiotic environment of a community of organisms. (2) The smallest
discrete ecological unit that exists spatially in a landscape mapping system.

Ecotoxicology - The often multidisciplinary scientific study of how toxic substances

influence the health, survival, and fitness of living organisms. Such studies can be
done at the individual, population, community, or ecosystem level. The general
public first becomes aware of ecotoxicology with the publication of the famous book
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962.

Ecotype - A genetically distinct population of organisms from a single species that

occupies a unique habitat type. This population usually shows differences in
morphological and physiological adaptations from the rest of its kind. Despite being
genetically different, this population still can interbreed with other populations and
produce fertile offspring.

Ectotherms - Is an organism that produces little or no internal heat to maintain its

body temperature. These organisms use the environment to supply the body heat
required for their survival. Compare with endotherms.

Edaphic - Something that is related to soil and/or its formation.

Eddy - A localized chaotic movement of a gas or liquid in a generally uniform larger

flow of the same substance.

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Eddy Diffusion - The turbulent mixing of substances into gases and liquids by
eddies. Large quantities of water vapor can move into the atmosphere from the
Earth's surface by this process.

Edge Wave - A wave of water that moves parallel to the shore. This wave is usually a
secondary wave of a much larger wave system.

Effect - The linked outcome produced by a cause.

Effective Porosity - A measure of the ability of the porosity of a sediment or rock to

contribute to the flow of a liquid or gas. This measure is important in determining
the suitability of sediment or rock for the below-ground storage of water, oil, or
natural gas.

Effective Precipitation - (1) The amount of precipitation that actually enters the soil
layer and is stored for use by plants. (2) The amount of precipitation that becomes
part of runoff and subsequently enters stream channels.

Effective Rainfall - The amount or proportion of precipitation that is available for

use in infiltration, runoff, groundwater, etc.

Effluent - (1) A flow of sewage or some other liquid substance released into a stream,
lake, or ocean. (2) A flow of lava from a volcanic fissure.

Effluent Stream - Are streams that receive their discharge mainly from groundwater,
progressively gaining stream flow volume downstream. Effluent streams are often
found in temperate and tropical climates, examples include the Amazon, Saint
Lawrence, Mississippi, and Congo rivers. Also called a gaining stream. Compare
with influent stream.

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Effusive Eruption - A volcanic eruption characterized by the release of low-viscosity
basaltic magma. This type of volcanic eruption is not explosive and tends to form
shield volcanoes.

Ekman Spiral - Describes the directional displacement of wind-generated ocean

currents with depth that creates a twisting motion. The twisting motion is caused by
the Coriolis effect gradually deflecting the moving
seawater with depth. The diagram to the right illustrates
how it works in the Northern Hemisphere (Image Source:
Wikipedia). The Ekman spiral begins with wind blowing
over the ocean surface (1) producing a force on the
topmost layer of seawater in the same direction (2). Also
influencing the movement of this water is a force created
by Coriolis effect acting 90° to the right (90° to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere)(4). The action of these two
forces produces the realized direction of the surface ocean
current (3) in between the two forces. Beneath the surface
layer, seawater also moves because of contact friction at
the molecular level. Simply, layers of seawater molecules
are moved by the frictional drag caused by the layer
directly above it. However, the amount of force available
to do this declines with depth, until the movement stops at
about 100 meters (330 feet) below sea level. The other interesting thing that happens
in this process is that each successive layer is deflected a bit more to the right with
depth. This creates the spiralling motion. At a certain depth, the seawater flow will
be in the opposite direction of the surface flow. Ekman spirals also operate in the
atmosphere. Named after Vagn Walfrid Ekman (1874-1954) a Swedish scientist who
first proposed it in 1902.

Ekman Transport - The resulting directional movement of seawater because of the

turbulent frictional drag associate with wind blowing above the surface of this fluid
and the deflective properties of Coriolis effect.

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El Niño - Name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters
along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. When this warming occurs the tropical Pacific
trade winds weaken and the usual upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich deep ocean water
off the coast of Ecuador and Peru is reduced. Strong El Niño events can cause an
accumulation of warm surface seawater that can extend across almost the entire
Pacific Ocean near the equator. El Niño normally occurs around Christmas and lasts
usually for a few weeks to a few months. Sometimes an extremely strong event can
develop that lasts for as long as two years. The following graph illustrates the timing
of significant El Niño events between 1930 and 2016. Compare with La Niña. Also
see Southern Oscillation.

Elastic Deformation - Change in the shape of a substance as the result of the force of
compression or expansion. Upon the release of the force, the material returns to its
original shape. Also called plastic deformation.

Elastic Limit - The maximum level of elastic deformation a substance can withstand
without fracture.

Elastic Rebound Theory - Theory that describes how earthquakes can develop from
the horizontal movement of adjacent tectonic plates along a linear strike-slip fault.
This theory suggests that the two plates moving in opposite directions become

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locked for some time because of friction. However, the accumulating stress
overcomes the friction and causes the plate to suddenly move over a short time
which generates an earthquake.

Elastic Wave - An energy wave that causes elastic deformation in a material without
deforming its structure and shape.

Electric Charge - A fundamental property of matter that occurs with molecules,

atoms, and subatomic particles. Electric charges are of two types: negative and
positive. At the subatomic level, electrons have a negative charge, protons have a
positive charge, and neutrons have no charge. Atoms that have the same number of
protons as electrons orbiting the nuclei are electrically neutral. Electric attraction
occurs when one object has an excess of positive charges and another object has an
excess of negative charges. If two objects have an excess of the same charge electric
repulsion will take place. Electric charge has an important role in forming molecules.
Electric charge also gives matter the ability to hold itself together.

Electrical Energy - Energy produced from the force between two objects having the
physical property of electric charge.

Electromagnetic Energy - Energy stored in electromagnetic waves or radiation.

Energy is released when the waves are absorbed by a surface. Any object with a
temperature above absolute zero (-273.15°C) emits this type of energy. The intensity
of energy released is a function of the temperature of the radiating surface. The
higher the temperature the greater the quantity of energy released.

Electromagnetic Radiation (Waves) - Emission of energy as electromagnetic waves.

All objects above the temperature of absolute zero (-273.15°C) radiate energy to their
surrounding environment. The amount of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a
body is proportionally related to its temperature.

Electromagnetic Spectrum - See spectrum.

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Electron - A type of subatomic particle of an atom that has a negative
electromagnetic charge. Electrons orbit outside the dense positively charged nucleus.
The mass of an electron is 1/1836 of a proton. Compare with proton and neutron.

Electron Spin Resonance - A radiometric method used for dating samples up to

300,000 years old. Based on the principle that background radiation causes electrons
to move from their usual locations in atoms to become embedded in the crystalline
lattice of substances like calcium carbonate. Normally used with samples of teeth,
limestone, coral, shells, and fragments of eggshell.

Element - A molecule composed of one type of atom. Chemists have recognized or

created 112 different types of elements. Two or more different elements form a
compound. See the following WWW link for the chemical description of these
different elements - [Link]

Elevation - The height or altitude something has above some base-level. The base-
level commonly used for describing the elevation of something on Earth is sea level.

Eluviation - Movement of humus, chemical substances, and mineral particles from

the upper layers of a soil to lower layers by the downward movement of water
through the soil profile. Compare with illuviation.

Eluvium - Material that is the byproduct of in situ rock weathering.

Embayment - Indentation in a coastline that forms a bay.

Emergent Coastline - An area along a coastline that has been influenced by a fall in
sea level because of isostasy or eustasy. Landscape features associated with emergent
coastlines include raised beaches, wave cut platforms, and sea caves. Compare with
submergent coastline.

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Emigration - The migration of an organism out of an area with the result of changing
its residence permanently. Compare with immigration.

Emission - (1) The process where an object releases energy in the form of a photon
into its surrounding environment. This process produces electromagnetic radiation.
(2) The creation and release of something into the surrounding environment.

Emissivity - The ratio of the total output of electromagnetic radiation from a body
per unit time per unit area at a specific temperature and wavelength to that of a
black body under the same environmental conditions.

Empirical - A logical conclusion based on careful observation or experimental

manipulation.

Endangered Species - A term used to describe the possible extinction risk of a

species. (1) A species found in nature that has so few surviving individuals that it
could soon become extinct in all or most of its natural geographic range. Also see
threatened species. (2) One of the categories used by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List to describe the status of a species. This
category suggests the species has been evaluated to have a very high risk of
becoming extinct in the wild.

Endemic Species - A species that is often found living in a single spatially restricted
area and nowhere else on Earth. As a result, they have a very limited geographic
range. However, these species may have a broad ecological niche and their limited
distribution may be the result of an inability to disperse. Endemic species are
commonly found on islands. These species are often a conservation concern because
they can easily go extinct. Many of the extinctions in the last 300 years have been of
endemic species. Compare with specialist and cosmopolitan species.

Endemism - A species that is quite limited in its geographical range. For example,
the bird known as a Nēnē (Branta sandvicensis) is endemic because it is only found on
the Hawaiian Islands.

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Endogenic - A term that is used to describe a system that is internal to the Earth.
Compare with exogenic.

Endothermic Reaction - A process where a system absorbs heat energy from its
surrounding environment. Compare with exothermic reaction.

Endotherms - Is an organism that produces the heat needed to maintain its body
temperature through metabolism. Compare with ectotherms.

End Moraine - See terminal moraine.

Energy - Is defined as the capacity for doing work. Energy can exist the following
forms: radiation; kinetic energy; potential energy; chemical energy; atomic energy;
electromagnetic radiation; electrical energy; and heat energy.

Energy Crop - A crop grown to produce chemical energy in the form of ethanol or
methane.

Energy Flow - This term can be broadly defined as the movement and
transformation of energy through the elements of some type of system.

Energy Flux - The rate of energy flow from, into, or through a substance.

Englacial - Refers to processes and conditions occurring within the body of a glacier.
Same as supraglacial. Compare with proglacial and subglacial.

Entisols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. A soil type of recent
development with no or poorly developed soil horizons (Image Source:
U.S. Department of Agriculture).

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Entrainment - One of the three distinct processes involved in erosion. More
specifically, it is the process of particle lifting by an agent of erosion. Also see
detachment and transport.

Entrenched Meander - A stream meander that has eroded to a base-level well below
its original valley floor. Shown
in the image is an entrenched
meander located along the
Glen Canyon, Arizona. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons,
photo by Christian Mehlführer.
This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5 Generic
license.

Entropy - (1) In physics, entropy is the measure of the disorder or randomness of

energy and matter in a system. (2) Geologists use the term entropy to describe the
characteristics of a sediment. Sediments that are very uniform and consistent are said
to have high entropy. Unorganized and mixed sediments are claimed to have low
entropy.

Environment - (1) Abiotic and biotic factors that influence the life of an organism. (2)
Abiotic and biotic factors that influence the function of some nonliving natural
system.

Environmental Assessment - The evaluation of the quality of abiotic and/or biotic

components of the environment in a quantitative way. This is done mainly for
socioeconomic reasons where human development is being planned for these
components in the future.

Environmental Gradient - A spatial gradient where abiotic and biotic factors vary.

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Environmental Hazards - The types of natural and human-made risks that
potentially influence the survival of an organism. Also see natural hazard.

Environmental Impact Assessment - The determination of the positive and negative

repercussions that a human development project may have on some components of
the environment.

Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) - The rate of air temperature increase or decrease
with altitude. The average ELR in the troposphere is an air temperature decrease of
6.5°C per 1,000 meters (3.6°F per 1,000 feet) rise in elevation. Also called normal
lapse rate.

Environmental Management - Techniques used by humans to manage the use of

natural resources. The goals of this management are often to encourage
sustainability.

Environmental Science - Field of knowledge that studies how humans and other
species interact with one another and with the nonliving environment. It is both a
physical and social science that integrates knowledge from a wide range of
disciplines, including Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Ecology, Geology, Geography,
Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Psychology, and Philosophy.

Environmental System - A system where life interacts with the various abiotic
components found in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

Enzyme - An organic substance rich in proteins that is used to facilitate and regulate
chemical reactions within cells. Many different types of enzymes are found in cells.

Eocene - An epoch that occurred 55.8 ± 0.2 to 33.9 ± 0.1 million years ago. The Eocene
climate started with a warming trend with global temperatures reaching there
maximum at around 49 million years ago. After this peak, global temperatures
cooled with snow and ice reappearing at the poles by the end of the epoch. Modern

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mammal lineages develop at the beginning of this time. Most of the planet is covered
by forests during this time, except the driest desert regions. Oceans are warm and
rich in fish and other forms of sea life. One of three epochs during the Paleogene
Period. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most
recent version of the geologic time scale.

Eolian - Landscape process that involves wind. Alternative spelling - aeolian.

Eolian Landform - Is a landform formed from the erosion or deposition of

weathered surface materials by the wind. This includes landforms with some of the
following geomorphic features: sand dunes, deflation hollows, and desert pavement.
Alternative spelling - aeolian landform.

Eon - Second longest unit of geologic time. Generally, a length of time that is half a
billion years or more. Four eons exist in Earth's geologic history: Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for more information on the geologic time scale.

Epeiric Sea - Is a large area of saline water or ocean water that is located within the
landmass of a continent. During the Earth's geologic past epeiric seas have been
more common than at present, especially when sea levels were higher. Examples of
epeiric seas that exist today include the Caspian Sea, Black Sea, and the Aral Sea.
Also called inland sea and epicontinental sea.

Epeirogeny - The warping of the Earth's continental crust or oceanic crust at a large
scale without any significant folding and faulting of rock layers. The warping can
cause the crust to be uplifted or depressed. Compare with orogeny.

Ephemeral - Something that lasts for a relatively brief time.

Ephemeral Plant - A species of plant that has a short life cycle. Often refers to an
annual plant.

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Ephemeral Stream - (1) Is a stream that has a water flow only for short period time,
usually after a precipitation event or because of spring snowmelt. Compare with
perennial stream and intermittent stream. (2) This term can also refer to the outer
most links in a drainage network. These segments, once again, usually have
intermittent stream flow when water is supplied from precipitation or snowmelt.

Epicenter - Surface location of an earthquake focus.

Epidiorite - A metamorphic rock derived by the thermal alteration of igneous

diorite or gabbro rock. Epidiorite has a similar mineral composition to diorite.

Epigenetic - Something that influences the function of a cell, organ or individual

without directly involving its DNA.

Epilimnion - The topmost layer in a lake stratified according to water temperature.

The surface of this layer interacts with the atmosphere. The water in this layer
normally has a higher temperature, pH, and concentration of dissolved oxygen than
the hypolimnion layer found below it. Also see thermocline layer.

Epipedon - A characteristically dark upper horizon in a soil that contains only the
mineral particle byproducts of rock weathering, an enrichment of decaying organic
matter, and/or signs of elluviation. This layer is not the same as an A horizon
because it may include part or all of the B horizon.

Epiphyte - A type of plant that gets its physical support from the branches of other
plants. Commonly found in the tropical rain forest communities.

Epithermal - Geologic term describing processes that occur at temperatures between

100 to 200°C in the lithosphere.

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Epoch - A geologic time unit that is shorter than a period but longer than an age. See
the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for more information
on the geologic time scale.

Equator - The area on the Earth's surface that has a latitude of 0°. The Great Circle of
the Earth that corresponds with a latitude of 0°.

Equatorial Bulge - Slight surface bulge that occurs around the equator related to the
Earth's oblate spheroid shape. This roughly 20 kilometers outward extension is
caused by the forces associated with axis rotation.

Equatorial Rain Forest - A zone of tropical rain forest that runs approximately 5°
either side of the equator. Uniform monthly rainfall and temperatures allow
broadleaf evergreen species of tropical trees to dominate this biome.

Equatorial Trough - A meandering zone of surface low atmospheric pressure and

ascending air that exists between the Northeast Trade Winds and Southeast Trade
Winds. Many thunderstorms develop in this narrow area. This zone circles the Earth
and adjusts its general position with the change in seasons. It is located mainly north
of the equator during June Solstice and south of the equator during December
Solstice. Rising air currents are due to global wind convergence and convection from
thermal heating. The equatorial trough roughly has the same geographic location as
the thermal equator. Also called the Intertropical Convergence Zone.

Equifinality - An idea in systems theory that suggests that a particular end state can
occur by way of different processes in an open system. Compare with multifinality.

Equilibrium - Equilibrium describes the average condition of a system, as measured

through one of its elements or attributes, over a specific interval of time.

Equilibrium Line - A specific elevation on the glacier where ice accumulation is in

balance with ablation.

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Equilibrium Shoreline - A theoretical dynamic state that would occur if a balance
was reached between the energy, materials, and geomorphic processes that produce
a shoreline. This model is used to determine the state of an actual shoreline.
Shorelines that have sand beaches often resemble this ideal, while bedrock or marsh
shorelines tend to be quite different from it.

Equinox - Two days during the year when the declination of the Sun is at the
equator. The September Equinox occurs on September 22 or 23. The March Equinox
occurs on March 20 or 21. On these days, all locations on our planet (except the
poles) experience equal (12 hours) day and night.

Equipotential(s) - A line in two-dimensional space or a plane in three-dimensional

space that has the same potential, where potential represents gravity, electric charge,
groundwater flow, etc.

Era - A geologic time unit that is shorter than an eon but longer than a period. See
the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for more information
on the geologic time scale.

Erg - A unit of energy and work in the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system. 1 erg =
1.0 x 10−7 joules = 2.388459 x 10−8 calories.

Erg Desert - A region in a desert where sand is in abundant supply.

Ergodic Hypothesis - A principle in Geomorphology that suggests that sampling in

space can be equivalent to sampling through time under the right conditions. This
idea is sometimes used to temporally model landform evolution by finding present-
day surrogates.

Erodibility - A qualitative or quantitative measurement of how vulnerable soil,

sediment, or rock is to erosion by wind, water, or ice.

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Erosion - The removal of weathered sediment, soil, or rock by the forces of wind,
water, and ice.

Erosion Surface - A relatively flat landscape that was produced by erosion rather
than sediment deposition.

Erosional Landform - Is a landform formed from the removal of weathered and

eroded surface materials by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity. This includes
landforms with some of the following geomorphic features: stream valleys, glacial
valleys, and coastal cliffs.

Erosivity - A qualitative or quantitative measure of the erosion capability of a soil to

a particular geomorphological factor.

Erratic - A large rock boulder that has been transported by glaciers away from its
origin and deposited in a region of dissimilar rock.

Eruption - See volcanic eruption.

Escarpment - A long almost vertical slope separating two relatively flat land areas of
dissimilar elevation. These landforms often form because of faulting or erosion.

Esker - Long twisting ridges of sand and gravel found on the Earth's surface.
Created when the deposits of subsurface glacial streams are placed on the ground
after glacial melting.

Establishment - Subsequent growth and/or reproduction of a colonized species in a

new permanent home.

Estimator - Is any value calculated from a data sample. For example, the sample
mean is an estimator of the population mean.

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Estuary - A somewhat enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a stream where nutrient-
rich freshwater meets with seawater.

Etchplain - An erosional landform surface located on an ancient shield formation

found in warm and moist tropical climates. Chemical weathering of the shield
produced sediment and soil that was removed by erosion leaving behind scattered
steep-sided hills composed of unweathered bedrock.

Ethanol - A type of colorless alcohol that is produced by the fermentation of sugars

and commonly used as a fuel. Chemical formula CH3CH2OH.

Eukaryota - All the organisms with a eukaryote cell type. This group includes
animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

Eukaryote - Organisms whose cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and many

specialized structures located within their cell boundary. In these organisms, genetic
material is organized into chromosomes that are found in the nucleus.

Eulittorial Zone - The area along a coastline that stretches from the high water mark
to the point where aquatic plants fastened to the ocean floor no longer grow (a depth
of about 40 to 60 meters or 120 to 180 feet).

Euphotic Zone - See photic zone.

Eustacy - Variations in sea level that are related to changes in the volume of seawater
in the ocean.

Eutrophic - A water body that contains an overabundance of nutrients, usually

nitrates and/or phosphates. This environmental condition normally causes the
excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants. Compare with mesotrophic and
oligotrophic.

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Eutrophic Lake - Lake that has an excessive supply of nutrients, mostly in the form
of nitrates and/or phosphates. This environmental condition usually causes the
excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants in the lake. Also see mesotrophic lake
and oligotrophic lake.

Eutrophication - Physical, chemical, and biological changes in a water body as a

result of the input nitrogen and phosphorus.

Evaporation - Evaporation can be defined as the process by which liquid water is

converted into a gaseous state. Evaporation can only occur when water is available.
It also requires that the humidity of the atmosphere be less than the evaporating
surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation). The evaporation
process requires large amounts of energy. For example, the evaporation of one gram
of water at a temperature of 100°C requires 540 calories of heat energy (600 calories
at 0°C).

Evaporation Fog - A type of fog produced from the advection of cold air over warm
water or warm or moist land. This type of fog is sometimes called steam fog, sea
smoke, frost smoke, or Arctic smoke.

Evaporation Pan - Meteorological instrument that is used to measure rates of

evaporation from the ground surface.

Evaporimeter - See atmometer.

Evaporite - A type of sedimentary rock that is formed from the concentration of

dissolved salts through evaporation.

Evapotranspiration - Combined loss of water to the atmosphere through the

processes of evaporation and transpiration.

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Everglades - An extensive area of flat often inundated marshland and mangroves
found in southern Florida. Seasonal flooding of the Everglades usually occurs with
cyclic migration of thunderstorms associated with the intertropical convergence zone
during the summer.

Evergreen Vegetation - Vegetation that keeps most of their leaves or needles

throughout the year. Also see deciduous vegetation and succulent vegetation.

Evolution - The process by which species come to possess genetic adaptations to

their environment. The mechanism of evolution is natural selection. Evolution also
requires genetic mutations to create new adaptations. This process was first properly
conceptualized by Charles Darwin in 1859.

Evorsion - Describes the erosion of sediment and/or rock from a stream bed by
eddies in the flow of water.

Ex Situ Management - A strategy of conservation that houses and breeds

endangered and threatened species in human controlled zoos, aquariums, and other
facilities with the ultimate goal of releasing the organism back to the wild in the
future.

Exaration - The erosive plucking of fragments of rock material from bedrock at the
base of a glacier.

Exfoliation - A type of physical weathering where sheets of

rock material peel off the surface of a much larger mass of rock
(Image Source: Wikimedia Commons). Exfoliation is generally
caused by pressure release. Also called onion weathering.

Exfoliation Dome - A physical weathering feature associated with granite that is the
result of the erosion of overburden material and pressure release. With the release of

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pressure, layers of rock break off in sheets or shells leaving a dome-like bedrock
feature.

Exhumation - The process of erosion revealing a geologic feature originally found

beneath the ground surface by removing overlying sediment and/or rock.

Exogenic - Refers to a system that is external to the Earth. Compare with endogenic.

Exoplanet - A planet found outside our Solar System orbiting another star.
Thousands of exoplanets have been discovered.

Exosphere - The outermost zone in the Earth's atmosphere. This layer has an altitude
greater than 480 kilometers (298 miles) and is primarily composed of hydrogen and
helium gas.

Exothermic Reaction - A process where a system releases heat energy to its

surrounding environment. Compare with endothermic reaction.

Exotic Species - See invasive species. See alien species and an introduced species.

Exotic Stream - A stream that has a course that begins in a humid climate and ends
in a dry climate. Because of reductions in precipitation and increases in evaporation,
the discharge of these streams deceases downslope. Examples of exotic streams
include the Nile and Colorado Rivers. Compare with ephemeral stream.

Expansive Soil - A soil that can expand and contract with changes in moisture
content. Soil with this ability generally contains significant amounts of the clay
minerals bentonite and montmorillonite.

Experiment - A controlled investigation designed to evaluate the outcomes of causal

manipulations on some system of interest.

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Exploitation - A type of competitive biological interaction where the indirect effects
of the two or more species or individuals reduce the supply of the limiting resource
or resources needed for survival.

Explosive Eruption - Volcanic eruption where high-viscosity granite-rich magma

causes an explosion of ash and pyroclastic material. This type of eruption is common
to composite and caldera volcanoes.

Exposure - (1) The position of a surface relative to climatic elements of Sun,

precipitation, wind, etc. (2) The location selected for measuring climatic variables
with instruments. (3) A location where bare bedrock is exposed at the ground
surface.

Extending Flow - This occurs when a glacier experiences an increase in the area over
which it is flowing, causing the stretching out of glacier ice. For example, an alpine
glacier responds to extending flow by thinning and decreasing its depth in the valley
where it flows. Compare with compressing flow.

Extinct - One of the categories used by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature's (IUCN) Red List to describe the status of a species. This category suggests
the species is no longer found in the wild or in captivity.

Extinct in the Wild - One of the categories used by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List to describe the status of a species. This
category suggests the species is no longer found in the wild but individuals do exist
in captivity, cultivation, or as an established population or populations outside to its
usual geographic range.

Extinct Volcano - A volcano that long ago was active but is now permanently
inactive.

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Extinction (adjective Extinct) - The disappearance of a species from all or part of their
geographic range. Also see background extinction and mass extinction.

Extrapolation - The process of extending the linear or non-linear trend seen in a set
of bivariate or multivariate data beyond its lower and/or upper distribution limits.
Extrapolated data should be used with caution because it may wrongly assume
actual patterns that occur outside the limits of the modeled data.

Extratropical Cyclone - Synoptic scale cyclonic storms with low atmospheric

pressure that develops in the middle to high latitudes of our planet. These systems
usually have fronts associated with them and their formation is related to the polar
jet stream. Also see mid-latitude cyclone.

Extrusive Igneous Rock - Igneous rock that forms on the surface of the Earth. Also
called volcanic igneous rock.

Eye - In meteorology, this term refers to the circular area usually found at the center
of a well-developed hurricane that is often
devoid of clouds and has light winds.
Hurricane eyes are about 30 to
65 kilometers (20 to 40 miles) in diameter
and are bordered by a ring of
thunderstorms, that collectively make a
feature known as the eyewall. Shown is
the eye of hurricane Isabel as viewed from
the International Space Station during
September, 2003 (Image Source: NASA).

Eyewall - A circular wall of thunderstorms found at the edge of a hurricane eye.

Eyot - A small island in a stream or lake.

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 F
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Fabric - A three-dimensional representation of the shape and spatial orientation of

particles (clasts) in a sediment. This measurement is useful in interpreting and
understanding the environmental conditions associated with the deposition of the
particles.

Facet - (1) A flat face on a rock caused by wind, water, or ice abrasion. (2) A natural
or cut and polished flat surface on a gemstone. (3) A flat surface on a crystal.

Facies - (1) A trait found in sediment or rock that provides information about the
environmental conditions associated with its deposition. (2) A trait found in
sediment or rock that can be used to distinguish it from other adjacent sediments or
rocks.

Facilitation - A modification to a system that makes subsequent modifications easier

to accomplish.

Facilitation Model of Succession - This model of plant succession suggests that the
change in plant species dominance over time is caused by modifications in the
abiotic environment imposed by the developing community. Thus, the entry and
growth of the later species depends on earlier species preparing the ground.

Factor - In statistics, a factor is a causal agent that is responsible for some measured
effect.

Factorial Experiment - An experiment that has been set up to determine how several
factors influence a measured effect, individually and in combination, via a statistical
technique like Analysis of Variance.

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Fahrenheit Scale - Scale used in the measurement of temperature. In this scale, water
boils at 212° and freezes at 32°. It is used in only a few countries, most notably the
United States where it is used for weather forecasting and other non-scientific
purposes. Compare with Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales.

Failure - (1) A situation that causes an object or a structure to fail in some way. (2)
The deformation or fracture of soil, sediment, or rock because of the addition of
stress.

Fall - The season between summer and winter. Astronomically it is the period from
the September Equinox to the December Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere and
from the March Equinox to the June Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.

Fall Line - A linear boundary in the surface landscape that separates relatively
harder igneous or metamorphic rock from softer sedimentary rock. Fall lines are
visibly apparent when intersected by streams as they cause the formation of
waterfalls or rapids.

Falling Dune - A stationary accumulation of well-sorted sand found on the leeward

side of a large vertical obstruction in the landscape like a hill, butte, mesa, or
mountain. Falling dunes can often form some distance downwind of the obstacle
because of the existence of localized back eddies. For this dune to form, there must
be a source of sand and consistent winds from mainly one direction. A large falling
dune can, in some situations, act as a sand source for dune fields further downwind.
Compare with climbing dune.

Falling Tide - See ebb tide.

False Bedding - See cross-bedding.

False Color Film - A type of film used in remote sensing that was created to image
near infrared and visible light.

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False Origin - The location of the starting coordinates picked to the south and west
of the true origin of a rectangular coordinate system. False origins are used to avoid
negative coordinates.

Falsification - This is a procedure used in science to test the validity of a hypothesis

or theory. It involves explicitly stating some logical output from theory and looking
for contrary cases among observations, experiments, or the predictive output of
models.

Family - The third category in the classification of organisms. This classification level
is above the genus category. A family consists of all the genera with similar
morphological and physiological characteristics and related genetics. Similar families
are grouped into a category called an order.

Fan - A cone-shaped accumulation of sediments once transported by a stream or a

debris flow. Fans develop when the agents of transport have a significant reduction
in their travel speed leading to deposition. See alluvial fan.

Fanglomerate - A type of sedimentary rock formed from the cementation and

compaction of particles associated with an ancient alluvial fan.

Far Infrared - (1) A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 1.5
and 40 micrometers (µm). (2) A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength
between 15 and 1000 micrometers (µm). (3) Astronomers typically define it as
electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 25-40 and 200-350
micrometers (µm).

Fast Ice - A type of sea ice that forms and grows attached to a coastline or along the
edge of an iceberg. Fast ice requires calm wind and air temperatures falling below -2°
Celsius (28° F) to develop.

Fathogram - A profile chart of the ocean floor from echo sounder data.

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Fathom - A nautical unit of water depth where one fathom = 6 feet = 1.829 meters.
100 fathoms = 1 cable and 1,000 fathoms = 1 nautical mile.

Fatigue Failure - The fracturing of some substance because of many repeated cycles
of stress. This process is studied and well understood in metals by engineers. Their
observations suggest that the repeated stress fracturing of metals occurs at levels
well below the instantaneous maximum strength level that a material can withstand.
This process has been applied to the disintegration of rocks by wetting and drying,
insolation weathering, haloclasty, and freeze-thaw action.

Fault - A fracture in rock or rock strata caused by stress forces.

Fault Creep - The very slow and more or less continuous movement of opposing
rock slabs either side of a fault.

Faulting - The fracturing of rock or rock strata because of stress forces.

Fault Plane - The plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault.

Fault Scarp - The section of the fault plane exposed in a fault. Also called an
escarpment.

Fauna - A general term used to describe animals.

Faunal Realms - An evolutionary grouping of the various animals (fauna) found on

our planet based on a spatial scale at the continental level. This classification
suggests the existence of eight faunal realms: Paleoarctic; Nearctic; Afrotropic;
Neotropic; Australasian; Indomalaya; Oceania (not shown); and Antarctic (not
shown). See the map that follows - Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, artist Carol
Spears. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license. Animal species in these realms generally share some common
morphological and physiological characteristics. Also called ecozone or

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zoogeographic regions. The concept of faunal realms has recently been updated by a
study (2013) that
analyzed the
geographical
distributions
and
phylogenetic
relationships of
21,037 species of
amphibians,
birds, and
mammals. In
this work,
eleven zoogeographical realms were recognized. See [Link]
content/339/6115/[Link]

Feedback Loop - Process where the output of a system causes positive or negative
changes to some measured component of the system. Also see positive feedback and
negative feedback.

Feldspar - A group of common aluminum silicate minerals that contain potassium,

sodium, or calcium.

Felsic - A rock that is quite rich in silica, sodium, aluminum, and potassium.

Felsic Magma - Magma that is relatively rich in silica, sodium, aluminum, and
potassium. This type of magma solidifies to form light colored igneous rocks rich in
silica, sodium, aluminum, and potassium.

Fen - A low-lying, flooded habitat dominated with grasses, sedges, mosses, and
sometimes shrub and tree species like willow (Salix spp.) and alder (Alnus spp.).
Surface water and groundwater of fens tend to be nutrient-rich and neutral to

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alkaline in pH. Fens often have accumulations of non-acidic peat. Compare with
bog.

Fen Soil - An organic rich soil that forms above fen peat.

Feral Relief - A landscape that experiences intense runoff and, as a result, has deep
dissection of valley sides by insequent streams.

Fermentation - The metabolic decomposition and breakdown of organic matter by

anaerobic processes. This process essentially converts sugars into gases, acids, and/
or alcohol to release energy for metabolism. Yeasts and bacteria are two organisms
that employ this process.

Fern - A group of about 11,000 species of

vascular seedless plants that belong to the
division Pteridophyta. Ferns have stems,
leaves, and roots like other vascular plants
but reproduce with spores instead of
seeds. About 75 percent of the various
species of ferns are found in the tropics.
Some ferns grow on the branches of trees
as epiphytes. Image Source: Wikipedia
Commons, photographer Steve Parker. This
image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

Ferrallitization - A pedogenic process in tropical soils that occurs under moist and
warm conditions and involves chemical weathering and intense leaching. In this
process, iron and aluminum oxides, silica, and soluble bases are released from parent
material because of weathering. These products are then translocated down the soil
profile because of leaching.

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Ferrel Cell - Three-dimensional
atmospheric circulation cell located at
roughly 30 to 60° North and South of the
equator. The Ferrel Cell consists of
descending air (Subtropical Highs) at 30°
North and South and rising air at 60°
North and South (polar front). On the
Earth's surface, this global scale
circulation system generates the
Westerlies. Compare with Hadley Cell and
Polar Cell.

Ferricrete - A type of sedimentary rock

that is formed by the chemical precipitation of iron.

Ferrisols - See ultisols.

Ferrous - Containing or composed of iron, often in a chemically reduced form.

Fertilizer - A substance that adds inorganic or organic nutrients to soil or water

resulting in the increased growth of algae, aquatic plants, crops, trees, or other
vegetation.

Fetch - The distance of open water in one direction across a lake, sea, ocean or other
water body over which wind can travel, and waves can develop.

Fibric Layer - A near-surface layer in soil dominated by poorly decomposed fibrous

organic matter. Compare with mesic and humic layers.

Field Capacity - The water remaining in a soil after the complete draining of
gravitational water. This quantity varies from soil to soil because of various factors
including texture, organic matter content, structure, and compaction.

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Field Drainage - The artificial process of increasing soil drainage in an area by
employing trenches and pipes to drain away excess water. This technique is used to
increase the fertility of agricultural fields that have problems with becoming
waterlogged.

Field Intensity - The measured strength of a magnetic or electric field at some spatial
point.

Film Water - An extremely thin layer of water found surrounding soil particles. Film
water be between 1 to 100 molecules thick and is not available for plant uptake.

Finger Lakes - Long, narrow lakes that occupy

deep linear basins eroded by glaciers. Lakes of
this type occur in several different locations
around the world. Shown is several finger lakes
located in New York State that were
photographed from the International Space
Station in December 2004 (Image Source: NASA).

Firn - Névé on a glacier that survives the year's ablation season. Over time, most firn
is transformed into glacial ice.

Firn Field - An area where firn accumulates. This area does not need to be associated
with a glacier.

Firn Limit - The lower boundary of the zone of accumulation on a glacier where
snow accumulates on an annual basis. Also called the firn line.

Firn Line - See firn limit.

First Law of Motion - A motionless object will continue to be motionless, while an

object that is in motion will stay moving with the same velocity, in the same

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direction, unless it is acted upon by another force. This law is sometimes called the
Law of Inertia. First suggested by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. See Second Law of
Motion.

First Law of Thermodynamics - See Law of Conservation of Energy.

Fish - Are a group of vertebrate animals that inhabit aquatic habitats. Fish are
abundant on our planet with more than 32,000 recognized species. Fish can be found
in nearly all aquatic environments, from
streams and lakes on our planet's mountains to
the bottom of the ocean floor. As a group of
organisms, fish characteristically have gills, an
internal skeletal structure composed of bone or
cartilage, and lack limbs. Most fish are
ectothermic and as a result their body
temperature varies with ambient environmental
temperatures. Fish consist of several classes
including: spiny rayed fishes (Actinopterygii);
lampreys (Cephalaspidomorphi); sharks, skates,
and rays (Elasmobranchii); chimaeras
(Holocephali); hagfish (Myxini); and lobe-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii).

Fissility - Planes of weakness found in some sedimentary rocks and metamorphic

rocks that cause them to split into thin flat layers. Fissility is common with rocks
formed from argillaceous sediments like mudstones, shales, and slate.

Fissionable Isotope - Isotope that can undergo nuclear fission when hit by a neutron
at the right speed. Examples include uranium-235 and plutonium-239.

Fissure - Geologic term used to describe an opening or crack in the Earth's crust.

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Fissure Eruption - A volcanic eruption that occurs at surface fissure or fault releasing
ash, gases, lava, and pyroclastic material. Often associated with very fluid basaltic
magma. Common on Iceland and mid-oceanic ridge areas.

Fitness - A measure of the health of a species relative to physiology and future

reproductive success.

Fixed Energy - A process, like photosynthesis, where organisms repackage inorganic

energy into organic energy.

Fjord - (Fiord) - A steep and long, U-shaped valley that connects to a sea or ocean
and contains a mixture of freshwater and
seawater. Most fjords are in a relict glacial valley
or glacial trough that developed because of past
episodes of glacial erosion. The coasts of Canada,
Alaska, Norway, Iceland, Russia, and Greenland
have many fjords. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, photographer D. Gordon E. Robertson.
This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Flagstone - A type of limestone that has a high degree of fissility. They are commonly
used as a building material.

Flash Flood - A rapid and short-lived increase in the

amount of runoff water entering a stream resulting in a
flood. The National Weather Service in the United States
defines a flash flood as a flood event that occurs less than 6
hours after rainfall. Flash floods are often caused by
intense rain from a severe thunderstorm, tropical storm, or
hurricane. Shown is an image of a flash flood on January
10, 2011 in Toowoomba, Australia that left an individual
stranded on top of their car. Image Source: Wikipedia

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Commons, photographer Timothy Swinson. This image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. Compare with flood.

F-Layer - A layer found in the ionosphere located at a height above 250 kilometers
(155 miles) from the Earth's surface. This atmospheric layer can reflect ground based
high frequency radio transmissions back to the Earth's surface.

Flint - A microcrystalline silica-rich (quartz) sedimentary rock that is chemically

similar to chert. Occurs typically in masses embedded in limestone and chalk.

Float Recorder - A mechanical instrument employing a float, used to make a

constant recording of the water level in a well, stream, or lake.

Flocculation - Chemical processes where salt causes the aggregation of minute clay
particles into larger masses that are too heavy to remain suspended water.

Flood - The inundation of a land surface not usually submerged by water from a
quick change in the water level of a lake, stream, or ocean. Floods last from days to
weeks and are often the result of multiple factors. Compare with flash flood.

Flood Basalt - See plateau basalt.

Flood Current - The flow of seawater from a tidal current that is moving from the
sea to the shore. When it finishes its flow, a high tide will occur. Compare with ebb
current.

Flood Frequency - A probabilistic analysis of past records of flow for a stream to

determine the frequency of having a stream discharge over a particular threshold
value. This calculation is expressed as a ratio or a percentage, and often used to
predict the likelihood of a flood.

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Flood Geomorphology - A sub-discipline of Geomorphology that studies the causes
of floods and how these events influence landscape processes and morphology.

Flood Tide - The time during a tidal period when the tide is on the rise. Compare
with ebb tide.

Floodplain - The relatively flat boundary area found alongside the stream channel
that is prone to flooding and receives frequent deposits of alluvium from these
inundation events.

Flora - Refers to plants or a collection of plants.

Floristic Realms - An evolutionary grouping of the various plants (flora) found on

our planet based on a continental level spatial scale. This classification suggests the
existence of eight floristic realms: Paleoarctic; Nearctic; Afrotropic; Neotropic;
Australasian; Indomalaya; Oceania; and Antarctic (see map for faunal realms). Plant
species in these realms generally share some common morphological and
physiological characteristics. Also called ecozone.

Flow Regimes - This refers to the classification of water flow in an open channel into
four types associated with channel geometry. The classification is based on
calculated Reynolds and Froude numbers. A Reynolds number that is greater than
2000 suggests turbulent flow, while laminar flow occurs when the value is less than
500. A Froude number that is greater than 1.0 indicates supercritical flow, while
subcritical flow occurs when the value is less than 1.0. Based on these calculations
the four flow types are laminar/supercritical, laminar/subcritical, turbulent/
supercritical, and turbulent/subcritical.

Flow Till - A type of glacial till deposited from the flow of supraglacial sediments at
the ice front.

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Flower - A specialized reproductive structure found in some plants, like the
angiosperms. Flowers consist of two parts: modified vegetative tissues often used to
attract potential pollinators and reproductive tissues.

Flowstone - Flat sheetlike deposits of calcite and other carbonate minerals

commonly found on the walls and floors of karst caves. Occur where mineral-rich
water regularly flows.

Fluid - A substance, gas, liquid, or plasma, that has the property of movement.

Fluid Drag - The reduction in flow velocity of a fluid caused by the frictional effects
of a surface.

Fluid Mechanics - A field of physics that studies fluids and the forces that act upon
them.

Flume - (1) A human-constructed channel used to

measure water flow of a much larger stream
channel. (2) A human-constructed channel used to
move water from a stream channel to some
intended use. Some uses include simple transfer of
water to a storage reservoir, irrigation, moving
logs, and generating power. Shown is a flume used
to move logs. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
photographer Kavelgrisen. This image is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license. (3) An artificial channel used to
model stream processes.

Flute - Cone shaped grooves found on the floor of a stream channel created by the
scouring action of turbulent flow.

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Fluted Moraine - A type of linear ground moraine that is oriented parallel to the
direction of glacial ice movement.

Fluvial - Something that involves running water. Normal use of the term is in
association with stream processes.

Fluviokarst - A karst landscape that is strongly influenced by fluvial processes.

Fluvial Landform - Is a landform formed from erosional and depositional processes

associated with streams. This includes landforms with some of the following
geomorphologic features: alluvial fans, deltas, terrace, stream valleys, floodplains,
levee, and oxbow lake.

Flux - The rate of input or output of energy and/or matter from some object.

Flysch - The deposition of sedimentary strata in a marine environment found in a

basin adjacent to a developing orogeny. Such deposits often show numerous
repeated sedimentary cycles of strata getting coarser with depth. First deposits tend
to be conglomerates or breccias, followed by sandstones, and finally mudstones and
shales.

Focal Depth - The minimal distance between an earthquake focus and the Earth's
ground surface.

Focus - See earthquake focus.

Fog - An atmospheric condition near the Earth's surface where minute water
droplets, ice crystals, or smoke particles reduce visibility. Fog exists if the visibility
near the Earth's surface is reduced to 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) or less. Fogs composed
primarily of water droplets are classified according to the process that causes the air
to cool to saturation. Common types of fog include radiation fog, upslope fog,
advection fog, evaporation fog, ice fog, and frontal fog. Compare with mist.

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Fog Drip / Fog Precipitation - The production of falling precipitation by the
interception of moving fog by trees and other surfaces.

Föhn Wind - A regional wind system that occurs on the leeward side of mountains.
This wind is warm, has low humidity, and tends to form in winter. The European
equivalent of a chinook wind.

Fold - Wavelike layers in rock strata that are the result of large scale compression of
the Earth's crust. Also see anticline, syncline, monocline, overturned fold, and
recumbent fold.

Folding - The deformation of rock strata because of compressive forces that form
folds.

Foliar Leaching - Process in which water from precipitation removes plant nutrients
from the surface of leaves.

Foliation - Process where once randomly distributed platy minerals in a rock become
reoriented, because of metamorphism, in an aligned manner.

Food Chain - The movement of energy through the trophic levels of organisms. In
most ecosystems, this process begins with photosynthetic autotrophs (plants) and
ends with carnivores and detritivores.

Food Web - A model describing the organisms found in a food chain. Food webs
describe the intricate patterns of organic energy flow in an ecosystem by modeling
who consumes who.

Foothills - A line of hills that runs parallel to a much higher mountain range.

Foot Wall - The bottommost surface of an inclined fault.

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Foraminifera - Microscopic organisms that belong to the group protozoa and are
found living mainly in marine environments. These
organisms produce shells rich in calcium carbonate.
Shown is a scanning electron micrograph of
foraminifera collected from the ocean just off Venezuela
(Image Source: NOAA). Sedimentation and lithification
of these shells produce the sedimentary rock chalk.
Scientists have used these organisms in several
different ways to describe changes in their surrounding
environment.

Force - A process that can alter the state of rest or motion of a body.

Force of Acceleration - A force that results in the speed of a moving body to increase.

Forecast - A prediction into the future based on available information and an

understanding of the cause and effect processes operating in a system of interest. For
example, in meteorology, we can make forecasts using current weather data and
computer climate models to numerically predict future weather.

Foredeep - A structural basin found on the ocean floor that is adjacent to or in front
of an island arc or coastal mountain range.

Foredune - (1) A sand dune that develops of windward of an obstruction. (2) The
sand dunes found in a coastal dune field that are closest to a sea or ocean.

Foreland - (1) An area of land adjacent to or in front of a particular landscape feature.

(2) A structural basin that is adjacent to or in front of a mountain range.

Foreset Bed - Deltaic deposit of alluvial sediment that is angled 5 to 25° from
horizontal. Most of the delta is composed of this type of deposits.

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Foreshock - Small ground tremors that take place seconds to weeks before a
significant earthquake event.

Foreshore - A zone found below, adjacent and parallel to a beach that extends from
the low water spring tide level to high water spring tide level.

Forest - An ecosystem dominated by trees. Major forest biomes include tropical

broadleaf forest, tropical deciduous forest, tropical savanna, deciduous forest, and
boreal forest.

Forest Hydrology - A field of hydrology that studies specifically the transfer and
storage of water in forest environments.

Forestry - The field of knowledge that studies forests. This is done from the
perspective of several different disciplines including biology, botany, genetics,
management, engineering, agronomy, etc.

Form Ratio - A calculation made for a stream that finds the ratio between channel
width and channel depth.

Fossil - The preserved remains of an organism that lived sometime in the past.

Fossil Fuel - Carbon-based remains of organic matter

that has been geologically transformed into coal, oil,
and natural gas. Combustion of these substances
releases significant amounts of energy. Currently,
humans are using fossil fuels to supply much of their
energy needs. However, the use of fossil fuels is
creating a number of environmental problems
including acid deposition, air and water pollution, and
climate change. Shown in the image is coal, which is the
most abundant fossil fuel found in the lithosphere

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(Image Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Fossil Record - The evolutionary history of life as chronicled by fossils commonly

found in sedimentary rocks.

Fossil Water - The long term trapping and storage of water in some below-ground
space, like groundwater in an aquifer, for more than a thousand years.

Fourier Analysis - A mathematical procedure that is used to analyze temporal or

spatial data that exhibits patterns that are cyclical and wave-like. The end result of
this analysis, is the expression of this pattern mathematically with trigonometric
functions.

Fracking - See hydrofracturing.

Fractal - Something that contains a detailed pattern that

repeats itself (self-similarity) at any scale of space or
time. In 1975, mathematics professor Benoit B.
Mandelbrot coined the term fractal to describe these
phenomena. Shown is a geometric graphic fractal
known as a Julia set (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Fracture - The breaking or failure of a solid object into two or more fragments.

Fracture Zone - A linear area composed of numerous side-by-side transform faults

found along a mid-oceanic ridge.

Fractus Cloud - Relatively small cloud fragments that are usually associated with
much larger clouds. They form when winds break off pieces from a much larger
cloud. The edge of fractus clouds often appears jagged.

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Fragipan - Is a subsurface layer in a soil that reduces the downward flow of water
and restricts root penetration. Fragipan layers are brittle and dense because of inter-
particle cementing caused by clay, silica, iron, aluminum, and organic matter.

Frazil Ice - A collection of randomly oriented fine ice slivers that are suspended in
water. Commonly occurs with the freezing of seawater.

Free Face - (1) Rock outcrop surface that is too steep for loose sediment and rocks to
accumulate on it. (2) Part of a slope profile that is most vertical.

Freeze-Thaw Action - (1) The repeated fluctuation of temperature above and below
0° Celsius over a period. (2) A physical weather process associated with daily and
seasonal cycles of freezing and melting of water. This process can cause
disintegration if water can seep into fractures on the surface of a rock or mineral.
With freezing, water expands approximately 9% in volume, and this change exerts a
significant rupturing effect.

Freezing - The change in the state of matter from liquid to solid that occurs with
cooling. The term freezing is used in meteorology when discussing the formation of
ice from liquid water.

Freezing Drizzle - A type of precipitation. Freezing rain occurs when liquid drizzle
hits a cold surface and then immediately freezes into ice. For this to take place, a
near-surface temperature inversion in the atmosphere is required. In such an
inversion, the surface must have a temperature below freezing, while the
temperature of the atmosphere where the precipitation forms is above freezing.

Freezing Front - A subsurface zone found in high and middle latitude soils that
separates frozen and unfrozen soil. Typically, the freezing front first develops at the
ground surface and then moves downward with the seasonal dropping of
temperatures. In soils with permafrost, the freezing front moves downward from the
ground surface and upward from the below-ground permafrost surface with the
cooling of temperatures.

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Freezing Rain - A type of precipitation. Freezing rain occurs when rain hits a cold
surface and then immediately freezes into ice. For this to take place, a near-surface
temperature inversion in the atmosphere is required. In such an inversion, the
surface must have a temperature below freezing, while the temperature of the
atmosphere where the precipitation forms are above freezing.

Freons - See chlorofluorocarbons.

Freshet - A sudden flood of water in a stream because of heavy rain and/or

snowmelt. Streams located in the mid-latitudes often have a freshet in the spring.

Freshwater - Water that is relatively free of salts.

Friable - The ability of soil to crumble between one's fingers when it is wet or dry.

Friction - The resistance that occurs between the contact surfaces of two bodies in
motion.

Friction Layer - The layer in the lower atmosphere where surface friction has
aerodynamic effects, causing the vertical mixing of air. This layer usually extends
from the Earth's surface to about 1,000 meters (3,300 feet). However, the thickness of
the friction layer does vary significantly with roughness of the surface.

Frictional Force - Force acting on wind near the Earth's surface because of frictional
roughness. This force causes a reduction in wind speed.

Fringing Reef - A coral reef that is attached to an adjacent shore.

Front - A transition zone found between air masses with different air densities and
weather characteristics.

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Front Slope - The slope on the side of a cuesta that is steep, forming an escarpment.
Compare with back slope.

Frontal Cyclone - Another name for mid-latitude cyclone.

Frontal Fog - A type of fog that is associated with weather fronts, particularly warm
fronts. This type of fog develops when frontal precipitation falling into the colder air
ahead of the warm front causes the air to become saturated through evaporation.

Frontal Lifting - Lifting of a warmer or less dense air mass by a colder or more dense
air mass at a frontal transitional zone. This process causes the water vapor in the
warmer air to cool, and then condense or freeze, forming clouds and precipitation.

Frontal Precipitation - See convergence precipitation.

Frontal Zone - A transition area that exists between two air masses with different air
temperature and/or humidity characteristics. Differences in air temperature and/or
humidity causes the air mass with lower air density to be pushed over the denser air
mass. This process is known as frontal lifting and can result in the development of
clouds and precipitation.

Frontogenesis - The intensification of the thermal gradient located at a frontal zone

because of cyclonic airflow, convergence, jet stream dynamics, and frontal lifting.
Frontogenesis is caused when two air masses with different weather characteristics
come together. Frontogenesis can create either a warm front or a cold front.

Frost - The deposition of ice crystals on the surface of an object because of

atmospheric cooling. Frost occurs when moist air is cooled to its frost point.

Frost Action - A physical weathering process where cycles of freezing and thawing
of water in the surface pores, cracks, and other openings of rocks causes them to

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break apart into smaller pieces. Frost action produces an angular appearance on the
rock's surface.

Frost Crack - A soil fissure produced by a wedge of ice.

Frost Creep - The slow mass movement of soil downslope initiated by freeze-thaw
action. Frost creep occurs where the stresses on the slope material are too small to
create a rapid failure.

Frost Heave - The mainly upward movement of soil at and near the ground surface
because of the freezing of subsurface water. Water expands by 9% in volume when
frozen. Frost heave is common where the ground becomes seasonally frozen and
where a below-ground permafrost layer exists. Further, the first ice crystals that are
produced can grow into an extensive ice lense up to 30 cm (1 foot) thick if supplied
more water via capillary action.

Frost Point - The temperature at which water vapor saturates in an air mass into
solid, usually forming snow or frost. The frost point occurs normally at a
temperature at 0°C or less and when a mass of air has a relative humidity of 100%.

Frost Hollow - A topographic depression that is susceptible to the development of

frost. The development of frost occurs because these depressions receive flows of
dense cold air from nighttime radiative cooling.

Frost Smoke - A form of evaporation fog that is composed mainly of minute ice
crystals suspended near the ground surface. Also called Arctic smoke.

Frost Weathering - See frost action.

Frost Wedging - A process of physical weathering in which water freezes in a crack

and exerts a force on the rock causing further rupture.

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Frozen Ground - Soil, sediments, or rock occurring in air temperatures that
seasonally or permanently freeze the pore space water. Permanently frozen ground is
also called permafrost.

Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale - Tornado classification system developed by T.

Theodore Fujita. This system has six levels from F0 to F5. These levels are based on
the estimated speed of the tornado's winds from proxy information like property
damage.

Fulgurite - A subsurface feature produced by lightning that

resembles a hollow glass tube (Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons). Often found in sandy soils, these features form
when the high temperature (+ 1,800°C / 3,270°F) associated
with a lightning strike melts silica, causing sand grains to melt
and fuse. Fulgurite tubes can be many meters (feet) long and
have a diameter of several centimeters (one inch).

Fulje - The hollowed-out area found in between barchan sand dunes or barchaniod
sand ridges.

Fumarole - A small opening in the Earth's crust that emits stream and other hot gases
into the atmosphere. Fumarole are often associated with volcanoes.

Fundamental Niche - Describes the entire range of environmental conditions that

are suitable for the existence of a species ignoring the effects of interspecific
competition and predation from other species.

Fungi - Group, at the kingdom level, in the classification of life. Multicellular

organisms that have a eukaryotic cell type, mitochondria, and a cell wall composed
of chitin and other non-cellulose polysaccharides. See the Encyclopedia of Life for more
information on this group of organisms. [Link]

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Fungicide - A chemical substance or organism that causes reduced growth and/or
reproduction or the death of fungi and fungal spores.

Funnel Cloud - A tornado which is beginning its

descent from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud
(Image Source: NOAA). This severe weather
phenomena may or may not reach the ground
surface.

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 G
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Gabbro - An intrusive igneous rock that develops from mafic magma and whose
mineral crystals are coarse. Mineralogically this rock is identical to basalt.

Gaia Hypothesis - The Gaia hypothesis states that the temperature and composition
of the Earth's surface are controlled actively by life on the planet. It suggests that if
changes in the gas composition, temperature, or oxidation state of the Earth are
induced by astronomical, biological, lithological, or other perturbations, life
responds to these changes by growth and metabolism.

Galaxy - Celestial body found in the Universe. Consists of a

dense grouping of gas, dust, and millions to trillions of stars
orbiting a central point in space because of gravity. Shown is
Cat's Eye Galaxy (Image Source: NASA).

Galaxy Group - A gravity produced spatial clustering of 50 or fewer galaxies

somewhere in the Universe. These celestial bodies are often part of large
aggregations of numerous galaxy groups called a supercluster. The Milky Way
Galaxy is found in a galaxy group named the Local Group.

Gale - A term used in the Beaufort Wind Scale and by the United States National
Weather Service to describe wind speed. The National Weather Service defines a gale
as a wind with a sustained speed of 63 to 87 kilometers per hour, 17.5 to 24.2 meters
per second or 39 to 54 miles per hour. The Beaufort Wind Scale defines a gale in the
following way: 7: Moderate Gale (50 to 61 kilometers per hour or 32 to 38 miles per
hour), 8: Fresh Gale (62 to 74 kilometers per hour or 39 to 46 mph), 9: Strong Gale (75
to 88 kilometers per hour or 47 to 54 mph) and 10: Storm/Whole Gale (89 to 102
kilometers per hour or 55 to 63 mph).

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Galena - Common name for the mineral lead sulfide (PbS). Ore
often used to obtain the chemical element lead (Pb). Galena is
one of the most common sulfide minerals and is often
associated with the minerals sphalerite, calcite, and fluorite.
Shown is a sample of galena on a piece of calcite. Some deposits
of galena contain about 1–2% silver. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, photograph by Rob Lavinsky, [Link]. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
license.

Gall-Peters Map Projection - A map projection system that reduces the area
distortion found in Mercator map projections.

Gallery Forest - A border of forest found along a stream in a habitat that is usually
too dry to tree growth. The higher soil moisture levels found near the stream are
required for the trees to grow.

Gamma Diversity - A measure of total species diversity in a landscape as measured

by alpha diversity and beta diversity, such that gamma diversity = alpha diversity X beta
diversity. This measure was introduced by ecologist R. H. Whittaker. Compare with
alpha diversity and beta diversity.

Gamete - A haploid reproductive cell that fuses with a similar type of cell during
fertilization to create a diploid embryonic organism.

Gamma Radiation - A type of ionizing, electromagnetic radiation that readily

penetrates the body tissues of organisms. This form of radiation has a wavelength of
less than 0.03 nanometers.

Gap - A spatial opening in a plant community. A gap can be produced by the natural
death or by some other abiotic or biotic disturbance.

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Gap Species - A threatened or endangered species that has no level of protection in
its geographic range. This lack of protection may occur because this species is not
found in the current world network of national parks, sanctuaries, refuges, and other
types of biodiversity protected areas.

Gas - A state of matter where molecules are free to move in any direction they like. A
state of matter where the substance will completely fill any container that it occupies.

Gauging Station - A location on the course of a stream where measurements related

to stream flow and stream discharge are made.

Geest - Alluvial sediments laid down by a stream in the distant past that still cover
the land surface where they were deposited.

Gelifluction - A form of mass movement in a periglacial environment where a

permafrost layer exists. Gelifluction is characterized by the oozing movement of soil
material over the permafrost layer and the formation of lobe-shaped deposition
features. Also see solifluction.

Gelisols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. This soil is common
to high latitude tundra environments. The main identifying feature of
this soil is a layer of permafrost within one meter of the soil surface.
Image Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Gemstone (Gem) - A mineral or rock that is of value to humans.

Gemstones are usually classified as being precious and semi-precious with the
former holding a much higher monetary value. Traditionally, in the west diamond,
ruby, sapphire, and emerald have been considered precious gemstones.

Gendarmes - Tall pointed rocks occasionally extending upward from a mountain

ridge.

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Gene(s) - Organic material that allows organisms to pass on the inheritance of
adaptations or traits. In most organisms, these adaptations are genetically coded
through the organic molecule DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). New adaptations
appear by way of mutations.

Gene Frequency - The proportion of specific variants of genes that exist in the gene
pool of a population particular species. Higher gene frequency equates with greater
genetic diversity.

Gene Pool - Sum of all the genes found in the individuals for a population of a
particular species.

Genecology - The ecological study of the relationship of genetic processes to the

biotic and abiotic components of the environment.

General Circulation Model (GCM) - Computer-based climate model that produces

a short term future forecast (up to 10 days) of weather and climate conditions for
regions of the Earth or the complete planet. GCMs use complex mathematical
equations and physical relationships to approximate the operation of atmospheric
processes in a three-dimensional grid.

Generalist Species - A species that can survive and tolerate a broad range of
environmental conditions.

Genetic Adaptation - Imposed changes in the genetic makeup of organisms within a

species due to a mutation. The new adaptations produced by the mutation allow the
species to reproduce with greater success and gain a competitive advantage under
changed environmental conditions.

Genetic Diversity - The genetic variability found in either a population of a species

or all the populations of a species. Also see biodiversity, ecosystem diversity, and
species diversity.

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Genetic Drift - The change in gene frequency over generations caused by random
sampling. For any organism, some individuals and their genes many produce more
descendants just because of chance and not because they have higher fitness or are
better competitors.

Genus - A category in the classification of organisms. Genus is a classification level

above the species category. It consists of all of the species with similar morphological
and physiological characteristics and closely related genetics. Similar genera (plural
form of genus) are grouped into a family.

Geochemistry - A sub-discipline of Earth Science that employs the knowledge

associated with chemistry to study and explain natural phenomena associated with
our planet.

Geocoding - The conversion of features found on an analog map into a computer-

digital form often for use in GIS software. In this process, the spatial location of the
various features is referenced geographically to a coordinate system used in the
computer's software system.

Geodesy - The science that measures the size, shape, surface configuration, gravity,
and other phenomena of the Earth and other celestial bodies in our Universe.

Geographical Coordinate System - A mapping system that uses the measures of

latitude and longitude to locate points on the spherical surface of the Earth.

Geographic Information System (GIS) - A geographic information system merges

spatial information in a computer database with geographical coordinates on a
digital map.

Geographic Cycle - A theory developed by William Morris Davis, beginning in the

1880s, that models the formation of stream-eroded landscapes. This theory suggests
that landscapes go through three stages of development (youth, maturity, and old

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age) and argues that the rejuvenation of landscapes arises from the tectonic uplift of
the land.

Geographic Isolation - See spatial isolation.

Geographic Range - The spatial distribution of a species. The geographic ranges of

species often change over time.

Geography - The study natural and human-constructed phenomena relative to a

spatial dimension.

Geoid - The shape of the Earth in three-dimensions. A geoid represents the correct
shape of the Earth which deviates slightly from a perfect sphere because of a slight
bulge at the equator.

Geologic Time Scale - (1) Scale used to measure time relative to events of geological
significance. (2) Time scale that occurs over millions and billions of years. The
subdivision of geologic time uses the following units: Supereon, Eon, Era, Period,
Epoch, and Age. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for
the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Geology - The field of knowledge that studies the origin, structure, chemical
composition, and history of the Earth and other planets.

Geomagnetic Field - The Earth's magnetic field. This magnetic field extends from the
Earth's interior out into space and is vital in deflecting charged solar particles carried
by solar wind away from our planet's surface. The source of the Earth's magnetic
field is a dynamo created by the liquid outer core moving around the solid inner
core. We use the geomagnetic field to find directions on the Earth's surface with the
aid of a compass.

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Geomagnetic Poles - The North and South Poles associated with the Earth's
magnetic field. These two magnetic poles are found at 78.5° North, 69° West and
78.5° South, 11° East, respectively.

Geomorphic Threshold - The amount of slow accumulated change a landform can

take before it suddenly moves into an accelerated rate of change that takes it to a
new system state.

Geomorphological Hazard - A hazard that is the result of natural processes that

operate to create and modify landforms. Extreme natural events often trigger
geomorphological hazards.

Geomorphology - The field of knowledge that investigates the origin of landforms

on the Earth and other planets.

Geophysics - A sub-discipline of Earth Science that employs the knowledge

associated with Physics to study and explain natural phenomena related to our
planet.

Geophyte - A perennial plant that has its budding tissues found

below the ground surface. At the end of the growing season the
above-ground part of the plant will die back. Is most cases, this
budding tissue is found in a storage organ that include corms,
tubers, tuberous roots, bulbs, and rhizomes. Common examples
of such plants include tulips, crocus, lilies, and iris. Shown is
Haemanthus sanguineus bulbous geophyte found growing at
Fynbos, South Africa (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Geostationary Orbit - A satellite that has an orbit that keeps it always over the same
point on the Earth. To do this, the satellite must travel in space at the same angular
velocity as the Earth.

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Geostrophic Wind - A horizontal wind found in the upper atmosphere that travels
parallel to isobars. Geostrophic wind is the result of a balance between pressure
gradient force and the Coriolis effect.

Geothermal Energy - Heat energy derived from the Earth's interior.

Geosyncline - A very large depression in the Earth's crust that is 100s of kilometers
(miles) in diameter and up to 10 kilometers (6 miles) in depth. These depressions
accumulate sediments eroded from surrounding higher elevations.

Germination - The beginning of vegetative growth of a plant from a seed.

Geyser - A spring that periodically releases hot water and steam vertically into the
atmosphere. Most of these features are located in areas with
ongoing volcanic activity. Close proximity to magma causes
water found deep below the Earth's surface to heat to its
boiling temperature and become pressurized. This pressure
is released when the hot water and steam makes its way to
the surface where it is released. Approximately a thousand
known geysers exist on our planet, with half of these located
in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. Shown is a
picture of Old Faithful, Yellowstone National Park (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, photographer Jon Sullivan).

Gibber - A type of stone pavement found in desert areas and having a ground
surface covered with pebbles and boulders.

Glacial (Glaciation) - (1) A time during an ice age when many glaciers advanced
because of colder temperatures. Compare with interglacial. (2) Something involving
glaciers and moving ice, usually pertaining to processes associated with glaciers.

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Glacial Advance - (1) The forward downhill movement of a single snout of a glacier.
May also refer to the growth and expansion of many glaciers in a defined region. (2)
The growth and spatial expansion of the area covered by a continental glacier.

Glacial Deposit - A deposit of sediment that came directly or indirectly from a

glacier or ice sheet.

Glacial Drift - A generic term applied to all glacial and glaciofluvial deposits.

Glacial Erosion - Erosion caused by a glacier or ice sheet.

Glacial Ice - A very dense form frozen water that is much harder than snow, névé, or
firn.

Glacial Lake - A natural impoundment of meltwater at the front of a glacier.

Glacial Landform - Is a landform formed from erosional and depositional processes

associated with glaciers. Glacial landforms include the following geomorphologic
features: moraines, glacial troughs, cirques, horns, hanging valleys, eskers, drumlins,
outwash plains, and kames.

Glacial Maximum - At the continental scale, it refers to the greatest spatial extent of
ice sheets during a period of glacial advance during the Pleistocene.

Glacial Milk - A term used to describe glacial meltwater, which has a light-colored
or cloudy appearance because of clay-sized sediment held in suspension.

Glacial Outburst - A sudden flood caused by the release of ice-dammed water

associated with a glacier.

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Glacial Polish - The abrasion of bedrock surfaces by materials carried on the bottom
of a glacier. This process leaves these surfaces smooth and shiny.

Glacial Retreat - (1) The backwards uphill movement of a single snout of a glacier.
May also refer to the retreat and contraction of many glaciers in a defined region. (2)
The retreat and spatial contraction of a continental glacier.

Glacial Surge - A rapid forward movement of the snout of a glacier.

Glacial Trough - A deep U-shaped valley with steep valley walls that formed from
glacial erosion. At the base of many of these valleys are cirques.

Glacial Uplift - Upward movement of the Earth's crust following isostatic

depression from the weight of the continental glaciers.

Glacial Valley - A valley that was influenced by the presence of glaciers. The cross-
section of such valleys tends to be U-shaped because of glacial erosion. Similar to
glacial trough.

Glaciation - A period during an ice age when glaciers and ice sheets are growing in
size and spatial extent.

Glacier - A large long lasting accumulation of snow and ice that develops on land.
Most glaciers flow along topographic gradients
because of their weight and gravity. Glaciers can
exist at several different spatial scales on Earth.
Smaller alpine glaciers are found in most mountain
ranges on our planet. The largest glaciers, covering
1000s of square kilometers (miles), are found on
Greenland and Antarctica. Shown is a glacier that is
part of the Quelccaya Ice Cap, in Peru. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, photographer Edubucher. This

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image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license. Also see
cirque glacier, alpine glacier, continental glacier, ice cap, ice field, and ice sheet.

Glacieret - A very small glacier that forms from a snow patch.

Glacierization - The gradual covering of a landscape by glaciers because of a cooling

climate.

Glaciofluvial - Geomorphic feature whose origin is related to the processes

associated with glacial meltwater.

Glaciology - The scientific study of glaciers and ice sheets.

Glaciotectonism - The displacement, folding, and faulting of sediments and bedrock

because of the weight associated with massive glaciers.

Glacis - A term of French origin meaning gentle slope.

Glass Sand - A type of sand composed almost entirely of silica. Glass sand is used
for making glass because of its purity.

Glauconite - A mineral composed of iron potassium phyllosilicate (mica group).

Glauconite has distinctive green color, low weathering resistance, and is very friable.
This mineral is believed to form mainly in marine environments.

Glaze - A thin coating of ice that forms when rain descends on a surface with a
temperature below freezing.

Gleization - A soil formation process that occurs in waterlogged and poorly drained
environments. Results in the development of an extensive layer of soil organic
matter found on top of a layer of chemically reduced clay that takes on a blue color.

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Gley (Glei) - A generic name for a soil that develops in locations that are poorly
drained or permanently waterlogged. The horizons of this soil show the chemical
signs of oxidation and reduction.

Gleysol Soil - Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of Soil

Classification. This soil type is found in habitats that are poorly
drained or permanently waterlogged. The horizons of this soil
show the chemical signs of oxidation and reduction. For more
information on this soil type,, see the textbook Canadian System of
Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available online - [Link]
cansis/taxa/cssc3/[Link]. Image Source: Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada.

Global Circulation - Usually refers to large-scale flow of air in the troposphere. Also
called planetary circulation.

Global Climate Model (GCM) - Computer-based simulation model that produces a

long term future forecast of the state of weather, climate, vegetation cover, snow
cover, soil water content, organic carbon storage, sea ice coverage, ocean currents,
ocean heat storage, and sea level conditions for regions of the Earth or the entire
planet. GCMs use complex mathematical equations and physical relationships to
approximate the operation of processes in the atmosphere, biosphere, land surface,
cryosphere, and the ocean in a three-dimensional grid.

Global Dimming - The reduction in the intensity of solar insolation passing through
the atmosphere caused by the presence of human released aerosols. These aerosols
decrease the intensity of sunlight through an increase in atmospheric absorption and
reflection. Sulfate aerosols are believed to be the main cause of global dimming.
Research estimates that a 4% reduction in insolation received globally occurred from
1960 to 1990. Aerosols responsible for global dimming have a strong local component
with the greatest reduction being close to the source of the air pollutants.

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Global Environmental Change - The perceived and documented changes occurring
to environmental systems on our planet at the global scale. This includes the
alteration of various components of the biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmospheric
because of the socioeconomic actions of humans. Scientists speculate that future
increases in the size of the human population, and economic well-being will make
these environmental problems more common and frequent.

Global Ocean Circulation - Large-scale surface and subsurface ocean currents that
exist in Earth's ocean basins. These systems move ocean water in mostly closed loops
that are often guided
by continental
boundaries. Global
ocean circulation
moves significant
quantities of heat
energy from the low
latitudes to the mid
and high latitudes.
Surface ocean currents
are mostly wind-
driven and can have a
clockwise or counter-clockwise rotation because of the Coriolis effect (see figure).
Subsurface ocean currents are mainly driven by changes in seawater density and
temperature.

Global Positioning System (GPS) - System used to determine latitude, longitude,

and elevation anywhere on or above the Earth's surface. This system involves the
transmission of radio signals from many specialized satellites to a handheld
receiving unit. The receiving unit uses triangulation to calculate elevation and spatial
position on the Earth's surface.

Global Warming - Warming of the Earth's average global temperature because of an

increase in the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases. A higher

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concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is believed to enhance the
greenhouse effect, producing more heat energy.

Globular Cluster - A spherical shaped, gravity caused, spatial aggregation of many

stars commonly found orbiting the center of a galaxy.

Gloger's Rule - States that, in general, the pigmentation of mammals, birds, and
some other animal groups tends to get darker as one moves from the poles to the
equator.

Glucose - Simple six-carbon sugar produced by autotrophic organisms as a result of

photosynthesis. The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6.

Gneiss - A common type of metamorphosed coarse

grained igneous rock. One significant defining
characteristic of this rock is the recrystallization of the
minerals quartz, feldspars, micas, and amphiboles into
long bands.

Gnomonic Map Projection - Is a two-

dimensional map projection system that projects
the Earth onto a flat surface or plane, displaying
great circles as straight lines (see graphic centered
on the North Pole). This map projection is based
on the Azimuthal Map Projection system, but it is
altered to allow one to determine the shortest
path (not distance) between two points on a map.
This type of map does not allow for the
calculation of the shortest distance between two
points.

GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) - A series of

geostationary meteorological satellites launched by the United States starting in

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1968. The primary purpose behind these satellites was to use a variety of remote
sensing devices for weather forecasting and environmental monitoring.

Gold - A precious metallic mineral found as in veins, as an ore in rock, as nuggets,

grains in alluvial deposits, and dissolved in seawater. Often occurs in free elemental
form. Chemical abbreviation is Au.

Gondwana (Gondwanaland) - A supercontinent that existed mainly in the Southern

Hemisphere between 320 to 550 million years ago.
Shown is the configuration of Gondwana about 420
million years ago with the map projection centered on
the South Pole. The tectonic separation of this landmass
created Africa, South America, Antarctica, India,
Australia, and Arabia. Gondwana and Laurasia together
formed the Pangaea supercontinent during the
Carboniferous (359 to 299 million years ago). Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Gorge - A narrow stretch of stream valley that has almost vertical slopes. Often
found in mountainous locations.

Graben Fault - A fault produced by tectonic tensional stresses resulting in the

subsidence of a block of rock. On a large landscape scale, these features are known as
rift valleys.

Grade - (1) The amount of metamorphism found in a rock. (2) The relative quantity
of metallic minerals in an ore. (3) The steepness of a slope as measured as a
percentage.

Graded Stream - A stream that has a long profile that is in equilibrium with the
general slope of the landscape. A graded profile is concave and smooth. A stream can
maintain its grade through a balance between erosion, transport, and deposition.

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Erosion removes material from high points in the profile, and deposition fills in low
points.

Gradient - The steepness of a slope as measured in degrees, percentage, or as a

distance ratio (rise/run).

Gradient Wind - A horizontal wind in the upper atmosphere that moves parallel to
curved isobars. Results from a balance between pressure gradient force, Coriolis
effect, and centripetal force.

Grain - (1) The relative textural size of the mineral particles that make up a rock (fine
- less than 1 mm, medium - 1 to 3 mm, coarse - 3 to 5 mm, and very coarse - greater
than 5 mm), sediment, or a soil (see soil texture) (2) Fracture direction associated
with a rock. (3) The topographical trend in a landscape in the terms of direction. (4) A
measurement unit of weight equal to 0.0648 grams.

Granite - Medium to coarse-grained igneous rock that is rich

in quartz and potassium feldspar. Granite contains at least 20
percent quartz by volume. Other minerals common in this
rock include muscovite, biotite, and amphibole. It is derived
from felsic magma.

Granitic Magma - Felsic magma that generates mainly granitic rocks.

Granodiorite - Medium to coarse-grained igneous rock that is rich in quartz and at

least 65% plagioclase feldspar. Quite similar in appearance to granite but darker in
color. A granodiorite contains at least 20 percent quartz by volume. Other minerals
common in this rock include biotite and hornblende. Derived from intermediate to
felsic magma.

Granule - (1) A spherical shaped soil aggregate. (2) A rock particle that is between 2
to 4 mm in diameter.

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Graphic Scale - A way of expressing the scale of a map with a graphic.

Graphite - A naturally occurring mineral form of crystalline carbon that is mainly

found in metamorphic rocks where there is a metamorphic reduction of sedimentary
carbon. Graphite can also be found in igneous rocks.

Grass (Graminoids) - A type of plant that has long slender leaves that extend from a
short stem or the soil surface. More than 9,000 species of
grass exist, including cereals, grains, lawn grass, and
bamboo. This group of plants includes many species
that are very important to humans. Grasses are used for
food for people and their livestock, insulation, clothing,
fuel, paper, building materials, and to make beverages.
Shown is rice (Oryza sativa), a type of grass first
domesticated for food production about 8,200 to 13,500
years ago in China (Image Source: United States
Department of Agriculture). See the Encyclopedia of Life for
more information on this group of organisms. [Link]

Grassland - A type of common ecosystem on our planet whose dominant species are
various species of grass. Grasslands are often found in regions where average
precipitation is not great enough to support the growth of shrubs or forest.

Graupel - A type of precipitation that consists of a snow crystal and a raindrop

frozen together. Also called snow pellets.

Gravel - A term used to describe unconsolidated sediments composed of rock

fragments. Gravel rock fragments have a size greater than 2 millimeters (0.079
inches) but less than 63 millimeters (2.48 inches). The term pebble is synonymous.
Compare with clay, silt, sand, cobble, and boulder.

Gravel Train - See valley train.

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Gravimeter - Scientific instrument used to measure specific gravity.

Gravimetric Method - A method used to measure the quantity of water in a soil.

Involves weight the mass of a sample of soil before and after oven drying at 105°C
(221°F) for 24 hours.

Gravitational Water - Water that moves through soil due to gravitational forces. Soil
water in excess of hygroscopic water and capillary water.

Gravity (Gravitation) - A natural process where any body of mass found in the
Universe attracts other nearby bodies with a force proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the distance that separates them. First
proposed by Sir Isaac Newton in 1686.

Gravity Wave - Is a vertical wave generated in a gas or fluid or the interface between
two of these mediums. Despite its name, this
phenomenon is not directly related to gravity.
Gravity waves are a common feature in the
lower atmosphere and can be produced by
mountains, thunderstorms, and fronts
displacing air in the vertical, producing
successive bands of cloud and cloud-free air.
Once the air is displaced, it produces a wave
that moves away from the point where it
started in an up and down manner. The
vertical distance between the crests and
troughs of these waves becomes smaller and
smaller with distance traveled. At some point,
the waves will no longer exist. Shown is a
MODIS satellite image taken on December 19, 2005 which shows a gravity wave
producing bands of cloud downwind from Amsterdam Island in southern Indian
Ocean (Image Source: NASA).

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Grazing Food Chain - Is a highly idealized model that describes the trophic flow of
organic energy in a community or ecosystem. This model begins with energy from
the Sun that is captured by primary producers (mainly autotrophic plants) via
photosynthesis producing the first trophic level. In the next level of the food chain, a
portion of the organic energy found in the producers is past on to the primary
consumers (heterotrophic herbivores) through the consumption of the primary
producers. The consumption of primary consumers by secondary consumers
(primary carnivores) creates the next trophic level. The graphic model shown ends

with a tertiary consumer level that gets its energy by consuming the secondary
consumers. Grazing food chains typically only have four to five levels.

Great Circle - An imaginary circle drawn on the surface of a

sphere (like the Earth) from a plane running through the
center of this object. A great circle divides the sphere into
two halves (see graphic). On the Earth, the equator or any
line representing longitude would be examples of a great
circle. Also called an orthodrome or Riemannian circle.

Green Mud - A fine-grained deposit composed of a high percentage of glauconite

found on the continental slope.

Greenhouse Effect - The greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to trap more heat
energy at the Earth's surface and within the atmosphere by absorbing and reemitting
longwave radiation. Of the longwave energy emitted back to space, 90% is

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intercepted and absorbed by greenhouse gases. Without the greenhouse effect the
Earth's annual mean global temperature would be -18°C (-0.4°F), rather than the
present 15°C (59°F). In the last few centuries, the activities of humans have directly
or indirectly caused the concentration of the major atmospheric greenhouse gases to
increase. Scientists predict that this increase may enhance the greenhouse effect
making the planet warmer. Some experts estimate that the Earth's annual mean
global temperature has already increased by 0.3 to 0.6°C (0.5 to 1.0°F), since the
beginning of this century, because of this enhancement.

Greenhouse Gas - The various gases responsible for a greenhouse effect to operate
in a planet's atmosphere. On Earth, these gases include water vapor (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFXClX),
and tropospheric ozone (O3).

Greensand - A sand or sandstone rock that contains a high percentage of glauconite.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) - A former standard for determining world time as
measured at Greenwich, England (location of the Prime Meridian). Replace in 1928
with Universal Time (UT).

Greenwich Meridian - A (prime) meridian reference standard that passes through

Greenwich Royal Observatory, England and has a longitude measurement of 0°.

Greywacke - A type of sedimentary sandstone that contains a considerable quantity

of clay mixed with its sand particles (Image Source:
Wikipedia Commons, image is in the public domain).
Unlike the typical sandstone these rocks are not well
sorted and contain particles in a wide size range.
Greywackes are believed to form because of
submarine avalanches or strong turbidity currents at
the margin of continental shelves. Greywackes can be
grey, brown, yellow, or black in color.

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Grid North - The direction of North as measured on the Universal Transverse
Mercator grid system.

Grid South - The direction of South as measured on the Universal Transverse

Mercator grid system.

Grike - A vertical crack up to 0.5 meters (1.5 feet) wide in limestone bedrock formed
when a natural joint is made larger because of solution weathering.

Grivation - The angle measured between Grid North on a map and Magnetic North
measured in the field.

Groove - A large striation or scratch on a rock surface because of glacial abrasion.

Gross Primary Productivity - The total amount of organic chemical energy or

biomass fixed by the processes of photosynthesis. Compare with net primary
productivity.

Gross Secondary Productivity - The total amount of organic chemical energy or

biomass assimilated by consumer organisms. Compare with net secondary
productivity.

Gross Sediment Transport - The total amount of sediment transported along a

shoreline in a specific time.

Ground Fog - Another name for radiation fog.

Ground Frost - Frost that penetrates the soil surface in response to freezing
temperatures.

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Ground Ice - General term used to describe all bodies of ice in the ground surface of
the permafrost layer. Also called anchor ice. Some forms of ground ice include pore
ice, needle ice, ice wedge, segregated ice, sand wedge, and ice lenses.

Ground Information - Ancillary data collected that is associated with a feature on

remote sensing imagery that comes from other data sources like maps and field
measurements.

Ground Moraine - A thick layer of till deposited by a melting glacier.

Groundwater - The water that occupies the pore spaces found in some types of
bedrock.

Groundwater Flow - An underground topographic flow of groundwater because of

gravity.

Groundwater Recharge - The replenishment of groundwater with surface water.

Growing Degree Day - A calculation derived from measurements of mean daily

temperature that determines the quantity of heat energy available to support the
growth of plants. This measure is commonly used by farmers and gardeners to
forecast plant development rates and to approximate dates of flowering and crop
maturity. Growing degree days are calculated as a sum of the mean daily
temperature minus a base temperature (usually 10°C or 50°F) for each day during
the growing season.

Growing Season - Time of the year when local weather conditions (i.e., rainfall and
temperature) allow for normal plant growth.

Groyne - A solid wall or jetty built by humans at roughly right angles to an ocean
shoreline or from a stream bank to significantly reduce the erosive movement of
sediment caused by longshore drift or stream flow. Shown is a groyne made of rocks

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located on a beach at Capbreton, Landes, France (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Grus - A deposit of unsorted clay particles and angular

shaped quartz fragments that are the result of local the
weathering of granite.

Guano - A localized concentration of bird or cave-dwelling bat excrement. Guano is

common on some islands that support large populations of nesting seabirds that feed
mainly on fish from the ocean. This material is very nutrient-rich, especially in
nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, and is used as a fertilizer.

Gulf Stream - A major warm ocean current that originates in and around the
Caribbean Sea, flows up the United States east coast, and then moves across the
North Atlantic to Northern Europe and West Africa.

Gully Erosion - The formation of steep-sided stream channels because of the erosion
of soils and sediments by short-lived runoff and stream flow.

Gumbo - A term used to describe a wet, sticky, and heavy clay soil.

Gust - A sudden rapid increase in wind speed over a relatively short period of time.

Gust Front - A boundary layer in the lower atmosphere found ahead of a

thunderstorm that separates cold storm downdrafts from warm humid surface air.
Winds in this severe weather event are strong and fast.

Gustiness Factor - A measure of the variability of wind speed over a given period of
time. Calculated by finding wind speed mathematical range associated with gusts
and the lulls, which are then compared to mean wind speed.

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Guyot - A type of seamount that has a top eroded off by wave action. Guyots have a
flat top surface that is usually more than 200 meters (600 feet) below sea level.

Gymnosperms - A type of tree that does not cover its seeds in a structure such as a
fruit or a nut. Most gymnosperms place their seeds in cones. Representatives of this
group include the conifers. See the Encyclopedia of Life for more information on this group
of organisms. [Link]

Gypecrete - A hard crust of gypsum located at or near the ground surface.

Commonly found in deserts.

Gypsum - Sedimentary rock created by the chemical precipitation of calcium, sulfur,

and oxygen (CaSO4•2H2O). Commonly found in desert soils as a surface crust or a
compact hard subsurface layer.

Gyre - The arrangement of surface ocean currents into a large continental-scale

circular pattern of flow.

Gyttja - A black colored mud rich in organic matter that is associated with lakes and
ponds. It contains the partially decomposed remains of aquatic plants that once
thrived in a lake or pond system.

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 H
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Habitat - The location where a plant or animal lives. This location supplies the
organism with the various abiotic and biotic conditions it requires for survival. Many
organisms only occupy a proportion of the possible habitat sites. We refer to this as
there realized niche.

Habitat Fragmentation - A process that causes the breakup of natural habitat into
smaller pieces that are then interspersed by fragments of developed land used for
human purposes, like forestry, agriculture, grazing, or settlement. This process
causes the restricted movement of native species as a human-developed fragment
often acts as a barrier to dispersal and migration. Restricted dispersal and migration
of species can isolate populations and can cause genetic diversity to decline over
time.

Habitat Islands - Are fragments of natural habitat surrounded by human-developed

pieces of land that are used for forestry, agriculture, grazing, or settlement. They
arise from habitat fragmentation.

Haboob - An intense dust storm caused by strong

wind. Common in arid regions of the world, these
storms are often generated by the downdrafts that
occur at the end of the life of a thunderstorm. Shown is
a massive Haboob close to a USA military camp near
Al Asad, Iraq, early evening of April 27, 2005 (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Hadal Zone - The deepest vertical zone within an ocean, usually more than 6,000
meters (19,600 feet). Also see (in order of depth in a water body) pelagic zone, photic

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zone, aphotic zone, mesopelagic zone, bathyal zone, abyssal zone, demersal zone,
and benthic zone.

Hadean - Geologic eon that occurred from 3,800 to 4,600 million years ago. The
Earth's oldest rocks formed at the end of this period. Also see Archean, Proterozoic,
and Phanerozoic Eons. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Hadley Cell - Three-dimensional

atmospheric circulation cell located at
roughly 0 to 30° North and South of the
equator. The Hadley Cell consists of
rising air (Intertropical Convergence
Zone) at the equator and descending air
(Subtropical Highs) at 30° North and
South. On the Earth's surface, this global-
scale circulation system generates the
Northeast Trade Winds and Southeast
Trade Winds. Compare with Ferrel Cell
and Polar Cell.

Haff - An isolated coastal lagoon that has become cut off from the open ocean by a
spit.

Hail - Hail is a solid form of precipitation that has a diameter greater than 5
millimeters. Occasionally, hailstones can be the size of golf balls or larger. Hailstones
of this size can be quite destructive. The presence of intense updrafts in mature
thunderstorm clouds are a necessary requirement for the formation of hail.

Hair Hygrometer - Meteorological instrument that uses the expansion and

contraction of hair to determine atmospheric humidity.

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Half-Life - The time required for one-half of the nuclei in a radioisotope to emit its
radiation. The half-life for radioisotopes ranges from a few millionths of a second to
several billion years.

Halite - A sedimentary rock created by the chemical precipitation of sodium and

chlorine. The chemical formula for halite is NaCl.

Halo - An optical phenomena where a bright ring forms

around the moon or Sun. Halos form when light is refracted
by ice crystals in the atmosphere. The ice crystals responsible
for halo development are part of cirrus and cirrostratus
clouds located about 5 to 10 kilometers (3 to 6 miles) above
the ground surface. Also called a 22° halo. Shown is a halo
around the Sun as see at Annapurna Base Camp, Nepal.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photographer Anton
Yankovyi. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Haloclasty - The weathering and disintegration of rocks and minerals by the growth
and expansion of salt crystals. An important weathering process in arid climates.

Halokinesis - The process of subsurface salt movement in geologic structures.

Halokinesis causes the large accumulation of salt in salt domes.

Halomorphic Soil - Is a soil that has experienced an accumulation of salt at or near

its surface.

Halons - Ethane or methane-based compounds that have had some of their

hydrogen ions chemically substituted by chlorine, fluorine, and/or bromine. One
member of this group of chemicals is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Halons are
relatively strong greenhouse gases. These chemicals also play a role in the depletion
of stratospheric ozone. The Montreal Protocol requires industrialized nations to
phase out the manufacture and use of halons.

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Halophyte - A type of plant that has the ability to successfully grow in environments
with high concentrations of sodium chloride (salt).

Hamada - A flat desert area of mainly exposed bedrock.

Hanging Glacier - An alpine glacier where its end hangs over a steep slope and
continually breaks off causing ice avalanches.

Hanging Valley - A secondary valley that enters a main valley at an elevation well
above it's floor. Hanging valleys are the result of past erosion caused by alpine
glaciers. Hanging valleys are often the site of waterfalls.

Hanging Wall - The topmost surface of an inclined fault.

Haploid - A type of cell that contains only one set of chromosomes. Also see diploid.

Hardness - (1) A measure of a mineral's ability to scratch on the ten-point Mohs

hardness scale. On this scale, the assigned values are: 1 - talc; 2 - gypsum; 3 - calcite; 4 -
fluorite; 5 - apatite; 6 - feldspar; 7 - quartz; 8 - topaz; 9 - corundum; and 10 - diamond. This
scale is used for mineral identification. (2) A measure of the concentration of
dissolved solid cation minerals in a sample of water. The most common cations
found in water are calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+). Several different units are
used to estimate hardness, including conductivity and total dissolved solids.

Hardpan - An impervious layer found within the soil. Results from the precipitation
of iron, illuviation of clay or the cementing of sand and gravel by calcium carbonate
precipitates. A hardpan composed mainly of calcium carbonate is know as a calcrete.
See iron pan.

Harvesting - Is the human capture of a large number of individuals from a particular

plant or animal species for the purpose of food production or the making of
commercial goods.

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Hawaiian Eruption - A type of volcanic eruption typified by lava that originates
from basaltic magma with less than 1 percent
dissolved water. The low dissolved water
content causes the eruption not to be explosive.
Instead, this eruption type is characterized by
gentle surface flows of very fluid lava. Lava
generated by Hawaiian eruptions also has a
low gas content, high vent temperature, and
produces only small amounts of volcanic ash.
Shown is a nighttime photo of the May 1954
eruption of the Kilauea volcano, Hawaii (Image
Source: United States Geological Survey).

Hawaiian High - See Pacific High.

Hazard - Something that can cause loss of life, injury, disease, economic loss, or
environmental damage. Hazards can be classified as being natural or the cause of
human activities.

Haze - A condition of reduced atmospheric visibility caused by the presence of

suspended particles consisting of aerosols, water, and/or smog. The particles
involved are usually less than one micrometer (µm) in diameter. The reduced
visibility is caused by the suspended particles scattering incoming sunlight. The
most common types of solid particles involved in haze include dust, smoke, and
volcanic ash.

Headcut - The upslope starting point for a gully. The process of gully erosion cause
the headcut to migrate upslope over time.

Headland - A strip of land that juts seaward from the coastline. Headlands are
normally bordered by a coastal cliff.

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Headward Erosion - Is the situation where a stream erodes the sediment and rock at
its headwaters in the opposite direction that it flows. This causes the stream's long
profile to become longer.

Headwaters - The upper portion of stream's drainage system.

Heat - Heat is defined as energy in the process of being transferred from one object
to another because of the temperature difference between them. In the atmosphere,
heat is commonly transferred by conduction, convection, advection, and radiation.

Heat Balance - A concept that suggests incoming radiation received by an object is in

balance with outgoing radiation. For example, the solar radiation received by the
Earth is in balance with its outgoing longwave radiation emissions.

Heat Budget - An estimate of how various types of energy and heat energy are
stored and used in some system of interest. A system's heat budget can be described
using an equation or a graphical model.

Heat Capacity - Is the ratio of the amount of heat energy absorbed by a substance
compared to its corresponding temperature rise.

Heat Energy - A form of energy created by the combined internal motion of atoms in
a substance.

Heat Equator - See thermal equator.

Heat Island - A dome of relatively warm air which develops over the center of an
urbanized area. Caused mainly by the unique solar radiation absorption and heat
energy storage characteristics of the built environment and by the artificial
generation of heat by urban activities like the artificial heating of buildings,
industrial processes, and vehicle traffic.

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Heat Wave - A long period of weather where temperatures are well above averages.
The discomfort associated with a heat wave can be amplified by high humidity.
Many different definitions exist to identify heat waves.

Heating Degree Day - For a single day, this climatological measurement determines
the number of degrees that the daily mean temperature is below a specified base
temperature. For example, if the daily mean temperature was recorded as 10°C and
the base temperature was 24°C, the heating degree day measurement would be
14°C. Sometimes these daily departures are determined for a period longer than one
day. In this case, the departures are summed together to get a cumulative total of
heating degree days for that period. Compare with cooling degree day.

Heavy Metal(s) - Is a metal that has a relatively high density, atomic number and/or
atomic weight. Heavy metals are relatively uncommon in Earth's rocks, sediments,
and soils but are often used in the things humans construct. Some heavy metals (like
arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and silver) are very toxic to organisms in
relatively high concentrations.

Heavy Soil - A soil that has a high proportion of fine particles, like clay.

Hectare (ha) - A metric unit of area two-dimensional measurement, with no

predetermined shape, used in most of the world. One hectare is equivalent to 10,000
square meters or 0.01 square kilometers. Converting one hectare to imperial units
equals 107,639 square feet or 2.471 acres.

Helical Flow - Movement of water within a stream that occurs as spiral motions.

Helictite - A type of speleothem that has a non-vertical long axis. One theory for
their formation is that wind is involved.

Heliophyte - A plant adapted to survive best in full intensity sunlight.

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Hematite - Mineral with the chemical composition iron oxide (Fe2O3). Hematite ore
is mined for producing the metal iron.

Hemera - A period in the geological history of the Earth that is identified by the
presence of particular fossils.

Hemipelagic Deposits - Sediment deposits found on the continental shelf and

continental slope.

Herb - A non-woody angiosperm whose above-ground vegetation dies off

seasonally.

Herbicide - A chemical substance that causes reduced growth and/or reproduction

or the death to plants. Some herbicides have been developed to selectively kill
particular types of plants.

Herbivore - Heterotrophic organism that consumes plants for nutrition. Also known
as a primary consumer. Compare with detritivore, omnivore, scavenger, and
carnivore.

Heredity - The metabolic transmission of behavioral, physiological, and

morphological characteristics from parent to offspring. Hereditable characteristics
are known to be mainly passed down to subsequent generations through DNA.
Research has recently discovered the existence of epigenetic inheritance systems.

Heterogeneity - The state of being different or diverse.

Heterosphere - The upper layer in the atmosphere that is identified by the fact the
gases nitrogen, oxygen, helium, and hydrogen dominate at specific altitudes because
of their molecular weight. Zones of gradual transition separate the gas distinct layers
in the heterosphere. The heterosphere extends upward from a height of 80 to 100

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kilometers (50 to 62 miles) depending on latitude. Below the heterosphere is the
homosphere.

Heterotroph - Organism that must consume energy-rich organic molecules for

survival. Energy is released from these molecules through the chemical process of
cellular respiration. Also see carnivores, herbivores, and detritivores.

Hiatus - A break in the recording of geologic time as chronicled by successive layers

of strata in a stratigraphic deposit.

High Pressure - An area of atmospheric pressure within the Earth's atmosphere that
is above average. If this system is on the Earth's surface, contains circular wind flow,
and enclosed isobars, it is called an anticyclone.

High Tide - The highest elevation of the ocean surface during a 24 hour and 50.4-
minute tidal cycle. Same as high water mark. Compare with low tide.

High Water - This term refers to the maximum elevation of the ocean surface during
a 24 hour and 50.4-minute tidal cycle for diurnal or semi-diurnal tides. Same as high
tide. Compare with low water.

High Water Mark - (1) The elevation of ocean surface along a

shoreline at high tide. Compare with low water mark. (2) A
documented elevation of some past extreme height of a body of
water on the adjacent land surface. These high water marks often
occur because of flooding. Shown in the image are recorded high
water marks for past flooding events on the Missouri River (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Higher High Water - Term used to describe the higher event of the two maximum
ocean surface elevations in a mixed tide during a 24 hour and 50.4 minute tidal cycle.

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Higher Low Water - Term used to describe the higher event of the two minimum
ocean surface elevations in a mixed tide during a 24 hour and 50.4 minute tidal cycle.

Histogram - A type of graph produced exclusively to display the shape of the data
associated with a single variable. X-axis shows
the range of values found in the dataset. Y-axis
displays the frequency count. Bars are used to
show the number (frequency) of observations
found in equal class intervals. Histograms are
commonly used to determine if the data has a
normal distribution.

Historical Geology - The sub-discipline of

Geology that studies the geologic and evolutionary history of Earth.

Histosols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. This soil is composed
of more than 30% organic matter as a result of saturated environmental
conditions. (Image Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture).

Hjulström Curve - A graph that describes the relationship between

stream flow velocity and
particle erosion, transport,
and deposition (see figure
below). The curved line
labeled "erosion velocity"
describes the velocity
required to entrain particles
from the stream's bed and
banks. The erosion velocity
curve is drawn as a thick
line because the erosion
particles tends to be

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influenced by a variety of factors that changes from stream to stream. Also, note that
the entrainment of silt and clay needs greater velocities then larger sand particles.
This situation occurs because silt and clay can form cohesive bonds between
particles. Because of the bonding, greater flow velocities are required to break the
bonds and move these particles. The graph also indicates that the transport of
particles requires lower flow velocities then erosion. This is especially true of silt and
clay particles. Finally, the line labeled "settling velocity" shows at what velocity
certain sized particles fall out of transport and are deposited. First described by
Swedish geomorphologist Filip Hjulström in 1935.

Hoar Frost - A type of frost that develops on the surfaces of vegetation and other
objects as delicate white crystals of ice. Hoar frost usually forms on cold clear
evenings, when objects become colder than the surrounding air because of longwave
radiative heat loss.

Hodograph - A graph used to plot the velocity

(in knots, miles per hour, kilometers miles per
hour, meters per second, etc.) and direction
(usually out of 360°) of a body or a fluid at
different heights above a surface for a given
moment. Commonly used in meteorology to
plot the change in wind speed and direction
with height above the ground. A hodograph is
very useful to meteorologists for making
estimates of vertical wind shear, atmospheric
turbulence, and temperature advection. Data to
construct a hodograph normally comes from a
vertical sounding in the atmosphere determined
from a radiosonde. Also called a velocity
diagram. (Image Source: NOAA).

Hogback - Is an elongated narrow ridge or series of ridges with a slender peak and
steeply sloping sides. These geomorphic features can vary significantly in size.
Hogbacks often form from the differential weathering and erosion of steeply dipping

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sedimentary strata. Usually, the ridge
forms because it is made of rock that is
more resistant to weathering and
erosion. Shown is the Hogback called
the California Ridge located southwest
of Mesquite, Nevada (Image Source:
Casey Allen, University of Colorado
Denver).

Holarctic - The zoogeographical region or biogeographic realm that is made up of

both the Nearctic (North America) and Paleoarctic (Europe and Asia) regions. These
regions have similar faunas because, in the past they were connected by the Bering
land bridge.

Holistic - Being concerned with the complete system level of understanding of a

phenomenon. Holism is the opposite of a reductionist approach to studying and
understanding phenomena.

Holocene - The geologic epoch from about 10,000 years ago to today. During this
period, most glaciers retreated because of a warmer global climate. The Holocene is
also the time of modern humans. One of two epochs during the Quaternary Period.
See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent
version of the geologic time scale.

Holocene Megathermal - See Climatic Optimum.

Holocene Optimum - See Climatic Optimum.

Holocene Thermal Maximum - See Climatic Optimum.

Homeostatic (Homeostasis) - A constant or non-changing state of equilibrium in a

system despite changes in external conditions.

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Homoclime - Places on our planet that generally have similar climates as determined
by monthly and annual measurements of temperature and precipitation.

Homocline - Layers of rock strata that dip uniformly in one general direction. A
homocline can represent one limb of an anticline or syncline.

Homoeostasis - A situation where a biotic or abiotic system has the ability to

maintain equilibriums in the various processes operating within their boundary. This
done via negative feedback and positive feedback processes that reach to a change in
state of the system.

Homoeostatic System - A system that maintains homoeostasis.

Homoiothermy - The ability of some organisms to maintain an internal body

temperature that is relatively constant and independent of the temperature in its
surrounding environment. One group of organisms that has this ability is mammals.
These organisms are often called warmblooded.

Homosphere - The lower layer in the atmosphere that is identified by the general
homogeneity of chemical composition. In this layer, nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon
dioxide, and trace gases dominate and remain constant in their relative proportions
throughout the layer. The homosphere extends from the Earth's surface to a height of
80 to 100 kilometers (50 to 62 miles) depending on latitude. Above this atmospheric
layer is the heterosphere.

Hoodoo - Capped columns of rock extending

upward from the ground surface about 1.5 to
45.0 meters (5 to 150 feet) tall (see image). These
geomorphic features are found in arid
landscapes and form when a stratum of more
resistant rock caps an extensive layer of softer
rock. Hoodoos form because the cap of more
resistant protects the softer rock below it from

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the effects of weathering and erosion.

Horizon - (1) A surface separating two beds in sedimentary rock. (2) A layer within a
soil showing unique pedogenic characteristics. Four major horizons are normally
found in a soil profile: A, B, C, and O. (3) The point at which the visible edge of the
Earth's surface meets the sky.

Horn - A pyramidal shaped peak that forms when several cirques erode a mountain
from three or more sides.

Hornblende - A common mineral belonging to the amphibole group that consists of

silicates of calcium, iron, and magnesium. Found in many igneous and metamorphic
rocks.

Horse Latitudes - Refers to the two areas north and south of the equator located
between 30 to 35° latitude. Within this area, the Subtropical High Pressure Zone
usually dominates, creating consistently dry and warm weather over water and dry
and hot weather over land. Winds are generally light in this area, and cloud cover
and precipitation is not common.

Horst Fault - A fault that is produced when two reverse faults cause a block of land
to be push up.

Horton Overland Flow Model - A simple mathematical model that estimates the
quantity of overland flow per unit area. R.E. Horton first proposed this model in
1933. This model suggests that overland flow is equal to rainfall minus the
infiltration capacity of the soil. In this model, infiltration capacity is estimated with
the following equation:

f = fc +(fo - fc) exp(-ct)

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where f is the infiltration capacity, fc , fo and c are constants that vary with the type of
soil and the distribution of water held within the soil, and t is time.

Hortonian Analysis - A morphometric technique that calculates the relationship

between variables such as the number of stream segments, stream channel lengths,
and drainage basin areas for particular stream orders. This technique involves the
determination of the bifurcation ratio. This value is calculated as a ratio between a
calculated value for one order compared to the next lower order. See Law of Stream
Number, Law of Stream Lengths, and Law of Basin Areas.

Host - An organism that develops disease from a pathogen or is being consumed by

a parasite.

Hot Spot - A volcanic area on the surface of the Earth created by a rising magma
plume in the mantle.

Hot Spring - A continuous ground flow of water originating below the Earth's
surface and having a temperature higher than 37° Celsius (98.6° Fahrenheit).

Hum - An isolated hill that survived the lowering of a landscape dominated by

limestone bedrock by the processes of weathering and erosion.

Human Geography - Field of knowledge that studies human-made features and

phenomena on the Earth from a spatial perspective. Sub-discipline of Geography.

Human-Land Tradition - An academic focus in modern Geography that investigates

human interactions with the environment.

Humic Acid - A collection of acidic substances derived from the decomposition of

organic substances. These substances are commonly found in soil, peat, coal, and
mixed in the water of streams, lakes, and the ocean. Humic acids often form
chemical complexes with cations creating humic colloids.

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Humic Layer - A common near-surface layer in well-developed soil that consists of
highly decomposed organic matter. Compare with fibric and mesic layers.

Humid - An environment or habitat or location that has a climate similar to a moist

tropical rain forest or temperate rain forest. Moisture, humidity, and precipitation are
usually plentiful all year long. Compare with subhumid.

Humidity - A general term used to describe the amount of water vapor found in the
atmosphere. Also see relative humidity, vapor pressure, and mixing ratio.

Humidex - This is a calculation that combines the effects of temperature and

humidity to measure the degree of discomfort an individual would experience as a
result of warm weather. This measure was developed by Canadian meteorologists in
1965 and is commonly used in Canada. The equation used to determine humidex is:

Humidex = T + (0.5555 x (e - 10))

where T is the temperature in °C and e is the vapor pressure in millibars (mb). At

values greater than 40, most unnecessary outdoor activity should be reduced. If
values are between 35 to 39, strenuous outdoor exercise should be reduced.
Humidex measurements between 20 to 29 are considered comfortable. In the United
States, this type of measure involves a different calculation and is called the
discomfort index.

Humification - The chemical process where mineralization recombines soluble acids

in the soil causing the formation of humus.

Humus - Dark colored semi-soluble organic substance formed from decomposition

of soil organic matter.

Hurricane - A powerful cyclonic storm consisting of a mass of thunderstorms

organized around an intense low pressure center. Hurricanes only develop over the

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warm oceans of the tropics. To be classified as a hurricane, wind speeds in the storm
must be greater than 118 kilometers per hour (73 miles per hour).

Hydration - A form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+

and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.

Hydraulic Force - The force created by a mass of water flowing under the influence
of gravity and/or by the change in the shape of the solid boundary that confines this
water flow.

Hydraulic Fracturing - See hydrofracturing.

Hydraulic Friction - The frictional resistance imparted to flowing water in a stream

by the roughness of the stream bed.

Hydraulic Gradient - The slope of the water table or aquifer. The hydraulic gradient
influences the direction and rate of groundwater flow.

Hydraulic Radius (R) - A measurement associated with streams that is related to

stream flow velocity. Velocity of flow increases with an increase in hydraulic radius.
Hydraulic radius is determined by taking the channel cross-sectional area (A) and
dividing it by the wetted perimeter (P) [R = A/P].

Hydraulics - The scientific study of the flow of liquids.

Hydric Layer - The layer of water on organic soils that starts at the ground surface
and extends to a depth of between 40 and 160 centimeters (16 to 63 inches).

Hydrocarbon - A common organic compound composed primarily of hydrogen and

carbon atoms. Examples of hydrocarbons include coal (various mixtures of the
elements carbon and hydrogen with sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen), petroleum
(CnH2n+2), oil, and methane (CH4).

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Hydrofracturing - A process where water under pressure enters naturally occurring
small cracks in rocks, causing subsequent rock fracturing. This process can be
enhanced by the presence of salts or when temperatures fall below 0°C, and the
freezing of water causes volumetric expansion. This technique is being used to
increase the recovery of natural gas and petroleum from wells for human use. When
used to extract natural gas and petroleum water is usually mixed with silica sand
and between 3 to 12 additive chemicals. Some of the additive chemicals include
hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, sodium chloride, polyacrylamide, ethylene glycol,
borate salts, sodium and potassium carbonates, glutaraldehyde, guar gum, citric
acid, and isopropanol. Also called hydraulic fracturing, fracking, and fraccing.

Hydrogenic Soil - A soil that forms under an environment of continuous

waterlogging.

Hydrogeology - The scientific study of storage and movement of groundwater.

Hydrogeomorphology - The geomorphological study of water as an agent in

landscape processes and forms.

Hydrograph - Is a graph describing the change in stream discharge over time

produced by a recording instrument located somewhere along the course of a
stream. Shown is a typical hydrograph, recording the change in stream discharge
because of a rainfall event in a drainage
basin. From this graph, we can observe
the following things: 1) A small
temporary increase in discharge caused
by rain falling directly into the channel
occurring roughly at the same time as
the rainfall event. 2) The beginning of
the main rise (rising limb) in discharge is
delayed sometime after the rainfall
event. This delay occurs as it takes a
certain amount of time for the water falling on the ground in the basin to arrive at

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the stream and then recording station. Usually, the larger the basin the greater is this
time lag. 3) The rapid movement of surface runoff into the stream's channels and
subsequent increase in flow, causing discharge to rise quickly (rising limb). 4) The
falling limb of the hydrograph tends to be less steep that the rise. This flow
represents the water added from distant tributaries and from throughflow that
occurs in surface soils and sediments. 5) After a certain amount of elapsed time, the
hydrograph settles at a constant level known as base flow level. Most of the base
flow comes from groundwater flow, which moves water into the stream channel very
slowly.

Hydrologic Cycle - A generalized model that describes the movement of water

between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere (see graphic
below). Also called the hydrological cycle.

Hydrological Cycle - See hydrologic cycle.

Hydrology - A field of Physical Geography and Earth Science that studies the
hydrosphere.

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Hydrolysis - Chemical weathering process that involves the reaction between
mineral ions and the ions of water (OH- and H+), and results in the decomposition
of the rock surface by forming new compounds, and by increasing the pH of the
solution involve through the release of the hydroxide ions.

Hydrometeorology - Academic discipline that applies the knowledge associated

with meteorology to problems and phenomena common to hydrology.

Hydrometer - Scientific instrument that measures the specific gravity of liquids.

Hydrometry - Term that describes the measurement and monitoring of water

associated phenomena within some component of the hydrologic cycle. Hydrometry
includes the measurement and monitoring of stream flow, groundwater flow,
precipitation, and the quality characteristics of water.

Hydrophyte - A plant that has the ability to successfully grow in only water or very
saturated soils. Hydrophytes that grow best in water are also known as aquatic
plants.

Hydrosphere - The hydrosphere describes the movement and storage of water on

Earth. Water exists on the Earth in various stores, including: the atmosphere, oceans,
lakes, streams, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from one store to
another by way of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff,
infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, and groundwater flow.

Hydrostatic Pressure - Force exerted by water when it is under pressure.

Hydrothermal Vent - A volcanic fissure which releases geothermally heated water.

Earth has many hydrothermal vents in the oceans at the mid-oceanic ridges.

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Hydroxide - (1) An anion made up of an atom of oxygen and hydrogen. Has the
chemical formula of OH-. (2) A compound that consists of the joining of some
chemical element to the radical OH-.

Hygrograph - Mechanical device used to create a record of changes in atmospheric

humidity for a location. This record is often made on a paper graph.

Hygrometer - Any instrument used for measuring atmospheric humidity.

Hygroscopic - A substance that has the ability to absorb atmospheric water and
therefore accelerate the condensation process.

Hygroscopic Coefficient - The maximum limit of hygroscopic water around the

surface of a soil particle.

Hygroscopic Nuclei - Minute particles of dust, salt, sulfur dioxide, and smoke that
attract water vapor to their surface where it condenses or deposits even when the
atmosphere is not saturated. Also see condensation nuclei and deposition nuclei.

Hygroscopic Water - Water held within 0.0002 millimeters (0.0000079 inches) from
the surface of a soil particle. This water is essentially non-mobile and can only be
removed from the particle through heating.

Hypabyssal Rock - A type of intrusive igneous rock that forms at shallow to

medium depths in the crust. Hypabyssal rocks often form dykes, sills, laccoliths,
lopoliths, or phacoliths. These rocks are fine to medium-grained. Three examples of
hypabyssal rocks include diabase, lamproites, and kimberlites. Also called
subvolcanic rock.

Hypha (Hyphae plural) - Branching thread like structure found on a fungus. Hyphae
consist of one or more cells and in many fungi this structure represents the main way
the organism grow.

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Hypogene - (1) Refers to processes beneath the Earth's surface that normally cause
the formation of primary minerals. (2) Geologic processes that occur at very deep
depths below the Earth's surface.

Hypolimnion - A layer in lake stratified according to water temperature found

below the topmost epilimnion layer and middle transitional thermocline layer. The
water in this layer has typically a lower temperature, pH, and concentration of
dissolved oxygen than the epilimnion layer found above it.

Hypothermal - In Geology, this term refers to a mineral deposit that formed in an

environment of relatively high temperature and pressure.

Hypothesis - A tentative assumption that is made for empirical scientific testing. A

hypothesis becomes a theory when repeated testing and evidence suggests the
hypothesis has a strong chance of being correct.

Hypothesis Testing - Process where an alternative and a null hypothesis are

statistically tested to falsify a hypothesis.

Hypoxia - Something that is being deprived of oxygen.

Hypsithermal - The warmest period during the Holocene Epoch. This period is
dated from about 7,000 to 3,000 BC. During this time, average global temperatures
were 1 to 3°C (2 to 5°F) warmer than they are today. Also called Altithermal, Climatic
Optimum, Holocene Megathermal, Holocene Optimum, and Holocene Thermal
Maximum.

Hypsometry - The science of measuring the elevation of the ground surface or solid
surface in lakes and oceans. Measurements are usually made relative to some base
datum, like mean sea level.

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 I
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Ice - A frozen form of the water molecule. Ice has a specific gravity (0.9166) which is
slightly less than water. This difference in specific gravity causes ice to float on water.

Ice Age - A time when glaciers dominate the landscape of the Earth. The last major
Ice Age was the Pleistocene Epoch.

Ice Apron - A relatively thin layer of snow and ice covering a mountainside.

Ice Barrier - The outer edge of ice associated with a glacial ice sheet.

Ice Cap - Large dome-shaped glacier found covering a vast expanse of land. Smaller
than an ice sheet.

Ice Cluster - A relatively large area of ice floating on a water body.

Ice Dome - Elevated areas of glacial ice accumulation for ice caps and ice sheets.

Ice Edge - The zone in between the margin of a mass of sea ice and the open ocean.

Ice Fall - An area of crevassed ice on a glacier. Caused when the base of a glacier
flows over steep topography.

Ice Field - Large level area of glacial ice found covering a substantial expanse of
land. Similar in size to an ice cap but does not have a dome shape.

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Ice Floe - A piece of sea or lake ice that is floating unconnected to the land margin. In
the Arctic and Antarctic, ice floes can be quite large, up to several kilometers (miles)
in width and about 3 meters (9 feet) thick.

Ice Flow - Refers to the movement of ice associated with glaciers and permafrost
ground ice by plastic deformation and/or basal sliding.

Ice Fog - A fog that is composed of small suspended ice crystals. Common in Arctic
locations when temperatures are below -30°C (-22°F), and an abundant supply of
water vapor exists.

Ice Front - A vertical cliff of ice-associated with

a glacier or the seaward margin of an ice shelf.
Shown is the ice front associated with the
Folgefonna Glacier in Bondhusbreen, Norway.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photographer
Tomasz Halszka. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5
Generic license.

Ice Jam - The accumulation of ice at a specific location along a stream channel. Ice
jams can cause the reduction of stream flow downstream and flooding upstream.

Ice Lense (Ice Lens) - A horizontal accumulation of permanently frozen ground ice.

Ice Pellets - A type of frozen precipitation. Ice pellets or sleet are transparent or
translucent spheres of frozen water that fall from clouds (Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, photographer Mike Epp. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0 Generic license). Ice pellets have a diameter of less than 5 millimeters
(0.20 inches). To form, this type of precipitation requires an environment where
raindrops develop in an atmosphere where the air temperature is above freezing.
These raindrops then fall into a lower layer of air with freezing temperatures. In this
lower layer of cold air, the raindrops freeze into small ice pellets. Like freezing rain,

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an air temperature inversion is required for the
development of ice pellets.

Ice Rind - A term that describes an initial phase in

the formation of sea ice when the accumulating ice
crystals come together to produce a thin fragile ice
layer.

Ice Sheet - A dome-shaped glacier that covers an

area greater than 50,000 square kilometers (19,300
square miles). Greenland and Antarctica are considered ice sheets. During the glacial
advances of the Pleistocene, ice sheets covered extensive areas of North America,
Europe, and Asia. This mass of glacial ice is larger than an ice cap.

Ice Shelf - Large flat layer of ice that extends from the edge of the Antarctic Ice Cap
into the Southern Ocean. A source of icebergs.

Ice Storm - A mid-latitudinal

cyclone storm characterized by
precipitation in the form of
freezing rain, rather than rain
and/or snow. Ice storms can
disrupt road and air travel and
cause a lot of damage to
vegetation, like trees, and
human-built objects. Shown is
an image of sagging ice-coated
power lines after an ice storm
(Image Source: NOAA,
Wikipedia Commons).

Ice Stream - A relatively fast-moving zone of glacial ice found imbedded within ice
sheet or ice cap. These glacial features are believed to form when a subsurface basal

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water layer exists between two layers of ice.
Along the outer edge of ice streams,
crevassing is a common feature. Shown to
the left is a map of Antarctica illustrating the
speed of the major ice streams on this ice cap
(Image Source: NASA/Goddard Space Flight
Center Scientific Visualization Studio).

Ice Wedge - Wedge-shaped, ice body

composed of vertically oriented ground ice
that extends into the top of a permafrost
layer. These features are approximately 2 to 3
meters (4 to 6 feet) wide at their top and extend into the soil about 8 to 10 meters (26
to 33 feet). Ice wedges form in cracks that develop in the soil during winter because
of thermal contraction. In the spring, these cracks fill with liquid water from melting
snow, which subsequently refreezes. The freezing process causes the water to expand
in volume, increasing the size and depth of the crack. The now large crack fills with
more liquid water, and again, it freezes causing the crack to enlarge. This process
continues for many cycles until the ice wedge reaches its maximum size.

Iceberg - A large mass of ice found floating in an ocean or a lake. Icebergs often form
when ice calves from land-based glaciers into the water body. Icebergs are very
dangerous to shipping in high and mid-latitude regions of the ocean because 90
percent of their mass is hidden below the ocean surface.

Icelandic Low - Subpolar low pressure system typically found near Iceland. Most
developed during the winter season. The Icelandic Low spawns many mid-latitude
cyclones which influence western Europe.

Icing - The build-up of ice on objects because of the presence of certain weather
conditions. Icing is a hazardous situation for aviation.

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Ideal Gas Law - This law describes the physical relationships that exist between
pressure, temperature, volume, and density for gases. Two mathematical equations
are used to describe this law:

Pressure x Volume = Constant x Temperature

and

Pressure = Density x Constant x Temperature

Igneous Intrusion - A mass of igneous rock that formed from solidified magma
beneath the Earth's surface.

Igneous Rock - Rocks formed by solidification of molten magma either beneath

(intrusive igneous rock) or at (extrusive igneous rocks) the Earth's surface.

Ignimbrite - A volcanic igneous rock made of

consolidated pumice fragments and volcanic ash
that came from a pyroclastic flow. Shown are two
samples of ignimbrite from the Bishop tuff from
California, United States. Also called welded
tuff. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image
is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Illite - A non-expanding type of clay composed of phyllosilicate minerals.

Illuvial Horizon - A subsurface soil horizon where the process of illuviation

dominates leading to the deposition silicate clay, oxides of iron and aluminum, and
organic substances. Commonly forms in the B horizon.

Illuviation - Deposition of humus, chemical substances, and fine mineral particles in

the lower layers of a soil from upper layers because of the downward movement of
water through the soil profile. Compare with eluviation.

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Immature Soil - A relatively young soil that has not been given enough time for soil
formation processes to develop typical A horizon and B horizon layers down its soil
profile.

Immigrant Species - A species that migrates into an ecosystem or that is deliberately

or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans. Some of these species can
be beneficial, whereas others can interfere and eliminate native species. Compare
with indicator species, keystone species, and native species.

Immigration - The migration of an organism into an area with the end result of
changing its home permanently. Compare with emigration.

Impeded Dunes - A type of dune whose location is determined by another feature in

the landscape that influences the movement and deposition of sand particles.
Features that can create impeded dunes include vegetation, localized source of sand,
and a topographic obstacle.

Impermeable - The inability to allow for the vertical or horizontal movement of a

gas or liquid because of structural or textural properties found in a soil or rock
formation. This term is commonly used in Hydrology and Ecology.

Impervious - A substance that cannot let radiation, gasses, or liquids pass through it.
This term can be synonymous with impermeable.

Inceptisols - A soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. These soils have
horizons in the early stages of pedogenesis. Inceptisols are often found on
glacial drift deposits. Image Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Incised Meander - A meander that is carved deep into the landscape

surface because land uplift has enhanced the erosion by a stream.

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Inclination - The angle at which a rock stratum or some other geological feature
dips.

Inclusion - (1) Crystals of one mineral found inside a larger mass of another mineral.
(2) A mass of older rock found inside a larger mass of younger rock.

Incompetent Bed - A stratum of rock that deforms plastically instead of bending

because of the stresses associated with folding.

Inconsequent Drainage - A stream drainage network that is not influenced by the

underlying geologic structure of the landscape.

Independent Variable - Variable in a statistical test that is thought to be controlling

through cause and effect the value of observations in another dependent variable
modeled in the test.

Index Contour - Contour line that is emphasized in terms of thickness and is often
labeled with the corresponding measure of elevation. Index contours usually occur
every fourth or fifth contour interval. Index contours help individuals to read
elevations on a map quickly.

Index Cycle - The cyclical variation in the zonal index. The period of each variation
is about 3 to 8 weeks.

Index Fossil - A fossil of a particular organism or organisms that can be used to date
of a stratum of rock. For example, the presence of trilobite fossils from the genus
Paradoxides suggests the bed containing them was laid down during the middle of
the Cambrian period.

Index Map - An small-scale ancillary map found on a larger-scale map that provides
identification information about other associated large-scale maps adjacent to the
map being viewed.

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Indian Ocean - The Indian Ocean covers about 14%
of the Earth's surface area and has a total area of
about 68,556,000 square kilometers (26,463,000
square miles). The Indian Ocean has an average
depth of 3,900 meters (12,800 feet). This ocean
region is enclosed on three sides by the landmasses
of Africa, Asia, and Australia (see figure, Map
Source: CIA Factbook, Wikimedia Commons). The
Indian Ocean's southern border is open to water
exchange with the much colder Southern Ocean.

Indian Summer - (1) A fall season that usually has mild and sunny weather in the
USA and Canada. (2) A period of uncharacteristically mild and sunny weather in
Britain.

Indicator Species - A species that can be used as an early signal of environmental

degradation to a community or an ecosystem. Compare with immigrant species,
keystone species, and native species.

Indomalaya - One of eight biogeographic realms found on Earth, where many

species have a unique evolutionary history because of geographic isolation.
Geographically, this realm includes
India, Southeast Asia, and southern
China (see Map). The climate of this
realm is mainly tropical to
subtropical. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons. This image is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution-
Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Induction - A form of logical speculation where the explanation or hypothesis of

how a cause and effect process works is derived from the observation of empirical
facts. Compare this form of logic with deduction.

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Induration - The hardening of sedimentary deposits into a rock by the processes of
pressure caused compaction, drying, and cementation.

Industrial Revolution - A time of major change in the economy and society of

humans because of the use of machines and the efficient production of goods. Many
historians argue that this period in human history began in England in the late 18th
century and continues today. After its start in England, the Industrial Revolution
quickly spread to continental Europe and then other places around the world. The
Industrial Revolution is a significant turning point in history and its effects have
altered many aspects and routines of human-daily life.

Industrial Smog - A form of air pollution that develops mainly in urban areas. This
type of air pollution consists of a combination of sulfur dioxide, suspended droplets
of sulfuric acid, and a variety of suspended solid particles. Also see photochemical
smog.

Inferential Statistics - A statistical test that makes generalizations about a

population based of the numeric information obtained from a random data sample.

Infiltration - The absorption and downward movement of water into the soil layer.

Infiltration Capacity - The ability of a soil to absorb surface water.

Infiltration Rate - The rate of absorption and downward movement of water into the
soil layer.

Infiltrometer - A scientific instrument used to measure the rate of water infiltration

into soil or material covering the ground surface.

Inflorescence - A group of flowers on a branch or network of branches on a

flowering plant.

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Influent - (1) A tributary of a stream. (2) A stream that supplies water to an area of
groundwater.

Influent Stream - A stream that fails to retain its discharge and has a net reduction in
stream flow downstream because of evaporation, ground seepage, and irrigation
withdrawal. Influent streams are found mainly in arid climates, and examples
include the Nile, Colorado, and Snake rivers. Also called a losing stream. Compare
with effluent stream.

Infrared Photography - Form of photography where the instrument or film used is

specially designed to capture infrared radiation being reflected or emitted from an
imaged object.

Infrared Radiation - There are several different definitions for this term. (1) Form of
electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 100 micrometers (µm).
(2) Form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.74 and 300
micrometers (µm). Also called longwave radiation.

Ingrown Meander - A form of an incised meander where the slope of the stream
valley is steep on one side and gentle on the opposite side.

Inhibition Model of Succession - This model of plant succession suggests that the
change in plant species dominance over time is caused by death and small scale
disturbances, and variations in plant species longevity and the ability to disperse.
Over time species turnover favors plant species that have long life spans.

Initial Landform - A young landform produced by folding, faulting, tectonic uplift,

or volcanic activity that is relatively unaltered by the landscape processes of erosion
and deposition.

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Inland Sea - A large body of saline or brackish water that is found in the central area
of a landmass and not connected to an ocean. This water body may have formed
because once higher sea levels caused a surface flow of seawater inland.

Inlet - A narrow watercourse that connects a small water body to a larger one.

Inlier - An outcrop of older rock isolated within a formation of younger rocks.

Commonly forms with the erosion of anticlines.

Inner Core - The inner spherical shaped region of the Earth's core. The inner core is
thought to be composed of iron and nickel and has a
density of about 12.6 to 13.0 g/cm3 - grams per
cubic centimeters (roughly 0.46 to 0.47 pounds per
cubic inch). Has a diameter of about 1,220
kilometers (760 miles). Scientists believe the inner
core is mainly solid and is surrounded by the liquid
outer core. The surface of the inner core is estimated
to be very hot, about 5400° Celsius (9750°
Fahrenheit). Also see outer core.

Inorganic - Something that is not living. Usually refers to the physical and chemical
components of an organism's environment. Also called abiotic.

Inosilicate - Subclass of the silicate class of minerals. Inosilicates have two distinct
forms: single and double chain silicates.

Input - Addition of matter, energy, or information to a

system. Also see output.

Insect - Group of organisms that are relatively small and

simple animals with a rigid chitinous external skeleton,
three body sections, three pairs of legs, and antennae.

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These organisms are the most abundant group of eukaryotes on the Earth. See the
Encyclopedia of Life for more information on this group of organisms.
[Link]

Insecticide - A chemical substance that causes reduced growth and/or reproduction

or the death to insects.

Inselberg - A term of German origin used to describe a steep-sided hill composed of

rock that rises from a pediplain.

Insequent Stream - A stream whose path is not the outcome of the slope of the land
surface or by the erosion characteristics of underlying bedrock.

Insolation - Direct and diffused shortwave solar radiation that is received in the
Earth's atmosphere or at its surface.

Insolation Weathering - A form of physical weathering. Involves the physical

breakdown of minerals and rock due to thermal expansion and contraction.

Instability - Atmospheric condition where a parcel of air is warmer than the

surrounding air in the immediate environment. This condition causes the parcel to
rise in the atmosphere. Also see unstable atmosphere.

Insulator - (1) A substance that has a relatively slow rate of heat energy flow. (2) A
substance that resists the flow of electrical energy.

Interaction (Biological) - Mutual or reciprocal influence between two or more

similar organisms or individuals of different species. Major biotic interactions are:
competition, mutualism, predation, parasitism, amensalism, and commensalism.

Interbedded - The sandwiching of a rock bed of a particular type in-between strata

of a similar type.

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Intercardinal Direction - The four secondary navigational directions
(Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, and Northwest) found on a
compass or a map. For navigational purposes, these directional
names are given the following values relative to the degrees
found in a circle: Northeast = 45°, Southeast = 135°,
Southwest = 225°, and Northwest = 315°. Compare with
cardinal direction. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image
is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.

Interception - Is the capture of precipitation by the plant canopy and its subsequent
return to the atmosphere through evaporation or sublimation. The amount of
precipitation intercepted by plants varies with leaf type, canopy architecture, wind
speed, available radiation, temperature, and the humidity of the atmosphere.

Interference - Form of competition where an individual directly prevents the

physical establishment of another individual in a portion of a habitat.

Interflow - (1) Another term used to describe the process of throughflow. (2) A
component of stream flow that represents water that infiltrates into the ground and
then is transported laterally beneath the ground surface until it reaches a stream
channel.

Interglacial - A time during an ice age when glaciers melted and retreated because of
milder temperatures. Compare with glacial.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - Is an intergovernmental

scientific body created by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The purpose of this group of
scientists is to produce scientific assessments of scientific, technical, and socio-
economic information regarding the risk of human-mediated climate change.
Further, the body determines the potential environmental and socio-economic
consequences of human caused climate change and suggests options for adapting to

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these consequences or mitigating its effects. See the following website for more
information: [Link]

Intermediate Magma - A type of magma that has between 53% to 62% silica and
significant quantities of magnesium and iron content. Intermediate magma solidifies
to form dark-colored igneous rocks rich in magnesium, iron, and silica.

Intermediate Rocks - Types of igneous rocks with roughly equal mixtures of felsic
minerals (mainly plagioclase) and mafic minerals (primarily hornblende, pyroxene,
and/or biotite). In intermediate rocks, the mineral quartz is absent or in low
quantity.

Intermittent Stream - A stream that has water flow only for short periods over a
year. Intermittent stream flow events are usually initiated by rainfall. Compare with
perennial stream and ephemeral stream.

Intermontane - Something located in between mountains or mountain ranges.

International Date Line - A line drawn almost parallel to the 180 degree longitude
meridian that marks the location where each day officially begins. The location of the
International Date Line was decided upon by international agreement.

International System of Units (SI) - A set of standard measurement units used in

science and commerce originally set up in 1960 and adopted by most countries. In
France, this system is known as Le Système International d'unités. Also known as the
metric system. For more information, see the Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures website - [Link]

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) - Is an international

organization that works to protect our planet's natural world. In particular, the IUCN
is concerned with conserving biodiversity and the organization suggests this goal is
linked to solving other environmental issues including: human caused climate

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change, achieving energy sustainability, creating a green economic system for the
world, and improving the well-being of humans. As part of its mandate, IUCN
publishes the Red List which evaluates the extinction risk of over 40,000 species of
plants and animals. See the following website for more information: http://
[Link].

Interpluvial - A period of relatively drier climatic conditions sandwiched in between

two wetter climatic phases. Compare with pluvial.

Interpolation - In statistics, this term refers to the mathematical generation and

insertion of a new value within the distribution known values. The calculation of the
new value is based on the statistical pattern seen in the known values.

Interspecific Competition - A biological interaction where two or more individuals,

each of different species, in close proximity to each other require the same resource
(e.g., nutrients, food, water, nesting space, and ground space). Their use of this
resource causes its supply to be limiting. The outcome of this interaction is that all of
the organisms involved have their fitness reduced to some level, because the limiting
resources they receive are less than what is needed for optimum health and survival.
This reduction in fitness can cause the death of one or more of the competing
individuals, freeing up resources to the remaining competitors and increasing their
fitness and reproductive output.

Interspecific Interaction - Any biological interaction between individuals that are

from different species of organisms. Compare with intraspecific interaction.

Interstadial - A period of relatively warmer temperatures and glacial retreat within a

much large period when widespread glaciation is dominant in a region's landscape.

Interstices - Pores and small cracks found within a rock. Geologists classify these
voids according to how they were created and their size and shape. The most basic
classification scheme calls voids created at the time of rock formation primary

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interstices. Secondary interstices are voids created by forces like metamorphism,
tectonic activity, and weathering after the rock initially formed.

Intertidal Zone - The area that is between low tide and high tide along an ocean
shoreline. Organisms found living here are adapted to survive in an environment of
fluctuating extremes.

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) - Zone of low atmospheric pressure and

ascending air located at or near the equator. The rising air currents at the ITCZ are
the result of global wind convergence and convection from thermal heating. The
ITCZ generally has the same geographic location as the thermal equator.

Intraspecific Competition - A type of biological interaction where two or more

individuals of the same species that are in close proximity to each other, require the
same resource (e.g., nutrients, food, water, nesting space, and ground space) which is
in limiting supply. The outcome of this interaction is that all of the organisms
involved have their fitness reduced to some level, because the limiting resources they
receive are less than what is needed for optimum health and survival. This reduction
in fitness can cause the death of one or more of the competing individuals, freeing up
resources to the remaining competitors and increasing their fitness and reproductive
output.

Intraspecific Interaction - A biological interaction occurring between the individuals

that make up a single species. Compare with interspecific interaction.

Intrazonal Soil - A soil group that is generally well-developed and can be

categorized by characteristics that occur in its profile because of pedogenesis
controlled by local factors like parent material, relief, and drainage. Compare with
azonal soil and zonal soil.

Intrenched Meander - A stream meander or series of meanders that has become

deeply cut into the landscape because of tectonic uplift.

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Intrinsic Permeability - A measure of the ability of soil, sediment, or rock to
permeate liquids under natural conditions. Intrinsic permeability is usually
measured in darcy units. An intrinsic permeability equal to 1 darcy allows a flow of
1 cm³ per second (1 cm³/s) of a liquid with viscosity roughly equal to water at 20°C
under a pressure gradient of 1 standard atmosphere per centimeter (1 atm/cm)
acting across an area of 1 cm². The rate of a substance's intrinsic permeability is
determined mainly by the shape, size, distribution, and density of pores. Also called
specific permeability.

Introduced Species - See invasive species. See alien species and an exotic species.

Introduction - A term that refers to the process of accidentally or intentionally

introducing an invasive species to a habitat where it is not normally found.

Intrusion - A general term that describes a situation where a quantity of igneous

rock becomes imbedded via fissures and faults into older igneous rock. Also see
batholith, dyke, sill, laccolith, lopolith, and phacolith.

Intrusive Igneous Rock - A mass of igneous rock that forms when magma from the
mantle migrates upward and cools and crystallizes beneath the Earth's surface. Also
called plutonic igneous rock. Also see batholith, dyke, sill, laccolith, lopolith, and
phacolith.

Invasive Species - A non-native species that is introduced to a new habitat either

intentionally or by accident and subsequently establishes itself. Also called an alien
species, exotic species, and introduced species.

Inverse Square Law - This mathematical law models the reduction in the intensity of
radiation as it moves from its source in three-dimensional space. It suggests that the
amount of radiation passing through a specific area is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of that area from the energy source. Mathematically, the
Inverse Square Law is described by the equation:

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 Intensity = I/d2
where I is the intensity of the radiation at 1 unit distance and d is the distance
traveled in those units.

Inversely Proportional - A cause and effect relationship between two variables

where a positive or negative change in the quantity of one causes a predictable
opposite change in quantity of the other.

Invertebrates - Animals that do not have a backbone. Compare with vertebrates.

Inverted Relief - A situation where natural landscape features have reversed their
elevation relative to other landforms. Inverted relief can
occur when areas of low elevation in the landscape
become filled with sediment or lava flows that hardens
into rock that is more resistant to weathering and
erosion than the surrounding rock. Overtime,
differential weathering and erosion lowers the
surrounding rock to an elevation that is below the filled
area. These features have also been seen on other
planets and moons in our Solar System. Shown is an
example of inverted relief in the Grand Staircase-
Escalante National Monument, south-central Utah
(Image Source: NASA/Earth Observatory). Also called inverted topography and a
topographic inversion.

Inversion - See temperature inversion.

Ion - An atom, molecule, or compound that carries either a positive (cation) or

negative (anion) electrical charge.

Ionizing Radiation - The emission of alpha or beta particles or gamma rays from
radioisotopes. These emitted particles can dislodge one or more electrons from atoms

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they strike. The free electrons can form charged ions in living tissue that can react
with and damage cells.

Ionosphere - An identified region in the atmosphere located 60 to 400 kilometers (40

to 250 miles) above the Earth's surface where relatively large concentrations of ions
and free electrons exist. The ionosphere is important for human communications
because it is used to re-direct AM radio transmissions. This process extends the
distance that radio transmissions can travel. This is done by bouncing the radio
waves of the positively charged ions. The ionosphere also has a role in the creation of
aurora.

Iron Age - An age in the technological development of human civilization when

processed iron was used to make many tools. The Indian, European, and Near
Eastern cultures began their Iron Age at about 1200 BC.

Iron Pan - A hardpan layer in a soil that usually consists of sand particles that are
cemented together with iron oxides.

Iron Pyrite - A common mineral with the chemical formula FeS2. Also called pyrite
and fool's gold.

Irradiance - The radiant flux (rate of flow of electromagnetic radiation) received by a

surface per unit area. Irradiance is often measured in Watts per square meter.

Isarithm - See isoline.

Island - A piece of land surrounded by freshwater or seawater.

Island Arc - A line of volcanic islands found of the ocean that have been created by
the convergence of two tectonic plates and the subsequent subduction of one of the
plates beneath the other. Subduction causes magma plumes to rise to the Earth's
surface, creating the volcanic islands.

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Island Biogeography - The scientific study of abundance, distribution, spatial
pattern, and evolution of organisms on islands. One particularly important
contribution to this branch of science is the book by R.H. MacArthur and E.O. Wilson
titled the Theory of Island Biogeography. See Ecology and Biogeography.

Isobar - Is a line (isoline) on a map joining points of equal atmospheric pressure.

Isolated System - A system that has no interactions beyond its boundary layer. Many
controlled laboratory experiments are this type of system.

Isoline - Lines joining points of equal value for some measurable characteristic
shown on a map. Also called isopleth and isarithm.

Isopleth - See isoline.

Isostacy - The buoyant condition of the Earth's crust floating in the asthenosphere.
The greater the weight of the crust, the deeper it floats into the asthenosphere. When
weight is removed, the crust gradually rises higher.

Isostatic Depression - Large scale sinking of the crust into the asthenosphere
because of an increase in weight on the crustal surface. Common in areas of
continental glaciers, where the crust was depressed by the weight of the enormous
ice mass.

Isostatic Rebound - The upward movement of the Earth's crust following isostatic
depression.

Isotherm - Lines (isolines) on a map joining points of equal temperature.

Isothermal Layer - Vertical layer in the atmosphere where temperature remains

unchanged with altitude. In the Earth's atmosphere, three isothermal layers exist
below the stratosphere, mesosphere, and the thermosphere.

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Isotope - A form of an element where the number of neutrons in its atomic nucleus is
different from the number of protons.

Isotopic Dating - Any method of dating used to determine the age of something like
a fossil, mineral, or rock through the decay of radioactive elements.

Isotropy - An object or thing that has an attribute whose measurement does not
change value with direction. Compare with anisotropy.

Isoyet - Lines (isolines) on a map joining points of equal precipitation.

Isthmus - An area of relatively narrow terrain that connects two larger pieces of
land.

ITCZ - See Intertropical Convergence Zone.

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 J
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Jade - A common name for two minerals that are used as gemstones: Nephrite and
Jadeite.

Jellyfish - Are free-swimming simple invertebrate animals that live worldwide in

our planet's oceans and seas (Image Source: NOAA). There
are a few species that live in freshwater aquatic systems.
Some of the species in this group of organisms have
primitive nervous and digestive systems. About 1,200 to
2,000 different species exist of jellyfish. Jellyfish have
existed since the Cambrian Explosion, about 570 million
years ago.

Jet Stream - Relatively fast uniform winds concentrated within the upper
atmosphere in a narrow band. Several jet streams have been identified in the
atmosphere. The polar jet stream exists in the mid-latitudes at an altitude of
approximately 10 kilometers (6.2 miles). This jet stream flows from west to east at
average speeds, depending on the time of year, between 110 to 185 kilometers per
hour (68 to 115 miles per hour). Another strong jet stream occurs above the
Subtropical Highs at an altitude of 13 kilometers (8.1 miles). This jet stream is
commonly called the subtropical jet stream. The subtropical jet stream's winds are
not as strong as the polar jet stream.

Joint - A fracture in a rock where no movement has taken place or where no

movement has taken place perpendicular to the fracture's surface. Important in rock
weathering because it increases the exposed surface area for physical decomposition
or chemical reactions.

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Jökulhlaup - Icelandic term used to describe the rapid drainage of a subglacial large
mass of water or ice-dammed lake. These events usually result in flooding.

Joule (J) - Common unit used to measuring energy. One joule is the energy used by a
force of one newton in moving its point of application in the direction of the force
one meter.

June Solstice - Date during the year when the declination of the Sun is at 23.5° North
of the equator. During the June Solstice, locations in the Northern Hemisphere
experience their longest day. The June Solstice is also the first day of summer in the
Northern Hemisphere. Locations in the Southern Hemisphere have their shortest
day on the June Solstice. This date also marks the first day of winter in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Jungle - Commonly used term to describe dense or undisturbed tropical rain forest.

Jurassic - Geologic period that occurred roughly 144 to 208 million years ago. During
this period, the first birds and mammals appear, shallow seas covered large areas of
the continents, and conifers were the dominant land plants. Also large herbivorous
dinosaurs are common at the end of this period. One of three periods during the
Mesozoic. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the
most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Juvenile Water - Mineral-rich water that originates from the deep within the Earth's
interior where magma occurs. Often associated with volcanic eruptions. Also called
magmatic water.

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 K
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

K-Ar Dating - See potassium-argon dating.

K-Selected Species (Logistic Strategy) - A long-lived species that produces only a

few, often fairly large progeny. Compare with r-selected species. Also see r- and K-
Selection.

Kame - A steep conical hill composed of glaciofluvial sediments. This feature

develops when glacial crevasses and depressions in stagnant glacial ice are filled
with sand and gravel deposits from sediment loaded meltwater.

Kame Terrace - A long flat ridge composed of glaciofluvial sediment. This feature
forms along the margin of a valley glacier, where the glacial ice meets the valley's
slope. The sediment that makes up these features is deposited by laterally flowing
meltwater streams.

Kaolin - A type of clay mainly composed of mineral kaolinite. For hundreds of years,
kaolin has been used by humans to manufacture pottery, bricks, cement, plastering
material, and insulators.

Kaolinite - A type of clay mineral that is

widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of
the world (Image Source: USGS - Wikimedia
Commons). Chemically it can be described as a
hydrous aluminum silicate [Al2Si2O5(OH)4].
Kaolinite is produced by the weathering of
granite.

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Karst - A type landform with limestone bedrock and dominated by geomorphic
features created from solution chemical weathering.

Karst Water - Water rich in calcium and/or magnesium because it has flowed over
limestone or dolomite deposits. Karst water is often associated with springs.

Katabatic Wind - Any wind blowing down the slope of a mountain or off large
glacial ice sheets caused by the gravitational drainage of cold, dense air. These winds
are usually strong and are more frequent at night.

Katafront - A condition where warm air descends along the surface of a front
(usually a cold front). The sinking warm air inhibits the development of clouds and
precipitation. This type of weak frontal activity often produces a shallow band of
stratus clouds with little or no precipitation. Associated with mid-latitude cyclones
and cyclogenesis. Compare with anafront.

Kelvin Scale - Common scale used in science and engineering for measuring
temperature. In this scale, absolute zero is 0 Kelvins, water boils at 373.15 Kelvins,
and freezes at 273.15 Kelvins. One of the seven base measurement units used in the
International System of Units (SI). Compare with Celsius and Fahrenheit
temperature scales.

Kelvin Wave - A low-frequency gravity wave found in our planet's atmosphere or

ocean that moves in one direction. For Kelvin waves to form three conditions are
needed: 1) the stable stratification of a fluid medium (atmosphere or water or ocean)
for maintaining a gravitational oscillation, 2) a significant force generated by the
Coriolis effect, and 3) the presence of a vertical boundary or the equator. In the
Pacific Ocean, Kelvin Waves begin deep within the western equatorial Pacific and
move to the ocean surface somewhere in the east. Pacific Ocean Kelvin Waves are
used to forecast the start of an El Niño event.

Kettle Hole - Depression found in glacial deposits. Kettle holes are created when a
piece of ice from a retreating glacier becomes embedded in soft glacial till or glacial

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drift deposits. Many are filled with water
to form a small lake or pond. Shown is a
kettle hole in the highlands of Isunngua,
Greenland (Image Source: Wikipedia
Commons, image is in the public domain).

Kettle Moraine - An extensive area of

glaciofluvial moraine deposits that has
very uneven terrain and a number of kames and kettle holes found on it.

Keystone Species - A species that interacts with a relatively large number of other
species in a community. Because of the interactions, the removal of this species can
cause widespread changes to community structure. Compare with immigrant
species, indicator species, and native species.

Kilocalorie (Kcal) - Unit of energy equal to 1,000 calories.

Kilopascal (kPa) - An International System of Units unit of measurement for

quantifying force. Used to measure atmospheric pressure. Equal to one newton over
an area of one square meter. Equivalent to 10,000 dynes per square centimeter or
1,000 Pascals.

Kilowatt (kW) - Unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 Watts.

Kimberlite - A type of igneous rock containing the minerals mica, olivine, and some
times diamonds. Kimberlite occurs in the Earth's crust as vertical carrot-shaped
structures that formed under high pressure and temperature within the mantle.

Kinetic Energy - The energy that an object or substance possesses due to motion.

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Kingdom - The topmost level of the common hierarchical system used to classify
life. Five kingdoms of life are recognized: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Animalia, and
Plantae.

Kirchoff's Law - This physical law suggests that good emitters of electromagnetic
radiation are also good absorbers (absorption) of radiation at specific wavelength
bands. It also suggests that poor emitters (emission) of radiation are also poor
absorbers of radiation at specific wavelength bands.

Klippe - An outcrop of rock that has been separated from another adjacent mass of
rock because of a fault.

Knick - A term of German origin used to describe the area where the slope suddenly
becomes steeper in between an isolated hill (inselberg) and the surrounding plain
(pediment) where it is found.

Knickpoint (British spelling) - See nickpoint.

Knob and Kettle - A term commonly used in the United States to describe a glacially
influenced landscape containing kames and kettle moraines.

Knoll - A term commonly used to describe a small round hill.

Knot - Nautical term used to describe the speed of movement. One knot is equal to
1.15078 miles per hour or 1.852 kilometers per hour.

Koniology - A field of science that studies airborne dust, pollen, germs, and other
airborne substances and their influence on other things. Also spelled coniology.

Köppen A: Tropical Moist Climates - Major category in the Köppen Climate

Classification system. Locations classified as Köppen A have very warm climates and
experience high quantities of precipitation. Köppen A climates are found in the

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tropics. The primary distinguishing characteristic of these climates is that all months
have average temperatures above 18°C (64°F).

Köppen B: Dry Climates - Major category in the Köppen Climate Classification

system. Locations classified as Köppen B have climates that experience little
precipitation during most of the year. Further, potential losses of water from
evaporation and transpiration greatly exceed the atmospheric input of precipitation.

Köppen C: Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters - Major category in the
Köppen Climate Classification system. Locations classified as Köppen C have
summer temperatures that are warm to hot and winters are mild. The primary
distinguishing characteristic of these climates is that the coldest month has an
average temperature between 18°C (64°F) and -3°C (27°F).

Köppen Climate Classification - A system that uses monthly precipitation and

temperature data, and total annual precipitation data to classify a location's climate
into one of five main categories: Tropical Moist Climates (A); Dry Climates (B); Moist
Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters; (C) Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with
Cold Winters (D); and Polar Climates (E). These categories are further divided into a
number of subcategories. First developed in 1918 by German biologist W. Köppen,
this system has undergone a number of modifications.

Köppen D: Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters - Major category in the
Köppen Climate Classification system. Locations classified as Köppen D have
summer temperatures that are warm and winters are cold. The primary
distinguishing characteristic of these climates is that the average temperature of the
warmest month exceeds 10°C (50°F), and the average temperature of the coldest
month is below -3°C (27°F).

Köppen E: Polar Climates - Major category in the Köppen Climate Classification

system. Locations classified as Köppen E have climates with very cold winters and
summers, with no real summer season. The primary distinguishing characteristic of
these climates is the warmest month has an average temperature below 10°C (50°F).

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Köppen H: Highland Climates - Major category in the Köppen Climate
Classification system. Locations classified as Köppen H have climates that are
strongly influenced by the influence of altitude. As a result, the climate of such
locations is very different from places with low elevations at similar latitudes.

Krotovina - An animal created soil tunnel that has been infilled with some other type
of sediment.

Kurtosis - A statistical measure of the shape of

data relative to the normal distribution. This
measure varies from being leptokurtic (a
distribution that has more peaked shape) to
mesokurtic (properly shaped distribution) to
platykurtic (a distribution that has more flat
shape) when graphed in a histogram. Also see
skewness.

Kyoto Protocol - Is an international agreement associated with the United Nations

Framework on Climate Change aimed at mitigating human caused climate change. This
agreement achieves its goals by having signing nations reduce their atmospheric
emissions of greenhouse gases on a specific agreed timeline. The Kyoto Protocol was
initially adopted on December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and its recommendations
came into force February 16, 2005. By September 2011, 191 nations signed and
ratified the agreement with one major hold out being the United States. Canada
renounced the agreement in December 2011.

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 L
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

La Niña - La Niña occurs when stronger than normal tropical Pacific trade winds
cause an accumulation of cold surface seawater along the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean near the equator. La Niña events normally occur around Christmas and last
from a few weeks to a few months. Sometimes an extremely strong La Niña event
can develop that lasts for as long as two years. Condition opposite of an El Niño. The
following graph illustrates the timing of significant La Niña events between 1930
and 2016.

Laccolith - A mass of subsurface intrusive igneous rock

that becomes embedded in between two layers of
sedimentary rock and has its origins from mantle
magma (see figure). Usually, either the top or bottom of
the laccolith will be horizontal while the opposite side
will be curved. Compare with batholith, dyke, sill,
lopolith, and phacolith.

Lacuna - In geology, this term refers to the missing time interval associated with an
unconformity found in a series of chronologically laid down beds.

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Lacustrine - A feature or process involving a lake.

Lacustrine Deposit - A sediment deposit that was laid down in a lake.

Lacustrine Plain - A flat and extensive area of sediment deposits that originate from
the past presence of a lake.

Lag - Term that describes a situation where the timing of an event or the
development state of a process is delayed because of some circumstance.

Lag Gravel - A type of sediment that consists of an accumulation of gravel-sized rock

fragments found at the ground surface. Lag gravel is created when erosion by wind
and water selectively removes smaller sized particles and leaves the coarser rock
fragments behind.

Lag Time - The time delay that occurs for some causal mechanism and its coupled
processes take place. For example, torrential rainfall from a thunderstorm and the
flooding this water after it enters a stream network and overflows the stream
channel.

Lagoon - (1) A body of seawater that is almost completely cut off from the ocean by a
barrier beach. (2) The body of seawater that is enclosed by an atoll.

Lahar - A very rapid type of downslope mass movement involving mudflows from
volcanic ash.

Lake - A body standing water found on the Earth's land masses. The water in a lake
is normally fresh as water input is originally the product of precipitation. Also see
eutrophic lake, mesotrophic lake, and oligotrophic lake.

Lake Breeze - A local thermal circulation pattern found at the interface between a
large lake and the surrounding area of land. In this air circulation system, winds near

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the ground surface blow from the lake to land during the day. Lake breezes are best
developed in the afternoon. Similar to sea breeze but on a smaller spatial scale.

Lake Rampart - A minor ridge found along the shore of lake that is created by the
shoreward movement of lake ice during the winter season.

Lamina (Laminae plural) - A thin layer of deposit in a sedimentary rock. Typically

less than 1 centimeter (half an inch) in thickness. Compare with bed.

Laminar Flow - The movement of water within a stream that occurs as

uninterrupted parallel flows. Laminar flow generally occurs in areas where the
frictional effects on the flowing water are minimal.

Land Breeze - Local thermal circulation pattern found at the interface between large
surfaces of land and water, like where ocean meets the coastline of a continent. In
this air circulation system, surface
winds blow from land to water
during the night. The diagram shows
the three-dimensional air circulation
pattern associated with land breeze.
Note the high atmospheric pressure
over land occurs because of its faster
cooling relative to a water surface
which is warmer in terms of air
temperature. Compare with sea
breeze.

Land Bridge - A land connection that occurred in the past between now separate
continental masses isolated by the presence of ocean. The Bering Land Bridge once
connected the Kamchatka Peninsula (northeast Asia) with Alaska (northwest North
America). This land bridge formed because of the accumulation of glacier ice on land
during the Pleistocene Age caused sea levels to lower substantially (more than 50
meters or 160 feet). Land bridges are important in terms of biogeographical patterns

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of plants and animals as they allowed for the movement of species from one
continent to another.

Land Classification - A system that classifies and groups units of land on measured
properties and/or the use of this land for a defined purpose. For example, the type
of soil that a unit of land has maybe used to classify its use for a particular
agricultural use.

Land Capability - The relative value of land for agricultural use based usually on an
analysis of soil information.

Land Drainage - The process of draining excess water from an area of land. We often
do this to improve the value of land for other uses, like agriculture and urban
settlement.

Land Systems - A classification system used in land-use management and planning

where similar areas are grouped together in a broader landscape based on
measurable geological, ecological, pedological, agricultural, and geographical
characteristics.

Land-Cover - Refers to the natural and human-constructed things that cover the
Earth's land surface. Often we describe the natural land-cover of an area by reporting
on the ecosystem or biome dominating the surface.

Land-Cover Change - Describes the conversion of land-cover from one type to

another. For example, the conversion of deciduous forest into cropland.

Land-Use - Describes the way humans use an area of land. Major uses of land
include forestry, agriculture, livestock raising, industry, settlement, recreation,
mining, and transportation.

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Land-Use Change - The conversion of land-cover for some type of human use.
Humans use land for forestry, agriculture, livestock raising, industry, settlement,
recreation, mining, transportation, or other purposes associated with human social
and economic activity.

Landfall - The coastline location where a tropical storm or hurricane moves from
ocean onto land.

Landfill - The human use of an area land to dispose of and store various forms of
human garbage and waste. This is normally done with the goal of minimizing
negative environmental effects and using the least amount of land possible.

Landform - The physical and morphological characteristics of an area of the Earth's

surface that are the result of geomorphic and geologic processes. These features are
the result of process that are associated with tectonic uplift, subsidence, folding,
faulting,weathering, volcanism, plate tectonics, glaciation, stream processes, climate,
wave action, and wind. Landforms can be categorized according the features
observed.

Landform Classification - The grouping of landforms based on the processes that

acted to create them or their morphological characteristics.

Landsat - A series of American satellites launched by NASA to remotely monitor

resources and human activities on the surface of our planet. The first Landsat
satellite was launched by the United States in 1972. Landsat 8 was launched on
February 11, 2013, while Landsat 9 is being prepared to go to space in the year 2020.
Landsat satellite systems use two types of sensors to monitor the Earth: Thematic
Mapper and Multispectral Scanner. The Landsat system of satellites have collected
images of the Earth's surface for more than 40 years. This historical archive of data is
unsurpassed in quality, detail, and coverage. See the following website for more
information - NASA -The Landsat Program, [Link]

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Landscape Ecology - A field of Ecology that studies the cause and effect
relationships, processes, and patterns that exist between human systems, the natural
abiotic environment, and life. One critical aspect of landscape ecology is that it
investigates phenomena at a variety of different spatial scales. See the website
[Link]

Landscape Evaluation - A system of rural landscape assessment for the purpose of

management and planning.

Landslide - A general term used to describe the downslope movement of soil,

sediments, rock, and other weathered materials because of gravity.

Landward - Something positioned or located away from a water body but towards
the land.

Langley - Unit of the intensity of radiation measured per minute and equal to one
calorie.

Lapse Rate - The rate at which air temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
Represents the vertical temperature gradient in the atmosphere. Meteorologists
routinely measure the atmospheric lapse rate at weather stations via radiosondes.
Also see environmental lapse rate, dry adiabatic lapse rate, and saturated adiabatic
lapse rate.

Last Glacial Maximum - The period between

20,000 and 26,500 years ago when most of the
ice sheets and glaciers found in North America,
Europe, and Asia reached their most recent
maximum extent. During this time, Earth's
climate was generally cooler and drier, areas of
desertification were quite extensive, and sea
level was about 120 meters lower than today.
Shown is a map describing areas covered by ice

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sheets or sea ice (in gray) and the estimated sea surface temperature change from
today. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, graphic by Dominic McDevitt-Parks. This
image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Late Glacial Maximum - Time between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago when the Earth's
global climate warmed substantially, causing rapid deglaciation in the Northern
Hemisphere The end of this period marks the beginning of the Holocene. Also
called the Tardiglacial.

Latent Heat - Is the energy required to change a substance to a higher state of matter
(solid ➜ liquid ➜ gas). This energy is released from the substance when the change
of state is reversed (gas ➜ liquid ➜ solid).

Latent Heat Flux - Latent heat flux is the global movement of latent heat energy
through circulations of air and water. Atmospheric circulation moves latent heat
energy vertically and horizontally to cooler locations where it is condensed as rain or
is deposited as snow releasing the heat energy stored within it.

Latent Heat of Condensation - The amount of heat energy release to the

environment when a gas changes its state to a liquid. For one gram of water, the
amount of heat energy released is 540 calories at a temperature of 100°C (212°F).

Latent Heat of Vaporization - The amount of heat energy required from the
environment to change the state of a liquid to a gas. For one gram of water, the
amount of heat energy required is 540 calories at a temperature of 100°C (212°F).

Lateral Accretion - Stream channel process where sediments are deposited vertically
because of migrating point bars. In contrast, most of the other types of deposits due
to stream processes are laid down horizontally.

Lateral Dune - A small sand dune found alongside a much larger dune. Common
landform in sand-rich deserts.

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Lateral Erosion - A form of horizontal stream erosion that occurs along the outside of
meander bends. Lateral erosion occurs because stream flow is directed more towards
the stream bank at along the outside of meander bends of the stream channel.

Lateral Flow - A type of subsurface water flow that occurs in soil and sediments
below the ground surface but above the water table. Involves the movement of water
in a horizontal direction, usually along a more permeable subsurface zone. Compare
with throughflow.

Lateral Migration - A term that describes the movement of a stream channel across
the floodplain over time due to bank erosion and sediment deposition.

Lateral Moraine - Moraine that is found along the sides of a glacier. Commonly
found on glaciers that occupy a valley.

Laterite - A hard subsurface deposit of oxides of aluminum and iron found in

tropical soils where the water table fluctuates with seasonal changes in precipitation.
The formation of laterite layers involves the intense chemical weathering of soil
parent material over time. Most laterites have a rusty red color because of the
presence of iron oxide. Laterites are commonly mined for aluminum ore.

Laterization - Soil forming process that creates a laterite layer.

Latitude - Latitude is a north-south measurement of

position on the Earth's surface. It is defined by the angle
measured from a horizontal plane located at the Earth's
center, perpendicular to the polar axis. A line connecting
all places of the same latitude is called a parallel.
Latitude is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Measurements of latitude extend from 0° (the equator)
to 90° North and South. Compare with longitude.

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Latosol - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources Conservation
Service Soil Classification System. This soil is characterized by a thin O horizon, the
presence of a laterite layer, and a deeply weathered profile.

Laurasia - A supercontinent that existed mainly in the Northern Hemisphere

between 175 to 335 million years ago. Shown is
the configuration of the Earth's landmasses 200
million years ago. The tectonic separation of this
landmass created North America and Eurasia.
Gondwana and Laurasia together formed the
supercontinent Pangaea during the
Carboniferous (359 to 299 million years
ago).Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image
is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
3.0 Unported license.

Lava - Molten magma released from a volcanic vent or

fissure during a volcanic eruption (Image Source: U.S.
Geological Survey). When first released at the Earth's
surface, lava is a liquid and can have a temperature
between 700°C to 1,200°C (1,300°F to 2,200°F). Lava is
about 100,000 times more viscous than water.

Lava Cone - A volcanic cone constructed from many superimposed lava flows. Most
lava cones are composed of basalt-rich lava which is more viscous and less explosive.
Slope profiles of lava cones are typical low-angled and convex. Lava cones look like
miniature shield volcanoes.

Lava Dome - See shield volcano.

Lava Field - An extensive relatively flat area with many lava flows found at the base
of one or more volcanic cones.

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Lava Flow - A flow of lava coming from a volcanic vent.

Lava Fountain - A concentrated upward spray of molten lava from a volcanic vent or
volcanic fissure.

Lava Lake - An huge lake like accumulation of molten

lava inside a volcanic crater. Shown is a lava lake
located in the Halemaʻumaʻu Crater, Kilauea, Hawaii
(Image Source: U.S. Geological Survey). This picture was
taken on February 1, 2014.

Lava Plateau - An elevated plateau composed of numerous solidified lava flows

coming from many localized volcanic vents created over a long period of time.

Lava Tunnel - A below-ground passageway within a solidified lava flow.

Law of Basin Areas - The morphometric relationship observed in the mean basin
area size of stream segments of a particular classification order in stream channel
branching. This law was proposed by pioneering hydrologist R.E. Horton in first half
of the 20th century.

Law of Conservation of Energy - This law of thermodynamics states that energy can
be transferred from one system to another in many forms, and it cannot be created
nor destroyed. Thus, the total amount of energy available in the Universe is constant.

Law of Stream Lengths - The morphometric relationship observed in the cumulative

size of stream segment lengths in stream channel branching. This law was proposed
by pioneering hydrologist R.E. Horton in first half of the 20th century.

Law of Stream Number - The morphometric relationship observed in the number of

stream segments of a particular classification order in stream channel branching.

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This law was proposed by pioneering hydrologist R.E. Horton in first half of the 20th
century.

Law of Superposition - A underlying principle in the study of sedimentary

stratigraphy that states that in any set of deposited
layers of sediment or rock, the relative age of the
layers normally decreases from bottom to the top of
the sequence. See graphic. Modified Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, photo by Ljuba Brank. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Unported license.

Law of the Minimum - A principle developed initially in agricultural science to

explain the fact that most crops seem to be limited in growth by a single nutrient
(like nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium). This principle suggests that organisms are
typically limited by only one single physical factor that is in shortest supply relative
to demand. Originally proposed by Carl Philipp Sprengel in 1828 but latter
popularized by Justus von Liebig.

LDC - See Less Developed Country.

Leachate - A solution containing material leached from a soil.

Leaching - A soil process where water removes and transports humus and inorganic
nutrients in solution downward through the soil profile. Two important terms
associated with leaching are eluviation and illuviation. Eluviation refers to the
movement of humus, chemical substances, and mineral particles from the upper
layers of a soil to lower layers. Illuviation is the deposition of humus, chemical
substances, and fine mineral particles in the lower layers of a soil from upper layers.

Lead - A metallic, dark grey, dense, and relatively heavy chemical element identified
by the symbol Pb. Lead is commonly extracted from ores that contain the natural
mineral galena (lead sulfide or PbS). Lead is used for a variety of human-created

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products, including white paint, batteries, pewter, solder, fishing weights, buckshot,
shielding from harmful radiation, and plumbing. Lead is also quite toxic to life,
causing blood and neurological disorders.

Leaf Drip - The rain water that falls to the ground surface from plant leaves after it
has been intercepted by these structures.

Least Concerned - One of the categories used by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List to describe the status of a species. This
category suggests the species has been evaluated and it was determined that it will
not become critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable in the near future.

Lee - Side of a slope that is opposite to the direction of the flow of ice, wind, or water.
The opposite of stoss.

Lee Depression - Area of surface low atmospheric pressure located on the leeward
side of a mountain range. Lee depressions form because large vertical obstacles to
horizontal atmospheric flow cause the continual development of anticyclonic
divergence in the upper atmosphere, which leads to cyclonic convergence at the
ground surface.

Lee Eddy - A small converging airflow (eddy) that frequently develops on the
leeward side of vertical obstacles or steep drop-
offs.

Lee Waves - Are large sequential gravity waves

found embedded in the horizontal flow of air in
the atmosphere. These features form when airflow
encounters a significant vertical obstruction,
creating a series of oscillations in the atmosphere.
Lee waves are often seen as wave clouds
downwind of a mountain. Shown is a image of
wave clouds that developed because of lee waves

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in the atmosphere over the Tadrart region, southeast Algeria. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, photo by Pir6mon. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Leeward - The downwind side of an object, like a mountain. The opposite of

windward.

Legume - An plant species that is a member of the Fabaceae subfamily (for example,
peas or beans). These angiosperm plants form symbiotic relationships with specific
species of bacteria for acquiring nitrogen for growth. See the Encyclopedia of Life for
more information on this group of organisms. [Link]
overview

Lentic - A habitat or group of organisms found in still, freshwater. Lentic habitats can
include ditches, ponds, marshes, and lakes. Compare with lotic.

Lenticular Cloud - Stationary often saucer-shaped clouds that form in the

troposphere. They commonly form when air in the upper atmosphere with relatively
high humidity moves over mountains. On the leeward side of the topographical
obstruction, the air rises and condenses, forming the lenticular cloud. The lenticular
cloud's streamline shape normally is perpendicular to the wind direction at the
altitude of their formation. Latin name for this type of cloud is Altocumulus
lenticularis.

Less Developed Country (LDC) - Country characterized by minimal

industrialization, low technological development, low per capita income, and high
population growth rates. Many of these countries are found in Asia, Africa, and
Central and South America. Also see More Developed Country.

Lessivage - The mechanical translocation of silicate clay particles by way of

suspension in soil water to a location down the soil profile. This process does not
affect the chemical structure of the clay.

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Levee - A ridge of coarse deposits found running alongside stream channels and
elevated above the floodplain. Levees form from the deposition of sediment during
floods.

Liana - A species of plant that uses the support of trees to elevate its leaves above the
forest canopy.

Lichen - An organism that consists of a symbiotic joining of a species of fungi and a

species of algae or cyanobacteria. In this
symbiotic partnership, the fungus provides
the algae or cyanobacteria with water and
nutrients and protection from the
environment. In exchange, the algae or
cyanobacteria supply the fungus with
synthesized carbohydrates and other
organic matter that are the byproduct of
their photosynthesis. Lichen have many
different forms and colors, and are found
on our planet in a great variety of habitat
types. Shown is a type of lichen with a
shrubby and highly branched form that is often found growing on the branches or
bark of conifer trees.

Lichenometry - The scientific technique of using lichens for dating things in the late
Holocene. Lichenometry is often used to date past glacial events. Lichens grow at
steady rates and some species even grow as circular expanding patches. The size of
these patches can be used to infer the time when a surface became free of glacial ice.

Light - See visible light.

Light Minerals - Any rock forming mineral that has a specific gravity of less than 2.8
and is light in color. Some examples of light minerals include quartz, feldspars, and
calcite.

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Lightning - The visible instantaneous discharge of
electricity through the atmosphere normally associated
with thunderstorms. The lightning event occurs
between electrically charged regions between two
thunderstorm clouds or a region in a cloud and the
ground surface. The lightning bolt is composed of
extremely hot plasma produced by the flow of
electrons. Lightning also produces a deafening
booming sound called thunder.

Light-Year (Lightyear or Light Year) - Distance that light travels in the vacuum of
space in one year. Approximately 9.7 trillion kilometers (6.0 trillion miles).

Lignite - Low grade coal with a carbon content of between 60 to 70%. Also called
brown coal.

Lime Requirement - The amount of lime (CaCO3) addition required to raise the pH
of a soil to some desired level. Liming is used by farmers to raise the pH of
ordinarily acidic soils with the desired effect of producing higher crop yields.

Limestone - Sedimentary rock composed of carbonate minerals, especially calcium

carbonate. Limestone can be created by clastic and non-clastic sedimentary
processes. Clastic limestones are formed from the breakup and deposition of shells,
coral, and other marine organisms by wave-action and ocean currents. Non-clastic
limestones can be formed either as a precipitate or by the lithification of coral reefs,
marine organism shells, or marine organism skeletons.

Limestone Pavement - A karst landform that consists of

relatively flat exposed limestone bedrock. Further, the
feature looks like paving blocks because the surface is
intersected with regular cracks. Shown is an example of
limestone pavement located in Yorkshire Dales, United
Kingdom. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photo by

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Lupin. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Limiting Factor - Abiotic condition that most controls the growth of a species. For
most terrestrial plants, this condition is the supply of the soil nutrient nitrogen. Also
see the Law of the Minimum.

Limnic - Something associated with freshwater.

Limnology - This is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge that studies the science

associated with inland waters. Limnology employs knowledge from Ecology,
Environmental Science, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, and Physics. Also called
freshwater science.

Limnophyte - A plant that lives submersed in a freshwater environment.

Limonite - A common yellow to brown colored iron ore made of a mixture of

hydrous ferric oxides.

Lineament - A general term used to describe a large-scale linear surface landscape

feature. Often, these landscape features are the result of the structural geology of the
area.

Lipid - Is an organic compound composed of carbon atoms that have two hydrogen
atoms attached. Lipids are commonly known as fats and oils. They also belong to the
family of molecules known as hydrocarbons.

Liquefaction - Temporary transformation of a mass of soil or sediment into a fluid

mass. Liquefaction occurs when the cohesion of particles in the soil or sediment is
lost. It can be triggered by seismic waves from an earthquake. For this condition to
take place, the pore spaces between soil particles must be at or near saturation.

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Liquid - A state of matter where molecules can flow and the surface of this mass
displays the property of surface tension.

Liquid Limit - See Atterberg limits.

Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer - A thermometer design that uses a thermally

sensitive liquid incased in a graduated clear glass cylinder. Changes in temperature
cause the liquid to either expand (warming of temperature) or contract (cooling of
temperature). The most commonly used liquids for this type of instrument are
mercury and alcohol. These thermometers are often used for taking meteorological
measurements of air temperature.

Lithification - A process by which sediments are consolidated into sedimentary rock.

Lithology - The physical characteristics and structure of a rock visible to the naked
eye or using low powered magnification.

Lithosol - A shallow soil that lacks any significant soil horizon development.

Lithosphere - Is the solid inorganic portion of the Earth composed of rocks, minerals,
and sediments. The lithosphere
includes continental crust, oceanic
crust, and the topmost part of the
upper mantle. This layer is typically
about 100-150 kilometers (60-90
miles) thick and can glide over the
rest of the upper mantle (see
graphic). The lithosphere may be as
thin as 40 km (25 miles) or as thick as
280 kilometers (175 miles). Because of
high temperatures and extremes pressure, deeper portions of the lithosphere are
capable of plastic flow over geologic time. The lithosphere is also the zone of
earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building, and continental drift.

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Litter - The accumulation of leaves, twigs, and other forms of organic matter on the
soil surface. In most soils, the surface layer of litter is at various stages of
decomposition.

Litterfall - Movement of leaves, twigs, and other forms of organic matter from plants
to the litter layer found in soil.

Little Climatic Optimum - See Medieval Warm Period.

Little Ice Age - A climatically defined period roughly from 1550 to 1850 AD. During
this period, global temperatures were at their coldest since the beginning of the
Holocene.

Littoral - Something associated with a lake or ocean shoreline.

Littoral Drift - Loose sediment that is transported by waves and currents along the
shoreline through beach drift and longshore drift in coastal areas.

Littoral Transport - The process of loose sediment moving along a coastline. This
process has two components: longshore transport and onshore-offshore transport.

Littoral Zone - The zone along a coastline that is between the spring tide high water
and low water marks.

Living Atmosphere - Earth atmosphere that existed between 2.5 billion years ago
and today. The development, evolution, and growth of life increases the quantity of
oxygen in the atmosphere from <1% to 21%. By about 500 million years ago, the
concentration of atmospheric oxygen levels off at about 21%. At the end of this stage,
human activity begins modifying the concentration of several greenhouse gases, and
the lower atmosphere was mainly composed of the gases nitrogen (N2) - 78%,
oxygen (O2) - 21%, argon (Ar) - 0.9%, and carbon dioxide (CO2) - 0.042%. Compare
with the early atmosphere and secondary atmosphere.

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Load - See stream load.

Load Structures - A type of small-scale sedimentary structure that occurs in much

larger sedimentary strata. These features form when sand is deposited on top of
saturated clay or silt. The weight of this deposit, then creates irregular shaped lobes
of sand that sink into the layers in the clay or silt, deforming these layers downward.
The lobes of sand often have intermittent tongues of clay or silt that have migrated
up into this sediment because of pressure. Also called load casts.

Loam - A soil that contains a roughly equal mixture of clay, silt, and sand. Very
suitable for growing most crops.

Lobe - A tongue-like extension of some material in the natural environment. For

example, the ice lobe of an alpine glacier.

Local Climate - Refers to the micro-climatic conditions of a relatively small area. For
example, the local climate of an urban area or a hillside facing the Sun.

Local Group - Is a grouping of galaxies (galaxy group), caused by gravity, that

includes the Milky Way Galaxy, Andromeda Galaxy, and more than 30 smaller
galaxies located in the Universe. The Local Group is part of a much larger grouping
of numerous galaxy groups known as the Virgo Supercluster. Also see supercluster.

Location - A term used in geography that deals with the relative and absolute spatial
position of natural and human-made phenomena.

Loess - Unstratified, yet homogeneous, deposits of silt laid down by aeolian

processes over extensive areas of the mid-latitudes during glacial and postglacial
times.

Logarithmic Scale - A measurement scale based on logarithms. Values increase on

this scale at an exponential rate.

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Longitude - Longitude is a west-east measurement of
position on the Earth's surface. Longitude is defined by
the angle measured from a vertical plane running
through the polar axis and the Prime Meridian. A line
connecting all places of the same longitude is called a
meridian. Longitude is measured in degrees, minutes,
and seconds. Measurements of longitude range from
Prime Meridian at 0° to 180° west and east from this
point. Compare with latitude.

Longitudinal Dune - A sinuous sand dune that can be more than 100 kilometers
long (60 miles) and 100 meters (300 feet)
high. These dunes are created when there are
strong winds from at least two directions.
The dune ridge is symmetrical, aligned
parallel to the net direction of the wind, and
has slip-faces on either side. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, artist Po ke jung. This
image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Longitudinal Valley - A long valley found in between two almost parallel mountain
chains. These features are common in areas where folding is responsible for the
formation of mountains.

Longshore Current - A water current that moves parallel to the shoreline.

Longshore Drift - The movement and deposition of coastal sediments because of

longshore currents.

Longshore Transport - The transport of sediment in moving water parallel to a

shoreline.

Long Waves - See Rossby waves.

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Longwave Radiation - A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength
roughly between 0.7 and 100 micrometers (µm). Also called infrared radiation.

Lopolith - A flat, saucer-shaped intrusive igneous rock mass with a concave center.
Compare with batholith, dyke, sill, laccolith, lopolith, and phacolith.

Lotic - A habitat or group of organisms found in moving, freshwater. An example of

a lotic habitat would be a stream. Compare with lentic.

Lovelock, James E. - British scientist and naturalist who is most famous for his
development of the Gaia Hypothesis. This theory suggests that life on Earth
functions like super-organism regulating its environment through biological
processes that influence the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.

Low Pressure - An area of atmospheric pressure within the Earth's atmosphere that
is below average. If this system is on the Earth's surface and contains circular wind
flow and enclosed isobars, it is called a cyclone.

Low Tide - The lowest elevation of the ocean surface during a 24 hour and 50.4-
minute tidal cycle. Same as low water mark. Compare with high tide.

Low Water - This term refers to the minimum elevation of ocean surface during a 24
hour and 50.4-minute tidal cycle for diurnal or semi-diurnal tides. Same as high tide.
Compare with high water.

Low Water Mark - The elevation of the ocean surface along a shoreline at low tide.
Compare with high water mark.

Lower High Water - Term used to describe the lower event of the two maximum
ocean surface elevations that occurs in a mixed tide during a 24 hour and 50.4-
minute tidal cycle.

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Lower Low Water - Term used to describe the lower event of the two minimum
ocean surface elevations that occurs in a mixed tide during a 24 hour and 50.4-
minute tidal cycle.

Lower Mantle - Layer of the Earth's interior extending from 670 to 2,900 kilometers
(415 to 1,800 miles) below the surface crust. The lower mantle is believed to be
composed mainly of ultramafic rock. This layer is hot and plastic, and part of the
mantle layer. Compare with upper mantle.

Lunar Day - The interval of time it takes for the Earth's Moon to complete one
rotation on its axis with respect to the Sun. This time interval is equal to
approximately 24 hours and 50 minutes.

Lutite - A general term used to describe a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed

of either silt or clay particles, or a mixture of both.

Luvisol Soil - Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of Soil

Classification. This soil type is associated with forest vegetation.
The most identifying traits of this soil is the presence of
calcareous parent material, which results in a high pH and
strong eluviation of clay from the A horizon. For more
information on this soil type, see the textbook Canadian System of
Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available online - http://
[Link]/cansis/taxa/cssc3/[Link]. Image Source:
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

Lynchet - A human-made hillside terrance created by ploughing.

Lysimeter - A meteorological instrument used to measure potential

evapotranspiration and actual evapotranspiration.

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 M
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Macroclimate - The climatic characteristics over a region with an extensive spatial

area. Compare with microclimate.

Macroflora - Plants occupying an area that are large enough to be seen without the
aid of additional optical magnification. Compare with microflora.

Macrofauna - Animals occupying an area that are large enough to be seen without
the aid of additional optical magnification. Compare with microfauna.

Macrofossil - A fossil that is large enough to be seen without the aid of optical
magnification. Compare with microfossil.

Macrometeorology - The scientific study of the atmosphere and its associated

phenomena on a large scale. A sub-discipline of meteorology.

Macronutrient - A nutritional element required by an organism in relatively large

quantities. Compare with micronutrient.

Maelstrom - A strong whirlpool or current in a stream or ocean waters.

Mafic - A rock that is rich in calcium, magnesium, and iron content.

Mafic Magma - A type of magma that is relatively poor in silica (45% to 52%) but
rich in calcium, magnesium, and iron content. This type of magma solidifies to form
dark-colored igneous rocks rich in calcium, magnesium, and iron but relatively poor
in silica.

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Magma - Molten rock found beneath the Earth's surface. Besides molten rock, this
substance also contains suspended mineral crystals, dissolved gas, and gas bubbles.
Magmas can range in temperature from 700°C to 1300°C (1300°F to 2400°F).
Geologists recognize four types of magma (in brackets the typical igneous rocks
formed from these magmas): ultramafic (picritic), mafic (basalt), intermediate
(andesite), and felsic (rhyolite). Compare with lava.

Magma Plume - A subsurface mass of vertical rising magma originating from the
mantle.

Magmatic Water - See juvenile water.

Magnesium Limestone - An old British term used to describe dolomite.

Magnesite - A mineral with the chemical formula MgCO3 (magnesium carbonate).

Magnesite is often found in ultramafic rocks.

Magnetic Anomaly - A local variation in the Earth's magnetic field often caused by
interference generated by the magnetism or chemical composition of rocks found at
this location.

Magnetic Declination - The horizontal angle between True North and Magnetic
North or True South and Magnetic South.

Magnetic Field - The space influence by magnetic force. Shown is a magnetic field
generated by two bar magnets with north and south poles adjacent to each other
(Image Source: Wikipedia Commons). The magnetic field is made visible with iron
filings on a piece of paper. Magnetic fields are measured by the force they exert of
charged subatomic particles like electrons. Magnetic fields have both a direction and
a magnitude. Many celestial bodies in the Universe, including planets and stars,
have magnetic fields. The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be generated by a
process at the planet's core. The process that generates the Earth's magnetic field is

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known as a dynamo. A dynamo is a mechanical
device that creates an electrical current through
motion. The Earth's dynamo is created because a
zone of liquid iron, nickel, and small quantities of
other metals about 2000 kilometers thick moves
dynamically above a hot (5,700°C) solid core made
of mainly iron. The movement of the liquid metal
is caused by two things: convection currents and
the Earth's rotation on its axis. This movement of conducting liquid iron generates
circulating electric currents, which creates the Earth's magnetic field.

Magnetic Inclination - Compass angle made relative to the horizontal because of the
Earth's magnetic field. Also called magnetic dip.

Magnetic Meridian - An imaginary line approximating a great circle connecting the

South Magnetic Pole and North Magnetic Pole.

Magnetic North - See North Magnetic Pole.

Magnetic Reversal - A change in the polarity of the Earth's magnetic field. There
have been nine magnetic reversals in the past 4 million years.

Magnetic South - See South Magnetic Pole.

Magnetic Storm - A disturbance in the

Earth's atmosphere caused when solar
wind and the charged particles it
carries interacts with the
magnetosphere and magnetic field
(Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
NASA). These disturbances can last for
hours to several days. Magnetic storms
can damage human electrical systems,

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including satellites, radio communications, power transmission systems, and
navigation systems. In the last 200 years, two very severe magnetic storms have
occurred, a storm from August 28 to September 2, 1859, and the second on March 13,
1989. The more recent event caused the collapse of the Hydro-Québec power grid,
caused damage to some computers and impaired several satellites in orbit.

Magnetic Stripes - Alternating parallel bands of differing polarity found in rocks

moving away from mid-oceanic ridges. Magnetic stripes are a byproduct of sea-floor
spreading.

Magnetic Survey - A tool used by geophysicists to create subsurface images of the

spatial anomalies in the Earth's magnetic field. Magnetic surveys are commonly used
mineral, oil, and gas exploration.

Magnetite - A black or brownish-black, metallic mineral with the chemical formula

Fe3O4. This magnetic mineral is one of the main types of iron ore and can be found in
most igneous and metamorphic rocks. Also called loadstone.

Magnetometer - An instrument used to measure the direction, strength or relative

variation in a magnetic field. One common use of this instrument is to measure the
Earth's magnetic field at a specific location.

Magnetosphere - The zone that surrounds the surface of the Earth that is influenced
by the Earth's magnetic field.

Magnitude - (1) The quantifiable size of a natural event. (2) A quantitative measure
of the size of an earthquake using the Richter scale.

Mammal - Group of warm-blooded vertebrate animals. Common characteristics

found in these organisms include hair, milk secretion, diaphragm for respiration,
lower jaw composed of a single pair of bones, middle ear containing three bones,

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and presence of only a left systemic arch. See the Encyclopedia of Life for more
information on this group of organisms. [Link]

Mammilated Surface - A smoothed and rounded rock surface due to the effects of
erosion.

Manganese - A chemical element that makes up about 0.1% of the Earth's crust. It
has an atomic number of 25 and is represented chemically with the symbol Mn.
Manganese is often found in chemical combination with iron to form various
minerals. It has many industrial uses.

Mangrove - A wetland where specially adapted trees are the dominant plants.
Mangroves are commonly located on the
coastlines of warm tropical climates. There are
about 110 species of shrubs and trees that are
considered mangroves. One genus that has
several representative species is Rhizophora.
Shown is an image of Rhizophora mangle (Image
Source: Wikipedia Commons). The World
Mangrove Atlas, published by the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in
2010, suggests that about 20 percent of the
world's mangrove ecosystems have been lost
since 1980.

Manning Equation - An empirical equation used in engineering to estimate the

velocity of a liquid flowing uniformly in an open channel.

Mantle - A layer in the Earth's interior composed of mostly solid rock rich in silica.
The mantle, can at times, be like a very viscous liquid due to tectonic activity and in
localized rising mantle plumes. The mantle extends from the base of the crust to a
depth of about 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles) and makes up about 84% of the volume
of our planet. Geologists have divided the mantle into several zones that are based

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on seismic measurements. These zones include the
upper mantle beginning at the base of the Earth's
crust at 7 to 35 km (4.3 to 22 miles) down to a depth
of about 410 km (250 mi), a transition zone from 410
to 660 km (250 to 410 miles), the lower mantle from
660 to 2,900 km (410 to 1,800 miles), and finally a
core/mantle transition zone with a thickness of
about 200 km (120 mi). There are also a few places
on the Earth's where mantle rock has reached the
surface because of tectonic activity, such as the Tablelands region of Gros Morne
National Park in Canada. The term mantle can also refer to the interior of another
planet.

Mantle Plume - A localized column of hot rock that rises from the base of the mantle
to the crust because of convection. The Hawaiian Island chain formed because of a
mantle plume melting upward through oceanic crust. On continental crust, mantle
plumes are believed to be responsible for basalt plateaus. Compare with the term hot
spot.

Map - An abstraction of the real world that is used to depict, analyze, store, and
communicate spatially organized information about physical and cultural
phenomena important to humans.

Map Projection - A cartographic graphic technique used to represent the three-

dimensional surface of the Earth or some other celestial body (like a planet) onto a
two-dimension map. This process creates some type of distortion artifact on the map
because of the depiction of the three-dimensional surface onto a two-dimensional
plane.

Map Reference - A grid coordinate system for locating a point on the Earth's surface.
The most commonly used method is the Universal Transverse Mercator grid system.
Also called grid reference.

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Map Scale - Ratio between the distance between two points found on a map
compared to the actual distance between these points in the real world.

Marble - A metamorphic rock created by the recrystallization of calcite and/or

dolomite.

March Equinox - One of two days during a year when the Sun's declination is at the
equator. The March Equinox denotes the first day of spring in the Northern
Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, this date marks the first day of fall.
During the March Equinox, all locations on the Earth (except the poles) experience
equal (12-hour) day and night. The March Equinox occurs on either March 20 or 21.

Margalitic - A soil A horizon that is rich in calcium and magnesium, giving it a high
base cation status.

Marginal Channel - A meltwater created stream that is found at the base of a glacier.
Also called a meltwater stream.

Marginal Deep - An ocean trench located on the seaward side of an island.

Marginal Depression - An area of depressed land located around the edge of an

inselberg.

Marginal Sea - An area of ocean that is partially enclosed by the coastline of islands
or continents, yet part of it is still open to a major ocean. Some marginal seas include
the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of Bengal, Bering Sea, Beaufort Sea, Black Sea, Gulf
of California, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Ross Sea, and the Weddell
Sea.

Marine - With reference to ocean environments, processes, and things.

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Marine Abrasion - The abrasion action caused by waves striking the shoreline. This
process is aided by the sand and other solid materials suspended in seawater.

Marine Pollution - Type of pollution that is occurring in a marine environment.

Maritime Climate - The typical climate of locations found on or near an ocean.

Seasonal variations in temperature are small due to the thermal characteristics of
large water bodies. For middle and high latitude locations, summers and winters
tend to be significantly milder than locations found at the continental interior.
Maritime climates generally have more precipitation and fog because of their
proximity to significant sources of moisture. See maritime effect. Compare with
continental climate.

Maritime Effect - The effect that large ocean bodies have on the weather and climate
of locations or regions. This effect results in a lower range in surface air temperature
at both daily and annual scales. Compare with continental effect.

Maritime Equatorial Air Mass (mE) - Air mass that forms over extensive ocean areas
near the equator. Maritime Equatorial air masses are hot and humid all year long.
These air masses are generally
unstable and produce
thunderstorms in the tropics. On
weather maps, the symbol mE is
used to identify a Maritime
Equatorial air mass. On the map,
the typical source regions for
these air masses are shown (see
image - Image Source: Wikipedia
Commons, NASA). Also see Continental Arctic air mass, Continental Antarctic air
mass, Continental Polar air mass, Maritime Polar air mass, Maritime Tropical air
mass, and Continental Tropical air mass.

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Maritime Polar Air Mass (mP) - Air mass that forms over extensive ocean areas of
the middle to high latitudes. Around North America, these air mass systems form
over the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean at the middle latitudes. Maritime Polar air
masses are mild and humid in summer and cool and humid in winter. In the
Northern Hemisphere, maritime
polar air masses are normally
unstable during the winter. In the
summer, atmospheric stability
depends on the position of the air
mass relative to a continent.
Around North America,
Maritime Polar air masses found
over the Atlantic are stable in
summer, while Pacific systems
tend to be unstable. On weather maps, the symbol mP is used to identify a Maritime
Polar air mass. On the map, the typical source regions for these air masses are shown
(see image - Image Source: Wikipedia Commons, NASA). Also see Continental Arctic air
mass, Continental Antarctic air mass, Continental Polar air mass, Maritime Tropical
air mass, Continental Tropical air mass, and Maritime Equatorial air mass.

Maritime Tropical Air Mass (mT) - Air mass that forms over extensive ocean areas
of the low latitudes. Around North America, these systems form over the Gulf of
Mexico and the eastern tropical Pacific. Maritime Tropical air masses are warm and
humid in both winter and
summer. In the Northern
Hemisphere, maritime tropical
air masses can normally be
stable during the whole year if
they have form just west of a
continent. If they form just east
of a continent, these air masses
will be unstable in both winter
and summer. On weather maps, the symbol mT is used to identify a Maritime
Tropical air mass. On the map, the typical source region for these air masses are

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shown (see image - Image Source: Wikipedia Commons, NASA). Also see Continental
Arctic air mass, Continental Antarctic air mass, Continental Polar air mass, Maritime
Polar air mass, Continental Tropical air mass, and Maritime Equatorial air mass.

Marker Horizon - A stratigraphic unit (bed) that contains a distinctive composition

and appearance and is found in more than one location over an extensive
geographical area. Marker horizons are often used to date the relative timing of past
geologic events.

Markov Process - A cause and effect process where the probabilistic occurrence of an
event in the future depends on the present state of the system. It was named after the
Russian mathematician Andreyevich Markov.

Marl - A mud or mudstone that is rich in calcium carbonate or other calcium-based

compounds. The individual particles found in marl are usually clay and silt.

Marsh - A type of wetland ecosystem that can be found along the edge of a
watercourse (stream) or water body (lake, sea, or ocean), and is dominated by
herbaceous rather than woody plants.

Marsh Gas - Methane emissions produced by organic matter decompostion in a

marsh, wetland, swamp, or bog. Marsh gas may also contain carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide emissions. Also called swamp gas.

Mass - Refers to the amount of material found in an object (usually of unit volume).

Mass Balance - The relative balance between the input and output of material within
a system. This term is often used to describe the flow dynamics of glaciers.

Mass Extinction - A catastrophic, widespread perturbation where major groups of

species become extinct in a relatively short time compared to normal background
extinctions.

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Mass Movement - A general term that describes the downslope movement of
sediment, soil, and rock material.

Mass Number - Total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom. An
approximate measure of the mass of an atom. Also see atomic number.

Mass Strength - A quantitative measure of a mass of rock's resistance to deformation

and fracture. Mass strength measurements are used in engineering to determine the
safety of slopes, building foundations, and underground excavations.

Mass Wasting - A general term that describes the downslope movement of sediment,
soil, and rock material.

Mathematical Model - A mathematical representation of a system from which

predictions or inferences can be made.

Matric Force - The force that holds soil water from 0.0002 to 0.06 millimeters
(0.0000079 to 0.0024 inches) from the surface of soil particles. This force is due to two
processes: soil particle surface molecular attraction (adhesion and absorption) to
water and the cohesion that water molecules have to each other. This force declines
in strength with distance from the soil particle. The force becomes nonexistent past
0.06 millimeters (0.0024 inches).

Matter - Is the material (atoms and molecules) that constructs things on the Earth
and in the Universe.

Mature Soil - A soil that is in equilibrium with the soil forming factors in its
environment. Mature soils have well-developed soil horizons.

Maunder Minimum - The period from 1645 to 1715 during which the Sun had very
little sunspot activity.

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Maximum Minimum Temperature System (MMTS) - Refers to a device that records
maximum and minimum temperature over a set time interval, usually 24 hours
(midnight to midnight). MMTS are usually electronic employing a thermistor, a type
of electronic resistor that is sensitive to temperature change. In a thermistor,
resistance to the flow of electricity changes with temperature predictably, and this
change can be calibrated, measured, and recorded.

Maximum Thermometer - A meteorological thermometer designed to record the

maximum temperature over a set time interval, usually 24 hours (midnight to
midnight). Liquid-in-glass type of maximum thermometers have a bore that is
narrowed between the reserve bulb and graduated portion of the glass stem. With a
rise in temperature, the mercury found in reserve bulb pushes past the constriction
and up into the graduated section as long as temperature continues to increase. The
mercury in the graduated section does not fall back into the reserve bulb because of
the constriction, and as a result, the highest temperature reached is recorded.
Compare with minimum thermometer.

MDC - See More Developed Country.

Mean - Statistical measure of central tendency in a set of data. The mean is calculated
by adding all of the data values and dividing this quantity by the total number of
data values. Also called the average. Compare with median and mode.

Mean Daily Temperature - The average temperature for one day (24 hours)
normally from midnight to midnight. Two techniques are commonly used for this
calculation: [(Maximum daily temperature + Minimum daily temperature)/2], and
the average of the 24 hourly temperatures over the length of a day.

Mean Sea Level - The average height of the ocean surface as determined from the
mean of all tidal levels recorded at hourly intervals.

Mean Solar Day - The time it takes to complete one Earth rotation relative to the
position of the Sun (for example, from midnight to midnight). This measurement

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takes 24 hours and is longer than a sidereal day because it includes the effect of the
Earth's movement (Earth revolution) around the Sun.

Meander - A sinuous shaped stream channel. Usually found in streams flowing over
a very shallow elevation grade.

Meander Scar - A crescent-shaped depression in the landscape created in the past by

the erosional activity of a meandering stream. Often associated with an oxbow lake.

Meander Terrace - An elevated platform in the landscape formed when a

meandering stream channel eroded down into the floodplain.

Meandering Valley - A stream valley that zigzags laterally along its length through a
landscape and contains within it a meandering stream. The valley's sinuous course it
the result of erosional effects of the meandering stream.

Mechanical Weathering - See physical weathering.

Medial Moraine - A significant deposit of eroded sediment found down the center of
a glacier. Medial moraines are created when two glaciers and their lateral moraines
merge.

Median - A statistical measure of central tendency in a set of data. The median is the
value halfway through a data set where the values have been ordered from lowest to
highest. In an even data set, the median is the average of the two halfway values.
Compare with mean and mode.

Medieval Warm Period - A period of relatively warmer climate during the Holocene
that occurred in northern Europe, the North Atlantic Ocean, southern Greenland,
and Iceland from about 900 to 1200 AD.

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Mediterranean Climate - Is a mid-latitude climate found at a latitude of about 30 to
40° on the western coasts of the continents. This climate is characterized by having
dry, hot to warm summers because of the regional dominance of Subtropical High
Pressure Zone and continental tropical air masses. In the winter, the temperatures
become cooler and precipitation increases because of the seasonal migration of
maritime polar air masses and associated mid-latitude cyclones. The natural
vegetation that lives here is highly adapted to withstand summer drought.

Mediterranean Front - A front that forms in the winter months over the
Mediterranean that is associated with mid-latitude cyclone activity, strong winds,
cloud cover, and precipitation. Air masses associated with this front include
Continental Tropical air from northern Africa, Maritine Polar air from the Atlantic,
and Continental Polar air from northern Europe.

Mediterranean Scrubland - See Chaparral.

Megatherm - A plant that requires very warm temperatures (no month has a mean
temperature less than 18°C) and abundant moisture (evapotranspiration is never
greater than additions from rainfall) to maintain normal growth.

Megathermal Climate - A tropical or subtropical climate where over the year no

month has a mean temperature below 18°C.

Melting - The physical process of a solid becoming a liquid. For water, this process
requires approximately 80 calories of heat energy for each gram converted.

Meltwater - Water produced from the melting of snow and/or glacial ice.

Meltwater Channel - A channeled flow of water that results from the melting of a
glacier or ice sheet.

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Meltwater Stream - A meltwater created stream that is found at the base of a glacier.
Also called a marginal channel.

Mercalli Scale - A standard scale used to determine the power of an earthquake.

This scale is based on the amount of visible damage inflicted on landscape features
and human-built structures. This scale ranges from 1 (not felt) to 12 (complete
destruction).

Mercator Map Projection - A type of Cylindrical Map Projection system that

presents true compass direction. Distortion is manifested in terms of area. Area
distortion makes continents in the middle and
high latitudes seem larger than they should be.
The Mercator Map Projection was specifically
designed for nautical navigation. This technique
for creating maps was first employed by the
Flemish cartographer Gérardus Mercator in
1569. Mercator's projection system quickly
became the standard for maritime mapping in
the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries.

Mercury - A chemical element that has an atomic number of 80 and is represented

chemically with the symbol Hg. Mercury lacks a crystal structure in its natural form
and therefore is not geologically defined as a mineral but a mineraloid. Deposits of
mercury are found throughout the world mostly as mercuric sulfide (cinnabar)

Mercury Barometer - Type of barometer that measures changes in atmospheric

pressure by the height of a column of mercury in a U-shaped tube that has one end
sealed and the other end immersed in an open container of mercury. The force of the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the mercury in the open container pushes
mercury up the other end of the tube. The height of this level is then used as a
measure of atmospheric pressure relative to the surface level of the mercury in the
container.

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Meridian - A circular arc that meets at the poles and connects all places of the same
longitude.

Meridional - The movement of things like wind or ocean waters in a direction that is
roughly parallel to the lines of longitude.

Meridional Circulation - Term used in meteorology to describe atmospheric flow in

a direction that is roughly parallel to the lines of longitude.

Meridional Heat Transport - The global transport of heat energy stored in the
atmosphere and oceans from the equator to the poles.

Mesa - A flat topped hill that rises sharply above the surrounding landscape. The top
of this hill is usually capped by a rock formation that is more resistant to weathering
and erosion.

Mesic Layer - A near-surface layer in soil dominated by moderately decomposed

organic matter. Compare with fibric and humic layers.

Mesocyclone - A cylinder of cyclonically flowing air that forms vertically inside a

severe thunderstorm. Mesocyclones measure about 3 to 10 kilometers (1.9 to 6.2
miles) across. About 50% of these weather events spawn tornadoes.

Mesopause - Thin boundary layer found between the mesosphere and the
thermosphere. The mesopause is found at an average altitude of 80 kilometers (50
miles). The coldest temperatures in the atmosphere are found in the mesopause.

Mesopelagic Zone - The layer within the ocean from a depth of roughly 200 meters
to 1,000 meters (656 feet to 3,281 feet), which is part of the pelagic zone. Very little
sunlight reaches this zone in the ocean. Also see (in order of depth in a water body)
pelagic zone, photic zone, aphotic zone, bathyal zone, abyssal zone, hadal zone,
demersal zone, and benthic zone.

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Mesophyte - A plant species that has moderate water requirements for growth.

Mesoscale Convective Complex - A cluster of thunderstorms covering an area of up

to 100,000 square kilometers (38,600 square miles) or more. Convective circulation
associated with this system encourages the growth of new thunderstorms for up to
18 hours.

Mesosphere - Atmospheric layer found between the stratosphere and the

thermosphere. The mesosphere is located at an average altitude of 50 to 80
kilometers (31 to 50 miles) above the Earth's surface. Air temperature within the
mesosphere decreases with increasing altitude.

Mesotherm - A plant that requires an annual mean temperature between 0 and 14°C
to maintain normal growth.

Mesothermal Climate - A mild climate that is found in our planet's temperate zones.
Such climates experience cyclical fluctuations in temperature and sometimes
precipitation with the change in the seasons. According to the Köppen Climate
Classification system, this climate would be classified as C: Moist Mid-latitude
Climates with Mild Winters.

Mesotrophic - A water body with a moderate supply of nutrients in its waters.

Compare with eutrophic and oligotrophic.

Mesotrophic Lake - A lake with a moderate nutrient supply. Compare with

eutrophic lake and oligotrophic lake.

Mesozoic - Geologic era that occurred during the Phanerozoic Eon from 251 to 65.5
million years ago. This era contains the geologic periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the
most recent version of the geologic time scale.

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Metabolism - Describes all of the life-sustaining enzymatic-catalyzed chemical
reactions that occur in the cells of an organism.

Metamorphic Rock - A rock that forms from the recrystallization of igneous,

sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks through pressure increase, temperature
rise, or chemical alteration.

Metamorphism - A process that creates metamorphic rocks by way of pressure

increase, temperature rise, or chemical alteration.

Metasomatic Metamorphism - Form of metamorphism that causes the chemical

replacement of elements in the minerals that make up a rock. Occurs when gases and
liquids permeate into bedrock.

Metastable Equilibrium - Situation where a stable equilibrium is maintain until a

threshold is passed. With the passing of the threshold, the system state moves to a
completely new equilibrium.

Meteor - A solid body of matter that enters the Earth's atmosphere from space. While
traveling through the atmosphere, these objects begin to burn because of friction and
are sometimes seen as luminous streaks in the sky by ground observers. Many of
these objects burn up completely and never reach the Earth's surface.

Meteorite - A solid body of matter found on the ground surface that originated from
outer space and survived travel through Earth's atmosphere.

Meteorite Crater - A depression in the ground surface produced by the violent and
explosive impact of a meteorite.

Meteorological Extreme - The highest and the lowest value for a meteorological
variable in a specified period of observation.

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Meteorological Normal - The calculated average of a measured meteorological
variable, like surface air temperature, over a specified period of years. A period of 30
years is often used to determine normals.

Meteorology - The scientific study of the atmosphere and its associated phenomena
and processes.

Methane - Methane is very strong greenhouse gas found in our planet's atmosphere.
Methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than 140% since
1750. The primary sources for the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in
order of importance) are: rice cultivation, domestic grazing animals, termites,
landfills, coal mining, and oil and gas extraction. Chemical formula for methane is
CH4.

Methane Clathrate - A substance composed of methane trapped in the frozen crystal

structure of water. Significant deposits of methane
clathrate have been found beneath sediments on the
ocean floor of our planet. Scientists believe this
substance forms when methane gas seeps from faults
on the ocean floor. If the methane encounters very
cold seawater, methane clathrate is formed. The
chemical description of methane clathrate is
(CH4)4(H2O)23. Shown in the image is layers methane
clathrate embedded in some sediment that was
recovered from the ocean floor off the coast of Oregon,
USA. Also known methane hydrate, methane ice, fire
ice, natural gas hydrate, hydromethane, and gas hydrate. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
license.

Mica - A silicate mineral that exhibits a platy crystal structure and perfect cleavage.
Two common forms of mica are biotite and muscovite.

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Micelle Fixation - The ability of the negatively charged surface of clay and humus
soil particles to hold on to positively charged nutrient atoms and compounds. This
ability provides plants with essential nutrients available for uptake.

Microclimate - The climate conditions associated with a small area that is distinctly
different from the local climate that surrounds it. This term may be applied to a
space that is smaller than a centimeter (half an inch) large.

Microclimatology - The study of atmospheric conditions (climate) around an object

at the micro-scale.

Microcracks - Very small cracks in the surface of a rock.

Microfauna - Minute animals occupying an area that can only be seen with the aid of
additional optical magnification. Compare with macrofauna.

Microflora - Minute plants occupying an area that can only be seen with the aid of
additional optical magnification. Compare with macroflora.

Microfossil - A fossil that requires the use of a microscope to see it. Compare with
macrofossil.

Microgranite - A medium-grained igneous rock that is rich in quartz and potassium

feldspar. Microgranite contains at least 20 percent quartz by volume. Other minerals
common in this rock include muscovite, biotite, and amphibole. Microgranite is
equivalent to more coarse-grained granite. Derived from felsic magma.

Micronutrient - Nutritional element required by an organism in relatively very small

quantities. Compare with macronutrient.

Microorganism - An extremely small organism that can only be seen using a

microscope.

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Microtherm - A plant that requires an annual mean temperature between 0 and 14°C
to maintain normal growth. Microtherms are common to Köppen D: Moist mid-
latitude climates with cold winters.

Microwave Radiation - A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength

between 0.1 to 100 centimeters.

Mid Infrared - Astronomers typically define it as electromagnetic radiation with a

wavelength between 5.0 and 25-40 micrometers (µm).

Mid-Atlantic Ridge - Chain of submarine mountains found in the center of the

Atlantic Ocean where oceanic crust is created from rising magma plumes and
volcanic activity. Also associated with this feature is plate divergence which creates a
rift zone.

Mid-Latitude Cyclone - Cyclonic storm that forms primarily in the middle latitudes.
The formation of these storms is triggered by the development of troughs in the
polar jet stream. These storms also contain warm, cold, and occluded fronts.
Atmospheric pressure in their center can get as low as 970 millibars. Also called
wave cyclones or frontal cyclones.

Mid-Oceanic Ridge - Chain of submarine mountains where oceanic crust is created

from rising magma plumes and volcanic activity. Also associated with this feature is
plate divergence that creates a rift zone.

Mie Scattering - One of three types of atmospheric scattering. In this type, the
particles responsible for the scattering are larger than the wavelengths of radiation in
striking with them. Particles responsible for mie scattering include pollen, dust,
smoke, and water droplets. This type of scattering occurs in the atmosphere at an
altitude of 0 to 5 km (0 to 3.1 mi), where large particulate matter are common. Mie
scattering plays a role in producing a red sky color at sunrise and sunset. Also see
non-selective scattering and rayleigh scattering.

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Migration - The movement of organisms in an intentional way between two points
in space. Many migrations are seasonally timed.

Milankovitch Theory - Theory proposed by Milutin Milankovitch in the 1940s that

suggests changes in the Earth's climate maybe explained by variations in solar
radiation received at the Earth's surface. Further, these variations are due to the
combined effects of three different cyclical changes in the geometric relationship
between the Earth and the Sun. These three factors include changes in timing
(precession) of the equinoxes and solstices, alterations in the tilt of the Earth's
rotational axis (obliquity), and variations in the shape of the Earth's obit around the
Sun (eccentricity).

Milky Way Galaxy - Aggregation of about 400 billion stars in a flattened, disk-
shaped structure in space. Our Solar System is found in this concentration of stars.

Military Grid Reference System - A simplified subset of the Universal Transverse

Mercator (UTM) Grid System. This rectangular coordinate system is commonly used
on maps to find the location of points on the Earth's surface. Based on the Universal
Transverse Mercator map projection system.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment - Is a United Nations sponsored study released

in 2005 that examined the environmental state of Earth's natural ecosystems. The
study involved the work of over 1000 scientists and was done to help political
leaders make informed decisions concerning biodiversity, with a focus on
ecosystems. The overall conclusion of the report was that human activity has
severally degraded the state of the world's ecosystems and that this degradation will
spread to other ecosystems unless conservation decisions are made by world leaders.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment also suggests that ecosystems provide four
important “ecosystem services” which positively influence the well-being of
humans. See the following website for more information: http://
[Link].

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Miller Cylindrical Map Projection - A type of Cylindrical Map Projection system
that mathematically projects the Earth's surface onto a cylinder that is tangent at the
equator. Directions and distances are only true at the equator. Distance, area, and
shape distortion increases as one moves towards the poles. Very popular projection
used in world maps.

Millibar (mb) - A unit measurements for quantifying force. Used to measure

atmospheric pressure. Equivalent to 1,000 dynes per square centimeter.

Mineral - An recognizable chemically unique component part of rocks. A naturally

occurring inorganic solid with a crystalline structure and a specific chemical
composition. Over 2,000 types of minerals have been classified.

Mineral Deposit - A natural concentration of minerals in a mass of rock that makes

their extraction relatively easy and economically viable.

Mineralization - Decomposition of organic matter into its inorganic elemental

components.

Mineraloid - A naturally occurring substance that appears mineral-like but does not
have the property of crystallinity.

Minimum Thermometer - A meteorological thermometer designed to record the

minimum temperature over a set time interval, usually 24 hours (midnight to
midnight). Liquid-in-glass type of minimum thermometers are normally filled with
red-colored alcohol and have a black metal slider that can move up and down
through the bore. When temperature drops, the black metal slider is pushed by the
retreating top surface of the alcohol because of surface tension down the bore. When
temperature begins to rise again, the slider is designed not to move thereby
permanently recording the minimum temperature. The slider is reset by positioning
the thermometer upside down. Compare with maximum thermometer.

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Miocene - Geologic epoch that occurred from 23.03 to 5.332 million years ago. This
epoch had warmer global temperatures than those of the previous Oligocene or the
following Pliocene. Global terrestrial flora during this time sees a reduction in forest
biomes, which are replaced by desert, grassland, and savanna biomes. This change
causes evolutionary modifications in the morphology and physiology of plants and
animals as they adapted to these new habitats. Mammals and birds were common
and well established. Plate tectonics leads to the growth of the Sierra Nevada,
Cascade, Himalayas, and Andes (South America) mountain ranges during this
epoch. One of two epochs during the Neogene Period. See the International
Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the
geologic time scale.

Mirage - A naturally occurring optical illusion caused by light rays bending as they
pass through the atmosphere.

Mire - A term used in the United Kingdom to describe a treeless wetland ecosystem
dominated by mosses, sedges, and wetland shrubs that decay to produce peat.
Synonymous with peatland.

Misfit Stream - A stream that is either too small (underfit stream) or too large (overfit
stream) to be accountable for eroding the valley it exists in or a stream that does not
have enough energy to be responsible for the size of the meanders found in its
stream channel.

Mississippian - Is a sub-period during the Carboniferous geologic period that

occurred roughly from 318 to 359 million years ago. During this time, insects
undergo major speciation and ferns first appear. Trees also become a dominant plant
form on the continents. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Mist - An atmospheric condition where the air contains a dense concentration of

minute water droplets or water surrounded particles. Mist exists if the visibility near

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the Earth's surface is reduced to not less than 1 kilometer (0.62 miles). Compare with
fog.

Mistral - A term used to describe a cold and dry katabatic wind common to southern
France.

Mitochondria - The organelle in a cell that oxidizes organic matter to release energy
for use in cellular metabolism. Also see cellular respiration.

Mixed Tide - Tides that have a higher high water and lower high water as well as
higher low water and lower low water per tidal period.

Mixing Ratio - The ratio between the weight (mass) of water vapor (or some other
gas) held in the atmosphere compared to the weight of the dry air in a given volume
of air. Usually measured in grams water vapor (or gas) per kilogram of dry air.

Mobile Belt - A long, narrow area of crust experiencing earthquakes, volcanoes, and
mountain building because of tectonic activity.

Mobile Dune - A type of coastal dune that alters its location with changes in wind
direction and speed.

Mode - A statistical measure of central tendency in a set of data. The mode is the
most frequently occurring value in a data set. Data sets can contain two or more
mode values that occur with the same frequency. Compare with mean and median.

Model - (1) Generalization of reality. (2) System describing how a phenomenon

functions. (3) A mathematical representation of a system from which predictions or
inferences can be made.

Moder - A type of humus that has organic matter decomposition in between mull
and mor.

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Mogote - A steep-sided well-rounded hill made of marble, dolomite, or limestone.
These landscape features usually sit isolated on a level alluvial plain.

Moho Discontinuity - The lower boundary of the crust. At this boundary, seismic
wave velocities show an increase in speed as they enter the upper mantle.

Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate - See saturated adiabatic lapse rate.

Moisture Index - (1) The proportion of precipitation used by plants for growth. (2) A
monthly calculation made in the Thornthwaite Climate Classification system to
determine the proportion of precipitation used for plant growth.

Molasse - A term used to describe sedimentary rocks that were initially deposited
ahead of a developing mountain range. Typically, this sedimentary feature contains
shales, sandstones, and conglomerates.

Molecule - A minute particle that consists of connected atoms of one or many

elements.

Mollisols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. A mollisol soil is
typically found in semiarid grassland environments. These soils are
rich in organic matter have a brown color, and have an abundance of
calcium carbonate nodules within the profile. Image Source: U.S.
Department of Agriculture.

Mollweide Map Projection - A map projection system that tries to present more
accurate representations of area. Distortion is mainly manifested in terms of map
direction and distance.

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Momentum - Abstract concept in physics that models an object's speed of travel
along a straight path. Mathematically it is the product of an object's mass and
velocity.

Monadnock - A term used to describe an isolated hill or mountain composed of rock

that rises from a level plain or slightly sloping landscape. Synonymous with
inselberg.

Monera - Group, at the kingdom level, in the classification of life. Unicellular

organisms that have a prokaryotic cell type. See the Encyclopedia of Life for more
information on this group of organisms.
[Link]

Monoclimax - A climax community in a plant succession that is the outcome of only

one controlling factor, like climate. Compare with polyclimax.

Monocline - A fold in layered rock that creates a slight bend. Compare with
anticline, syncline, overturned fold, and recumbent fold.

Monolith - A vertical soil section mounted for display.

Monsoon - A regional scale wind system that predictably change direction with the
passing of the seasons. Monsoon winds blow from land to sea in the winter, and
from sea to land in the summer. Summer monsoons are often accompanied with
precipitation.

Monthly Mean Temperature - The average surface temperature as recorded at a

meteorological station for a specific month. Usually, it is calculated by summing all
of the daily mean temperatures for a particular month and then dividing this value
by the number of days in that month.

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Monthly Temperature Range - The difference between the warmest and coldest
daily mean temperatures recorded at a meteorological station during the course of a
specific month (midnight to midnight).

Montmorillonite - A type of clay composed of phyllosilicate minerals that has a

large capacity to shrink and expand with changes in moisture content. Often forms
from weathering of volcanic ash.

Montreal Protocol - A United Nations international treaty first signed in 1987 by 24

nations in Montreal, Canada to cut the emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into
the atmosphere. This treaty is an outcome of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer. Since 1987 the treaty has been amended to quicken the reduction in
CFC production and use. The United Nations Environment Programme - Ozone
Secretariat administers both the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol. More
information is available at the following website: [Link]

Moon - (1) A celestial body that has an orbit around a planet or dwarf planet. More
commonly called a satellite in the field of Astronomy. (2) The name given to the
celestial body that orbits the Earth.

Moorland (moor) - Habitat characterized by low-growing plants like moss, heather,

sedges and/or grasses. Soils in moorland are often waterlogged and acidic. Term is
common to the United Kingdom.

Mor - A type of humus that forms under very acidic soil conditions usually under
coniferous trees. Mor usually is not mixed with the mineral particles in the surface
horizon of a soil. Compare with mull.

Moraine - A mound or hill of glacial till deposited directly by a glacier.

More Developed Country (MDC) - A highly industrialized country characterized by

significant technological development, high per capita income, and low population

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growth rates. Examples of such countries include the United States, Canada, Japan,
and many countries in Europe. Also see Less Developed Country.

Morphological System - This is a system where we understand the relationships

between elements and their attributes in a vague sense based only on measured
features or correlations. In other words, we understand the form or morphology a
system has based on the connections between its elements. We do not understand
exactly how the processes work to transfer energy and/or matter through the
connections between the system elements.

Morphometry - The measurement of shape. Measurements are then manipulated

statistically or mathematically to discover inherent properties.

Mosaic - A group of overlapping images produced by aerial photography or other

forms of remote sensing. This technique is used when a single image does not cover
the area of interest.

Moss - About 9,500 species of plants that belong to the division Bryophyta. These
low growing plants are common in moist habitats. See the Encyclopedia of Life for
more information on this group of organisms.
[Link]

Mottled Zone - (1) Can refer to a layer in the profile of some soils that is defined by
spots or patches of different colors or shades of a color. (2) A soil profile zone of red
patches from iron oxidation in a bleached kaolinite rich soil.

Moulin - A vertical tube up to 10 meters (30 feet)

wide that moves glacial meltwater from the surface
of a glacier into it. Moulins can be up to hundreds of
meters deep and can reach the bottom of the glacier.
Often found in the vicinity of transverse crevasses.
Shown is an image of a moulin on the Athabasca
Glacier in Canada. Also called a glacier mill. Image

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, photographed by China Crisis. This image is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Mountain - An area where the Earth's surface rises abruptly to elevations

significantly higher than the adjacent landscape.

Mountain Breeze - Local thermal circulation pattern found in areas of topographic

relief. In this circulation system, surface winds blow from areas of higher elevation to
valley bottoms during the night.

Mountain Building - A term that describes the processes that create mountains.
Mountains are created whenever the Earth's crust is deformed because of
compressive forces. The most common mechanism causing mountain building is the
collision of tectonic plates or volcanism.

Mountain Chain - A long linear sequence of mountains usually part of a much larger
mountain range and often formed by folding.

Mountain Meteorology - A subfield of meteorology that examines the weather of

mountain environments.

Mountain Range - An area consisting of a number of mountains that are geologically

related in terms of their formation, structure, and rock composition. Also called
mountain belt.

Mouth - The endpoint of a stream. The point at which a stream enters a lake, sea, or
ocean.

Movement - A term used in geography that deals with the migration, transport,
communication, and interaction of natural and human-made phenomena across the
spatial dimension.

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Mud - A gooey mixture of clay and/or silt that contains a high water content. Can
form after heavy rainfall or be associated with water inundation from streams, lakes,
or oceans.

Mud Volcano - A volcanic mound of mud created by geyser

vented slurries of mud, water, and gas. The largest mud
volcano on our planet is Indonesia's Lusi which is 700 meters
(2,300 feet) in elevation and about 10 kilometers (6 miles)
wide. Most mud volcanoes are much smaller than this.
Shown is an image of some small mud volcanoes located in
Gobustan National Park, Azerbaijan. Smaller mud volcanoes
are often called mud pots. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
photographed by Nick Taylor. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

Mud flats (or Mudflats) - A flat area of clay, silt, and sand deposits devoid of
vegetation found in an estuary that is repeatedly submerged and exposed to the
atmosphere by varying tidal levels. Also called tidal flats.

Mudflow - A form of mass movement where fine textured sediments and soil mix
with water to create a liquid flow.

Mudslide - A landslide where the material being moved rapidly downslope is

mainly clay and silt.

Mudstone - Fine grained sedimentary rock composed of lithified clay and silt
particles.

Mulch - A layer of material applied to cover the surface of a soil. Material used for
mulch is usually organic and is used to improve the quality of a soil. Mulch can be
used to conserve soil moisture, add nutrients, reduce weed growth, increase soil
temperature, and to limit frost penetration below the soil surface.

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Mull - A type of humus that forms under hardwood deciduous trees. Mull has a
granular texture because it is mixed with the mineral particles in the surface
horizons of a soil. Compare with mor.

Multifinality - An idea in systems theory that suggests that in some systems an

initial state or cause can have many different trajectories producing numerous
distinct end states. Compare with equifinality.

Multispectral Scanner (MSS) - Remote sensing device found on the first five
Landsat satellites. This device acquires images in four or five wavelength bands in
the spectral range from 0.5 to 1.1 µm.

Munsell Color System - An organization of colors that varies based on three

properties: hue (basic color), chroma (intensity of the color), and value (tone). This
system was developed by art professor A.H. Munsell around 1910. The Munsell
Color System is used by soil scientists to classify the color of soils.

Muscovite - Rock forming mineral of the mica group.

Muskeg - Poorly drained marsh or swamp found overlying permafrost.

Mutation - A change in the structure of a gene or chromosome of an organism

caused by a metabolic error in copying or an environmental factor.

Mutualism - Interspecific biotic interaction where both species experience an

increase in their fitness after interacting with the other species. Mutualistic
interactions between species can be of two types: symbiotic or non-symbiotic.

Mycorrhiza (Mycorrhizae plural) - The mutualistic association of a fungus with the

root of higher plant. In this relationship, the fungus helps the plant in extracting
essential nutrients required for growth from the soil. In exchange, the fungus is
provided with a habitat and nutrition in the form of carbohydrates.

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 N
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Nacreous Cloud - A high altitude cloud that

forms on rare occassions 20 to 25 kilometers
(12 to 16 miles) above the ground surface in
the stratosphere. Nacreous clouds form
when the atmospheric temperatures where
they form falls below -78°C (-108°F). These
clouds reflect sunlight during the early
evening or morning producing a variety of
iridescent colors against the dark sky.
Because of their high altitude and the fact
that the Earth’s surface is curved, these
clouds are illuminated by sunlight originating from below the horizon. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons by Sondrekv, this image
is in the public domain.

Nadir - (1) The bearing direction straight

below a specific location. (2) A term used in
astronomy describing a point straight
below the the zenith for a particular
location. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
this image is in the public domain.

Nappe - A large mass of rock that has been pushed over other rocks by a recumbent
fold, thrust fault, or both geologic processes combined.

Nanism - A term used to describe dwarfism in plants and animals.

Narrows - A water feature or valley that is geographically constricted.

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Native Species - A species that normally exists and reproduces in a specific region of
the Earth. Compare with immigrant species, indicator species, and keystone species.

Natural Arch - An arch with an open area beneath it that forms naturally in a rock
formation because of erosion. Also called a natural bridge.

Natural Bridge - An erosional feature in a natural rock formation that resembles a

bridge.

Natural Disaster - A natural event that causes significant damage and loss of life,
human and other.

Natural Gas - A hydrocarbon derived gas, mainly composed of methane, commonly

found in the pores of sedimentary rocks of marine origin.

Natural Hazard(s) - (1) A natural phenomena that can cause negative consequences
to life. (2) The study of the dangers and risks associated with natural phenomena.

Natural Ionizing Radiation - A type of radiation from natural sources in the

environment that can ionize (remove an electron) an atom or molecule. Ionizing
radiation generally has a wavelength that is shorter than lower band ultraviolet.
Ionization radiation can cause damage to DNA in living organisms.

Natural Region - A region on the Earth’s surface that displays consistency in terms
of climate, topography, landforms, and/or living organisms.

Natural Resource - A substance or thing (resource) derived from the natural

environment.

Natural Selection - The environment's influence on the reproductive success of

individuals in a population. This influence results in the exclusion of maladapted
genetic traits found within individuals in a population.

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Natural Vegetation - An area on our planet where the various species of plants is not
influence by the presence of humans.

Nautical - Something that is of concern to maritime navigation or sailors.

Nautical Mile - A unit of measurement that equal to 1852 meters, 6,076.1 feet or
1.1508 statute miles.

Neap Tide - A type of tide that occurs every 14 to 15 days and coincides with the
first and last quarter of the Moon. This tide has a small tidal range because the
gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun are perpendicular to each other. Contrasts
with spring tide.

Near Infrared - There are several different definitions for this term. (1) Form of
electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.71 and 1.5 micrometers (µm).
(2) Form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.75 and 1.4
micrometers (µm). (3) Astronomers typically define it as electromagnetic radiation
with a wavelength between 0.70-1.0 and 5.0 micrometers (µm).

Near Threatened - One of the categories used by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List to describe the status of a species. This
category suggests the species has been evaluated and may be classified as being
either critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable in the near future.

Nearctic - One of eight biogeographic realms found on Earth, where many species
have a unique evolutionary history
because of geographic isolation.
Geographically, this realm covers most
of North America including Greenland
(see Map). The climate of this realm
ranges from subtropical to polar. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons

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Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Nearest-Neighbor Analysis - A statistical measure determines the pattern of spread

of something over a geographical area. A numerical value is calculated from this
analysis that has two end points: the distribution of the phenomena is uniformly
spaced or highly clustered.

Nearshore - A narrow zone extending seaward from the shoreline to a water depth
of about 20 meters (60 feet). Compare with offshore.

Nearshore Current - The system of ocean currents found along the shoreline caused
by wave action. Normally consists of longshore and rip currents.

Neat Line - An embossed line that clearly identifies where the edge of the area
displayed on a map.

Nebula - An interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium,

and other gases. Some nebulas are the remnants of a super
nova. Some large nebulas are believed to be the nursery areas
for the formation of new stars, planets, and other Solar
System objects. Shown is an image of the Crab Nebula (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, NASA and the European Space
Agency).

Nebular Hypothesis - Theory used to explain the formation of solar systems in the
Universe. It suggests that random accumulations of intersellar gas contracted
because of gravity to form a disk-shaped swirling mass of molecular matter (mainly
hydrogen). Continued accretion of the swirling mass because of gravity finally
produces a central star with orbiting planets. Estimated to take about 10-100 million
years.

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Neck - An ancient volcanic neck that has been exposed by the erosion of the rock that
once surrounded it.

Needle - Can refer to a narrow pointed mass of rock associated with erosion in
coastal or mountanous environments.

Needle Ice - A form of periglacial ground ice that consists of groups ice slivers at or
immediately below the ground surface. Needle ice is only about a few centimeters
long.

Negative Feedback - A change in the state of a system that counteracts the measured
influence of the initial alteration (input). Compare with positive feedback.

Nekton - Near-surface dwelling marine organisms that have the ability initiate their
own movement against ocean tides and currents.

Neocatastrophism - (1) This terms is used to describe the general idea that low-
frequency catastrophes do occasionally occur in the backdrop of gradual uniform
processes (see the idea of Uniformitarianism) operating everywhere on our planet.
Further, the impact of such events can have great impact, for example, the evolution
of life. (2) This term is also used to suggest the idea that sudden mass extinctions of
life in past were caused by some low frequency catastrophic event. (3) This term has
also be used by astronomers to suggest that gamma-ray bursts act to regulate the
development of life in the Universe.

Neogene - This geologic period contains two epochs: Miocene and Pliocene. This
geologic period began about 23.03 ± 0.05 million years ago and ended 2.588 million
years ago. By the end of this period, Earth's climate cooled considerably, with the
succeeding period being the Quaternary. During the Neogene, birds and mammal
species evolve into their modern forms, while humans first appear in Africa. See the
International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version
of the geologic time scale.

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Neoglacial - A period during the Holocene when temperatures became colder and
resulted in sustained glacial advances. The neoglacial occurred from roughly 4700 to
2500 years ago.

Neotropic - One of eight biogeographic realms found on Earth, where many species
have a unique evolutionary history because of geographic isolation. Geographically,
this realm includes South America,
Central America and the various
islands in the Caribbean (see Map).
The climate of this realm ranges from
tropical to mid-latitudinal. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons. This
image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.

Nephoscope - A meteorological instrument used to measure the altitude, direction of

movement, and speed of clouds.

Neritic - The area of the ocean that is directly above the continental shelf.

Nesting - Term used in data sampling that describes a situation samples and sub-
samples are arranged hierarchically.

Net Longwave Radiation (Balance) - The balance between incoming and outgoing
longwave radiation. Mathematically expressed as:

L* = (L - L)

where L* is net longwave radiation at the surface, L is atmospheric counter-

radiation (greenhouse effect) directed to the Earth's surface, and L is longwave
radiation lost from the Earth's surface.

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Net Primary Productivity (NPP) - Total amount of organic chemical energy or
biomass fixed by the processes of photosynthesis minus the chemical energy or
biomass lost through cellular respiration. Compare with gross primary productivity.

Net Radiation (Balance) - The balance between incoming and outgoing shortwave
and longwave radiations. Mathematically expressed as:

Q* = (K + k)(1 - a) - L + L

where Q* is surface net radiation (global annual values of Q* = 0, because input

equals output, local values can be positive or negative), K is surface direct shortwave
(solar) radiation, k is diffused shortwave (solar) radiation (scattered insolation) at the
surface, a is the albedo of surface, L is atmospheric counter-radiation (greenhouse
effect) directed to the Earth's surface, and L is longwave radiation lost from the
Earth's surface.

Net Radiometer - Is a meteorological instrument (radiometer) that measures the

difference between downward/incoming radiation and upward/outgoing radiation
from a surface.

Net Secondary Productivity - Total amount of organic chemical energy or biomass

assimilated by consumer organisms minus the chemical energy or biomass lost
through cellular respiration. Compare with gross secondary productivity.

Net Shortwave Radiation (Balance) - The balance between incoming and outgoing
shortwave radiations. Mathematically expressed as:

K* = (K + k)(1 - a)
where K* is surface net shortwave radiation, K is surface direct shortwave (solar)
radiation, k is diffused shortwave (solar) radiation (scattered insolation) at the
surface, and a is the albedo of the Earth's surface.

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Nets - A type of patterned ground found in periglacial environments that has a
weblike arrangement on the ground surface.

Network - A system that consists of a number of parts that work together because of
some type of physical linking. For example, a stream network consists of many
stream channel segments that are linked and work together to transport water and
sediment.

Neutral (pH) - Any substance with a pH around 7.0.

Neutral Atmosphere - Condition in the atmosphere where isolated air parcels do not
tend to rise or sink. The parcels of air tend to be at same temperature as the air that
surrounds them. Compare with stable atmosphere and unstable atmosphere.

Neutral Shoreline - A coastline that is not undergoing landform transformtion

because of the upward or downward elevational movement of the associated land
surface.

Neutral Soil - A soil that has a pH at or very near neutral (7.0).

Neutral Stability - A meteorological term that describes a situation where isolated

air parcels in the atmosphere do not tend to rise or sink.

Neutral Solution - Any water based solution that is neutral (pH approximately 7.0)
or has an equal quantity of hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH-). Also see
acidic solution and basic solution.

Neutralism - An interspecific interaction where the species do not directly influence

each other's fitness.

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Neutron - A type of subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. This particle
is similar in mass to a proton but does not have an electromagnetic charge. Compare
with electron and proton.

Neutron Probe - An instrument designed to measure soil moisture content. Uses the
emission of neutrons from americium-241 and beryllium in its process of taking the
measurement.

Névé - A partially melted and compacted snow that has a density of at least 500
kilograms per cubic meter.

Newton (N) - A unit of force that creates an acceleration on a mass of 1 kilogram

equal to 1 meter per second per second with no friction and under the conditions of a
vacuum.

Niche - The role that a species has in a habitat because of its evolutionary adaptation
to this particular environment. This includes its behavior and interactions with other
species.

Niche Glacier - Are very small glaciers in size that form where snow and ice
accumulates in a mountain side depression. Smaller than a cirque glacier.

Niche Specialization - A process where evolution, through natural selection, adapts

a species to a particular set of abiotic and biotic characteristics within a habitat.

Nickpoint (Knickpoint - British spelling) - A point on a stream long profile where

the gradient is interrupted by a sudden drop in elevation. Nickpoints are the
locations of rapids and waterfalls.

Nightglow - See airglow.

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Nimbostratus Cloud - Dark gray, low altitude cloud that produces continuous
precipitation in the form of rain or snow. Found in an altitude range from the surface
to 3,000 meters (9,840 feet).

Nimbus - Term that relates to a cloud that is producing rain.

Nitrate - Form of nitrogen commonly found in the soil and used by plants for
building amino acids, DNA, and proteins. It is commonly produced by the chemical
modification of nitrite by specialized bacteria. Chemical formula for nitrate is NO3-.

Nitric Acid - Acid with the chemical formula: HNO3.

Nitric Oxide - A gas produced by bacterial action in the soil and by high temperature
combustion. Nitric oxide is a component in the production of photochemical smog.
This colorless gas has the chemical formula is NO.

Nitrification - The biochemical oxidation of ammonium to nitrite, and then nitrite to

nitrate. This process is carried out by specialized bacteria.

Nitrite - Form of nitrogen commonly found in the soil. It is commonly produced by

the chemical modification of ammonium by specialized bacteria. This form is toxic to
plants and animals at high concentrations. Chemical formula for nitrite is NO2-.

Nitrogen - Important chemical element used in a variety processes associated with

life on Earth. The atmosphere is probably the most important store of nitrogen where
it exists in abundance as a diatomic gas (N2). Nitrogen occurs in all organisms
playing an important role in the chemistry of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic
acids.

Nitrogen Cycle - Chemical model showing the storage and cyclic movement of
organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen between the atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

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Nitrogen Dioxide - A gas produced by bacterial action in the soil and by high
temperature combustion. Nitrogen dioxide is a component in the production of
photochemical smog. This reddish-brown gas has the chemical formula NO2.

Nitrogen Fixation - A biological or chemical process where gaseous nitrogen is

converted into solid forms of nitrogen. Biological fixation of nitrogen is done by
specialized organisms like microorganisms like bacteria, actinomycetes, and
cyanobacteria. Chemical fixation occurs at high temperatures. One natural process
that can produce enough heat to fix atmospheric nitrogen is lightning.

Nitrogen Oxides - Consists of two gases nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). These gases are produced by bacterial action in the soil and by high-
temperature combustion. Both gases are component parts in the production of
photochemical smog.

Nitrogen Saturation - An overabundance of nitrogen in the forms of ammonium and

nitrate in a natural ecosystem usually because of human-induced inputs related to
agriculture and fossil fuel combustion. Nitrogen saturation can cause the artificial
fertilization of plants, acidification of water bodies, lower the pH of soils, change
species composition in ecosystems, increased soil solution aluminum concentrations,
change ecosystem nutrient cycling, and decrease soil fertility.

Nitrous Oxide - A gas found in Earth's atmosphere that contributes to the

greenhouse effect. Sources for nitrous oxide include land-use conversion, fossil fuel
combustion, biomass burning, and soil fertilization. Chemical formula for nitrous
oxide is N2O.

Nivation - A process where snow patches initiate erosion through physical

weathering, meltwater flow, and gelifluction.

Nivation Hollow - A type of ground depression found in periglacial areas that is

created by nivation.

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Noctilucent Cloud - High altitude cloud composed of ice crystals that appear to
glow silver or bright blue shortly after sunset. These clouds are commonly seen
during the summer season at latitudes between 50 to 70° and have an altitude of
about 80 kilometers (50 miles) above the Earth's surface.

Node - (1) A point one a line or in two or three-dimensional space. (2) A point where
lines or pathways cross or bifurcate.

Nodule - In geology, the term refers to aggregration of some type of mineral inside a
large mass of sedimentary rock.

Noise - (1) Term used in statistics to describe a significant amount of observational

measurement variation in data. (2) Related to instrumentation and measurement,
noise refers to unwanted data fluctuations that obscure the desired measurement
signal.

Nominal Scale - A method for measuring data where the potential values are
qualitative. Units of measurement in this scale do not overlap and the differences
between units are not mathematically measurable.

Non-Clastic Sedimentary Rock - Sedimentary rocks that are created either from
chemical precipitation and crystallization, or by the lithification once living organic
matter.

Non-Ionizing Radiation - A form of electromagnetic radiation that does not have

enough energy to cause ionization of atoms in living tissue. Examples of this type of
radiation include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, and ordinary light.
Also see ionizing radiation.

Non-Linear System - A system where the operating cause and effect processes do
not have simple linear outcomes, such that output is not directly proportional to
input.

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Non-Parametric Statistical Test - A statistical test that does not require the sample
data to be normally distributed.

Non-Relic Slope - A slope that was created by processes in the past that are identical
to the ones acting on it currently.

Non-Renewable Resource - Resource that is finite in quantity and is being used

faster than its ability to regenerate itself. This resource can be depleted until it no
longer exists in the environment.

Non-Selective Scattering - One of three types of atmospheric scattering. In this type,

all wavelengths in the visible and near infrared spectrum are scattered producing a
white response. The particles responsible for non-selective scattering are larger than
the wavelengths of radiation being influenced. Water droplets and dust particles
with diameters between 5 to 100 micrometers are very effective at this type of
scattering. This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white when they
interact with sunlight. Also see mie scattering and rayleigh scattering.

Non-Sequence - An interruption in the sequence of sedimentary strata layers where

a period of no deposition of material occurred.

Non-Symbiotic Mutualism - Mutualistic biotic interaction where the mutualists live

independent lives yet cannot survive without each other. For example, pollinating
insects like bees and some flowering plants. Compare with symbiotic mutualism.

Noncomformity - A type of sequence in strata layers where underlying older rocks

are of metamorphic or igneous origin rather than sedimentary.

Normal - A term used in climatology and meteorology for a period of time (usually
30 years) from which means, standard deviations, and extremes values for a climate
variable are calculated. Sometimes referred to as a climate normal.

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Normal Distribution - A common probability distribution displayed by a
representative data sample or the whole population of some quantitatively
measurable variable. If the values of this
distribution are plotted on a graph's
horizontal axis and their frequency on the
vertical axis, the pattern displayed is
symmetric and bell-shaped (see graph). The
central value in this type of frequency
distribution is usually mean (arithmetic
average of all the values measured for the
variable), and this value represents the central
peak of the distribution and the most frequently occurring value. Also called normal
curve and bell-shaped curve. Also see standard deviation, kurtosis, and skewness.

Normal Fault - Vertical fault where one slab of the rock is displaced up and the other
slab down. This type of fault is created by tectonic tensional forces acting in opposite
directions.

Normal Lapse Rate - Average rate of air temperature change with altitude in the
troposphere. This value is approximately a decrease of 6.5°C per 1,000 meters (3.6°F
per 1,000 feet) rise in elevation. Also called environmental lapse rate.

Normal Stress - A type of stress caused by forces applied to an object’s surface at 90°,
possibly producing strain and deformation. Compare with shear stress.

North Atlantic Drift - A strong warm western boundary current in the Atlantic
Ocean. The North Atlantic Drift is an extension of the Gulf Stream. Originates
southeast of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland (about 40° North latitude and 51°
East longitude) transporting warm tropical ocean water to just west of Ireland. Also
called North Atlantic Current.

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North Magnetic Pole - Location in the Northern Hemisphere where the lines of force
from Earth's magnetic field are at right angles to the Earth's surface. This point on
the Earth gradually changes its position with time.

North Pole - Surface location defined by the intersection of the polar axis with
Earth's surface in the Northern Hemisphere. This location has a latitude of 90° North.

North Star - Is a bright star that is aligned approximately to the Earth's axis of
rotation. This fixed point in the night sky was used to determine measurements for
celestial navigation. Also called Polaris.

Northeast Trade Winds - Northern hemisphere surface winds found in the tropics
that blow from about 30° North latitude (Subtropical High Pressure Zone) to the
equator (Intertropical Convergence Zone). These winds have a northeast to
southwest direction.

Northing - Second measurement of a grid reference used to specify the location of a

point on a rectangular coordinate system. The distance measured northward from
the origin of a rectangular coordinate system. Also see easting.

Notch - A common coastal landform created when wave action and weathering cut
into the base of a cliff creating an overhanging mass of rock.

Nubbin - Small scale mounds of soil or sediment created by the heaving action of
subsurface ice crystal growth.

Nuclear Energy - Energy released when the nucleus of an atom experiences a

nuclear reaction like the spontaneous emission of radioactivity, nuclear fission, or
nuclear fusion.

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Nuclear Fission - Process where the mass of an atomic nucleus is made smaller by
removing subatomic particles. This process releases atomic energy in the form of
heat and electromagnetic radiation.

Nuclear Fusion - Process where the mass of an atomic nucleus is made larger by the
addition of subatomic particles. This process releases atomic energy in the form of
heat and electromagnetic radiation.

Nuclear Waste - See radioactive waste.

Nuclear Winter - Theoretical model that suggested that the detonation of numerous
atomic bombs could create a stratospheric smoke and soot cloud. In turn, this cloud
would then significantly reduce the amount of sunlight received and heat generated
at the Earth's surface and in the lower atmosphere. As a result, the Earth's climate to
quickly turn colder for many months or even years. Similar climate change could
occur with the impact of an asteroid or comet with the Earth, or the explosion of an
enormous volcano. Also called atomic winter.

Nucleic Acid - Is an organic compound composed primarily of different

combinations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus. They are very
complex compounds being created by the atomic linking of thousands of individual
atoms. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic blueprint of life, is an example of a
nucleic acid.

Nucleus - (1) Dense central part of an atom that is composed of neutrons and
protons. (2) Structure found in eukaryotic cells that contains the chromosomes.

Nuée Ardente - A release of a glowing cloud of dense hot volcanic ash and gas by a
volcano that moves downslope at high speeds, incinerating the landscape.

Null Hypothesis (H0) - This is a hypothesis that has been suggested by a researcher
because it is believed to be true or because it is being used as a starting point for

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developing a logical scientific argument. Used in statistical testing to help organize
the testing of reasoned arguments. Compare with alternative hypothesis.

Nunatak - An isolated piece of bare ground (usually a mountain) surrounded by

snow and ice of a glacier or ice sheet.

Numerical Modeling - These are mathematical models that simulate some type of
real-world system using a time-step procedure to generate the required output.
Weather forecast models are an example of a numerical model.

Numerical Weather Forecasting - A meteorological forecasting technique that uses

mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans and high speed computers to
make future weather predictions based on current conditions.

Nutation - The periodic minor shift in the orientation of the axis of rotation of a
largely axially symmetric object. Related to the Earth’s axis, nutation is caused by
the opposing gravitational attraction from the Sun and the Moon and has a period of
about 19 years.

Nutrient - Any food, chemical element, or compound an organism requires to live,

grow, or reproduce.

Nutrient Cycle - Chemical model showing the cycling of a single element by various
abiotic and biotic processes through the various stores found in the biosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

Nutrient Cycling - Is the movement of nutrient elements and/or compounds within

and between various biotic or abiotic sinks found in the biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

Nutrient Status - A term used to describe the potential availability of nutrients in a

soil, river, lake, ecosystem, etc.

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 O
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

O Horizon - The topmost layer of most soils. This soil horizon is composed mainly
of plant litter and humus. Typically found located above the A horizon.

Oasis - An isolated region of lush

vegetation growth in a surrounding
desert landscape. They are usually
associated with an increase in the
availability of water for plant growth
because of the presence of a lake or a
spring. An oasis can be created by a
human-made well. The locations of
natural oases were well known by
nomadic people who regularly traveled
across desert regions. Shown is an oasis
found in the Sahara Desert, Libya, Africa (Image Source: Wikipedia Commons).

Oblique Aerial Photograph - A photograph taken from a non-perpendicular angle

from a platform in the atmosphere.

Obliquity - The tilt of the Earth's polar axis as measured from the perpendicular to
the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. One cycle of obliquity takes on average
41,040 years. Over the last 5 million years, the angle of the Earth's tilt has varied
from 22.0 to 24.5°. The current obliquity is 23.4°. However, a value of 23.5 is
commonly used for simplicity.

Obsequent Stream - A stream whose course is in a direction that is opposite the

slope of the land surface.

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Obsidian - Glassy dark colored volcanic rock. Obsidian is usually composed of
rhyolite.

Occluded Front - A transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold air
mass sandwiches a warm air mass
between another cold air mass,
pushing the warm air into the upper
atmosphere. Cloud development and
precipitation usually occurs above of
the occluded front. Compare with
cold front and warm front.
Associated with mid-latitude
cyclones.

Occult Deposition - A type of acid deposition where fog and clouds loaded with
acid pollutants interact directly with receiving surfaces. Concentrations of acid
compounds wet deposited to contacted surfaces can be 20 times greater than what
occurs with acid precipitation.

Ocean - A body of saline water found occupying all or part of the Earth's ocean
basins. There are five recognized oceans: the Atlantic Ocean, the Southern Ocean, the
Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.

Ocean Acidification - Recent trend of decreasing seawater pH levels in the Earth's

oceans caused by absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
Chemically this carbon dioxide reacts with seawater to become carbonic acid. The
carbonic acid then reacts with seawater to produce bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and
hydrogen ions (H+). From 1751 to 1994, the average pH of seawater has dropped
from 8.25 to 8.14 because of a 30% increase in quantity of hydrogen ions in the
oceans. This acidification trend coincides with the increase in carbon dioxide
concentrations in the atmosphere because of fossil fuel combustion and other human
activities.

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Ocean Basin - Part of the Earth's outer surface composed of the ocean floor, mid-
oceanic ridge, continental rise, and continental slope. The ocean basins are filled with
saline water that makes up the oceans.

Ocean Current - A persistent horizontal flow of ocean water that is driven by

atmospheric circulation or wave action or the cyclical rise and fall of tides.

Ocean Floor - A flat plain found at the bottom of the oceans. The ocean floor
represents the surface of the oceanic crust. The ocean floor lies between the mid-
oceanic ridges and the trenches, usually 5,000 to 7,000 meters (16,400 to 22,966 feet)
below the ocean surface. Also called the abyssal plain, seabed, and seafloor.

Ocean Trench - A deep linear depression found at the edge of the ocean floor.
Represents an area of tectonic plate subduction.

Oceania - One of eight biogeographic realms found on Earth, where many species
have a unique evolutionary history because of geographic isolation. Geographically,
this realm covers most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean except New Zealand. The
climate of this realm is mainly tropical to subtropical.

Oceanic Crust - Basaltic portion of the Earth's crust that makes up the ocean basins.
Approximately 5 to 10 kilometers (3.1 to 6.2 miles) thick. See sima layer.

Oceanic Islands - Islands that are structurally part of oceanic crust. Compare with
continental islands.

Oceanic Plate - A rigid, independent segment of the lithosphere composed of mainly

basalt that floats on the viscous plastic asthenosphere and moves over the Earth's
surface. The Earth's oceanic plates are an average 75 kilometers (47 miles) thick and
were formed less than several hundred million years ago at one of the Earth's mid-
oceanic ridges. Also see continental plate.

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Oceanography - The scientific study of phenomena found in the world's oceans.
Oceanography is multidisciplinary, incorporating knowledge from Astronomy,
Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Ecology, Environmental Science, Meteorology,
Physical Geography, and Physics. Also known as oceanology or marine science.

Offshore - (1) The direction from the shore out to sea. (2) Zone extending seaward
from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. (3) Zone extending seaward
from the edge of nearshore to a water depth where waves no longer cause sediment
transport. Compare with nearshore.

Ogive - A sequence of light and dark bands of ice that occur on the surface of some
glaciers. These bands often form after an ice fall.
Dark bands form when ice flowing over the ice
fall partially melts because of warm summer
time temperatures. Light bands are produced
when ice flows over the ice fall during the
winter season and incorporates fresh snow. One
sequence of light and a dark colored bands
represents the distance the glacier ice moved in
one year. Shown is an image of ogives on the
Vaughn Lewis Glacier, Alaska, USA (Image Source: United States Geological Survey).

Oil - (1) A liquid composed of hydrocarbons commonly found in the pores of

sedimentary rocks of marine origin. (2) A substance rich in carbon and hydrogen that
is liquid at most temperatures, often flammable, and a source of heat energy,
hydrophobic, and lipophilic. Most oils originally come from animal or plant tissues.

Oil Shale - A type of organic-rich sedimentary shale that

contains significant quantities of kerogen. Heating kerogen can
cause the release of crude oil (50-150°C/120-300°F) and natural
gas (150-200°C/300-390°F). Considerable deposits of oil shale
are found all over the world and it is estimated that in total
they contain 4.8 to 5 trillion barrels of crude oil. As shown in

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the image shale oil is flammable. Also called kerogen shale. Image Source: Wikipedia
Commons, United States Department of Energy.

Old Growth Forest - A type of forest dominated by late successional species of trees
that are hundreds to thousands of years old. Examples include virgin uncut forests of
Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Giant
Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), and Coastal Redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens)
found in western North America. Also see second-growth forest.

Oligocene - The Oligocene is dated from 33.9 ± 0.1 to 23.03 ± 0.05 million years ago.
The rapid cooling of global temperatures in the beginning of this epoch leads to the
quick expansion of the Antarctic Ice Cap, the latitudinal retreat of broadleaf tropical
forests to a zone around the equator, and the expansion of deciduous forests in the
mid-latitudes. Drier conditions drive the expansion of grasslands and savannas.
Running mammals like horses, entelodonts, rhinoceroses, oreodonts, and camels
become well established in grasslands and savannas. One of three epochs that
occurred during the Paleogene Period. See the International Commission on
Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Oligotrophic - A water body with a relatively low supply of nutrients. Oligotrophic

water bodies have little algae and aquatic plants growing in them and their water is
generally clear. Compare with eutrophic and mesotrophic.

Oligotrophic Lake - Lake with a low supply of nutrients in its waters. These lakes
have little algae and aquatic plants growing in them and their water is generally
clear. Also see eutrophic lake and mesotrophic lake.

Olivine - Common silicate mineral found in rocks formed from mafic magma.
Olivine's chemical composition varies between Mg2SiO4 and Fe2SiO4.

Omnivore - A heterotrophic organism that consumes both plants and other animals
as a source of food. Examples of omnivores include pigs, raccoons, rats, bears,

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turtles, monkeys, and humans. Also see carnivore, herbivore, scavenger, and
detritivore.

One-Tailed Statistical Test - Is an inferential statistical test where the values for the
rejection of the null hypothesis are located entirely on one side of the center of an
associated probability distribution.

Onion Weathering - See exfoliation.

Onshore-Offshore Transport - The repetitive up and down movement of sediment

roughly perpendicular to a shoreline because of wave action.

Oolite - Small spherical shaped sedimentary rocks that are between 0.25 and 2.0
millimeters in diameter and usually composed of calcium carbonate. Form when a
small fragment of rock acts as a seed for the deposition of concentric layers of
chemical precipitates. Oolite formation usually occurs in shallow marine or lake
environments where the water is supersaturated with calcium. Some oolites are
composed of silica, magnesium, iron, and phosphate precipitates. Also called egg
stone.

Open Sea - That part of the ocean that extends from the continental shelf. Compare
with coastal zone.

Open System - Is a system that transfers both matter and energy can cross its
boundary to the surrounding environment. Most ecosystems are an example of an
open system.

Open Talik - Is a form of localized unfrozen ground (talik) in an area of permafrost.

It is open to the ground surface but enclosed to permafrost below and at its sides.

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Optimum - The level of an abiotic factor or condition in the environment within the
tolerance range at which a species or population can function most efficiently or with
the most significant positive effect on its physiological or reproductive fitness.

Opisometer - A mechanical device for measuring non-linear distances on maps. This

device uses a small rotating wheel that records the distance traveled.

Order - The fourth category in the classification of organisms. Classification level

above the family category. It consists of families with similar morphological and
physiological characteristics and related genetics. Similar orders are grouped into a
class.

Ore - Is a rock that contains minerals that are of economic importance. For example,
mineral metals like copper, silver, and gold.

Organ - Group of cells and tissues that have a particular function for an organism.

Organelle - Is a specialized structure found in individual cells that is designed to

carry out distinct cellular functions.

Organic - (1) Relating to an organism. (2) Derived from an organism.

Organic Matter - A mass of matter that contains living organisms or nonliving

material derived from organisms. Sometimes refers to the organic constituents of
soil. Also see soil organic matter.

Organic Matter Decomposition - The breakdown of organic matter into smaller

parts or inorganic constituents by decomposing organisms or inorganic chemical
processes. In terrestrial environments, much of the organic matter decomposition
occurs on top or within the topmost layer of soil and sediment. In aquatic habitats,
this type of decomposition occurs on or in the near-surface layer of sediments found
at the bottom of water bodies.

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Organic Soil - Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of Soil
Classification. This soil type is common in fens and bogs. This soil is
mainly composed of organic matter in various stages of
decomposition. For more information on this soil type,, see the
textbook Canadian System of Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available
online - [Link] Image
Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

Organic Weathering - The breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller-sized

particles by organisms and processes associated with organisms.

Organism - Any form of life usually being described at the individual or species
level.

Origin - The arbitrary starting point on a graph or grid coordinate system. Defined
by the intersection of the x and y-axes. Also see false origin.

Orogenesis - The process of mountain building through tectonic forces of

compression and volcanism.

Orogenic Belt - A major mountain range found on the continents.

Orogeny - The processes associated with the deformation of the Earth's lithosphere
because of the interaction of tectonic plates. Results in orogenesis and volcanism.

Orographic Lifting - See orographic uplift.

Orographic Precipitation - Is precipitation that forms when air is forced to rise

because of the physical presence of elevated land. As the parcel rises, it cools as a
result of dry adiabatic expansion at a rate of approximately 9.8°C per 1,000 meters
(5.4°F per 1,000 feet) until saturation. The large amounts of precipitation along the
west coast of Canada and the United States are due mainly to this process.

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Orographic Uplift - The forced uplift of an air mass because of the presence of a
topographic obstruction. This uplift also causes the cooling of the air mass. If enough
cooling occurs, condensation can occur and form into orographic precipitation. Also
called orographic lifting.

Orthographic Map Projection - A map projection system that presents the Earth's
surface in two dimensions as if it was observed from a great distance in space.
Distortion of areas and angles becomes greater as one moves from the center of the
projection to its edges.

Oscillating Universe Theory - Theory that suggests the Universe undergoes an

endless series of oscillations, each beginning with a Big Bang and ending with a Big
Crunch. After each Big Bang the Universe expands for some time until the
gravitational attraction of matter causes it to collapse into a Big Crunch.

Outcrop - Area of exposed bedrock at the Earth's surface with no overlying deposits
of soil or regolith.

Outer Core - Outer region of the Earth's core. The

outer core is believed to be liquid nickel and iron
and has a density of about 10.0 to 12.2 g/cm3 -
grams per cubic centimeter (0.37 to 0.44 pounds per
cubic inch). It surrounds the inner core and has an
average thickness of about 2,250 kilometers (1,400
miles).

Outer Space - The region beyond the outer limits of the Earth's atmosphere that
extends to the edge of the Universe.

Outgassing - The release of gas from cooling magma or from the interior of the
Earth. Much of the atmosphere's gaseous constituents, like water vapor, nitrogen,
and argon, came from outgassing.

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Outlet Glacier - A glacier that comes off an ice dome following the topography of
the landscape.

Output - The movement of matter, energy, or information out of a system. Also see
input.

Outwash - Glaciofluvial sediments deposited by meltwater streams found at the

edge of a glacier.

Outwash Plain - A flat or gentle sloping surface of glaciofluvial sediments deposited

by meltwater streams at the edge of a glacier. Usually found in close spatial
association with moraines.

Outwash Terrace - A terrace produced by the past deposition of glacial meltwater

sediment. These terraces are often occupied by a (post glacial) stream that has cut
down into the terrace, making the outwash deposits visible. Outwash terrace
sediments can range in type from clay to gravel and can be many meters (feet) thick.
Often associated up valley of an outwash terrance are an outwash plain and
moraines.

Ordovician - One of six geologic periods that occurred from 488 to 444 million years
ago during the Paleozoic Era. During this period, the first fish develop in the oceans
and fungi species appear on land. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Over-Harvesting - Occurs when too many individuals of a particular plant or animal

species are captured for the purpose of producing food or the making of commercial
products, and the population size of this species declines significantly in number.
Over-harvesting occurs because the number of new individuals produced by
reproduction is less than the number of individuals harvested over time.

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Overbank Deposit - Deposits of alluvial sediments found along the sides of a stream
channel that are the result of flooding and overbank flow. Coarse sediments, like
gravel and sand, are found close to the channel edge. Sediments composed of silts
and clays are found some distance from the channel. This pattern is seen because the
velocity of overbank flow decreases with distance from the stream channel edge.

Overbank Flow - The movement of flood waters outside a stream channel during a
period of high stream discharge.

Overfit Stream - A type of misfit stream that is too large to be responsible for eroding
the valley that surrounds it.

Overland Flow - The topographic movement of a thin film of water from

precipitation to lower elevations. With time, this water will begin to organizing its
flow into small channels called rills. The rills converge to form progressively larger
channels until stream channels are formed. Occurs when the infiltration capacity of
an area's soil has been exceeded. Also called sheet flow or runoff.

Overthrust Fault - Fault produced by the fracturing of rock in a fold because of

intense compression.

Overtopping - A coastal process where sediment carried by swash waves is mainly

deposited on the top of barrier beaches. Compare with overwashing.

Overturned Fold - A fold in rock layers where one

limb is pushed up past the perpendicular (see
graphic). This results in both limbs having dips in
the same direction. Compare with anticline,
syncline, monocline, and recumbent fold.

Overwashing - A coastal process where sediment carried by swash waves is mainly

deposited on the landward side of barrier beaches. This process occurs with more

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energetic wave action because of the occurrence of strong winds. Compare with
overtopping.

Oxbow Lake - Is a portion of abandoned stream

channel filled with stagnant water and cut off from the
rest of the stream. Oxbow lakes are produced when
meanders are cut off from the rest of the channel
because of lateral stream erosion. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Oxidation - (1) Chemical attachment of free oxygen to other elements and

compounds. One of the types of chemical weathering. (2) Loss of an electron during
a chemical reaction from one atom to another.

Oxisol - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. These soils are found
in moist tropical environments. They are extremely weathered and
very old. Layers within the profile have accumulations of mineral
oxides and have a lack of base cations available for exchange. Image
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Ozone - Triatomic oxygen (O3) that exists in the Earth's atmosphere as a gas. Ozone
is highest in concentration in the stratosphere (10 to 50 kilometers (6.2 to 31.1 miles)
above the Earth's surface) where it absorbs the Sun's ultraviolet radiation.
Stratospheric ozone is produced naturally and helps to protect life from the harmful
effects of solar ultraviolet radiation. Over the last few decades, levels of stratospheric
ozone have been declining globally, especially in Antarctica. Scientists have
determined that chlorine molecules released from the decomposition of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are primarily responsible for ozone destruction in the
stratosphere. It is also abundant near the Earth's surface (troposphere) in highly
polluted urban centers. In these areas, it forms as a by-product of photochemical
smog, and is hazardous to human health.

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Ozone Hole - Is a seasonal decrease in stratospheric ozone concentration that occurs
over Antarctica and to a lesser extent over the Arctic during the spring season. First
detected in the late 1970s, the Antarctic ozone hole
continues to appear as a result of complex chemical
reaction in the atmosphere that involves
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Shown is an image of the
ozone hole captured on September 24, 2006 by the
NASA's Aura satellite (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
NASA). The Antarctic hole covered an area of about 29.5
million square kilometers (11.4 million square miles). The
concentration of ozone is depicted by color: blue and
purple colors are where there is the least ozone, and the
greens and yellows where there is higher quantities of ozone.

Ozone Layer - Atmospheric concentration of ozone found at an altitude of 10 to 50

kilometers (6.2 to 31.1 miles) above the Earth's surface. This layer is important to life
on the Earth because ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation, drastically
reducing the amount of this radiation received at the Earth's surface. Also called
ozonosphere.

Ozonosphere - Another name for the ozone layer found in Earth’s atmosphere.

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 P
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

P-Wave - A seismic wave that moves material in push-pull fashion in the direction of
its travel. This type of seismic wave can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
Also called a primary wave.

Pacific High - High pressure system that develops over the central Pacific Ocean
near the Hawaiian Islands. Also called the Hawaiian High.

Pacific Ocean - The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean region covering about 30% of
the Earth's surface area. It has a total surface area of about
155,557,000 square kilometers (60,045,000 square miles)
(see figure, Map Source: CIA Factbook, Wikimedia Commons).
The ocean floor of the Pacific is quite uniform in depth,
having an average elevation of 4,300 meters (14,100 feet)
below sea level. This fact makes it the deepest ocean
region on average. The Pacific Ocean is also home to the
lowest elevation on our planet. The deepest point in the
Mariana Trench lies some 10,971 meters (35,994 feet)
below sea level. About 25,000 islands can be found in the
Pacific Ocean region. This is more than the number for the other four ocean regions
combined.

Paleoarctic - One of eight biogeographic

realms found on Earth, where many
species have a unique evolutionary
history because of geographic isolation.
Geographically, this realm covers all of
Eurasia and Northern Africa (see Map).
This realm’s climate is mainly

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subtropical to polar. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Paleocene - Geologic epoch that occurred from 65.5 ± 0.3 to 55.8 ± 0.2 million years
ago. The Paleocene followed the Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction Event. Notable
events during this time include: modern plant species increasing in species numbers
and expanding their coverage on the planet, angiosperms continue to proliferate
with their co-evolved insect pollinators, mammals increasing in body size, mammals
residing in more habitat types, and birds become more diverse and also occupy more
habitats. Climate cooler and dryer than the pervious Cretaceous. One of three epochs
during the Paleogene Period. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale. Also spelled
Palaeocene.

Paleochannel - A relic stream channel created in the past when hydrological

conditions were different and there was enough water in form of stream discharge to
fill it. Paleochannels often contain streams that do not have the discharge to fill it.
Also spelled palaeochannel.

Paleoclimate - A description of climatic conditions sometime in the geological past

as reconstructed from a direct or indirect data source. Also spelled palaeoclimate.

Paleoclimatology - The scientific study of the Earth's past climate. Also spelled
Palaeoclimatology.

Paleoecology - A field of ecology that studies the abiotic and biotic factors that
influence the distribution and abundance of species in the past. Paleoecology often
uses microfossils (like pollen, spores, and diatoms) and macrofossils to describe past
conditions and infer ecological processes that may have operated at this time. Also
spelled Palaeoecology.

Paleogene - Geologic period that starts 65.5 ± 0.3 million years ago and ends 23.03 ±
0.05 million years ago. One important event of the Paleogene is the evolution of

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mammals from tiny organisms into much large ones. The continued speciation of
birds occurs and they begin to fill habitats once occupied by flying dinosaurs.
Tropical plants became more restricted to a region around the equator because of a
cooling global climate. Deciduous trees and their forests became more common.
Grasses first evolve and the subsequent speciation of these plants leads to the
appearance of grassland and savanna type ecosystems. This geologic period contains
three epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, and the Oligocene. See the International
Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the
geologic time scale. Also spelled Palaeogene.

Paleolake - An ancient lake that existed in the past when hydrological conditions
were different. Also spelled palaeolake.

Paleomagnetism - The study of the relic magnetism preserved in sediments,

minerals, rocks, and some archeological materials. These substances have the ability
to record the direction and intensity of the of Earth's magnetic field when they are
formed. See magnetic reversal. Also spelled palaeomagnetism.

Paleosol - A soil exhibiting features that developed as the result of some past
environmental conditions and associated processes. Also spelled palaeosol.

Paleozoic - Is the earliest of three geologic eras. It occurred from 542 to 251 million
years ago during the Phanerozoic Eon. The Paleozoic is subdivided into six geologic
periods: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. See
the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent
version of the geologic time scale. Also spelled Palaeozoic.

Pallid Zone - A layer within a soil profile that has a bleached appearance.

Palsa - A mound of peat that develops as the result of the formation of a number ice
lenses beneath the ground surface. Typical size is 1 to 7 meters (3 to 23 feet) high, 10
to 30 meters (30 to 100 feet) wide, and 15 to 150 meters (50 to 500 feet) long. This
landform is found in the high latitudes. Similar to a pingo.

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Paludal - With reference to marsh environments, processes, and things.

Paludal Sediments - Sediments found in swamps and marshes.

Paludification - Refers to an expanding bog, fen, or peatland caused by a rising

water table. The rising water table is often facilitated by the impeding of drainage
because of peat accumulation.

Palynology - (1) The science of studying inorganic and organic microscopic particles.
(2) The science that studies existing and fossilized pollen, spores, and other organic
particulate matter. Scientists have used palynology to study paleoecology, climate
change, stratigraphy, evolution, forensic science, and archeology.

Pan - (1) Compact soil horizon that has a high clay content. (2) A large natural basin
or depression found in desert climates.

Pangaea - Was a supercontinent that existed on the

Earth's surface between 335 to 175 million years
ago. The break-up of Pangaea starting about 175
million years ago created the current configuration
of landmasses found on the Earth. The following
image shows the location of Pangaea relative to
the equator about 250 million years ago (Image
Source: United States Geological Survey). Other
supercontinents that existed in Earth's geologic
past include Laurasia and Gondwana.

Panplain - A low relief landscape created by sideward erosion by streams.

Parabolic Dune - A crescent-shaped sand dune whose long axis is transverse to the
dominant wind direction. These dunes form when scattered vegetation stabilizes
surface sediments, and U-shaped blowouts form between clumps of plants. The

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points of this dune curve upwind.
Parabolic dunes also have multiple slip-
faces. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
artist Po ke jung. This image is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Unported license.

Parallel - A line place on a globe or simulated representation of the Earth that is

parallel to the equator and connecting all places of the same latitude.

Parametric Test - A statistical test that assumes the sample data is normally
distributed.

Parasite - Consumer organism that feeds on a host for an extended time. Feeding
causes the host to be less fit and may eventually cause premature death.

Parasitism - Biological interaction between species where a parasite species feeds on

a host species.

Parent Material - The mineral and rock material from which a soil forms.

Paris Agreement - International climate change treaty negotiated at the Conference

of the Parties in Paris, France, from November 30 to December 11, 2015. This treaty
was signed by 177 parties (individual nation states and the European Union) on
April 22, 2016 (Earth Day). The main goal of this legally binding agreement is to
restrict the increase in annual mean global temperature to well below 2.0°C (relative
to the pre-industrial temperature level) and to vigorously pursue efforts to limit this
temperature increase to just 1.5°C. This effort will be primarily accomplished by
gradually reducing our emissions of the various greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere to zero by around 2070. For this agreement to become effective, a
minimum of 55 parties that in total account for at least 55% of global emissions of
greenhouse gases must ratify it. The Paris Agreement is part of the framework of the

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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and a logical
extension of the Kyoto Protocol.

Particulate Matter - Tiny bits of dust, soot, salt, sulfate compounds, pollen, spores, or
other particles suspended in the atmosphere.

Parts Per Billion (ppb) - Number of parts of a substance found in one billion parts of
a particular gas, liquid, or solid.

Parts Per Million (ppm) - Number of parts of a substance found in one million parts
of a particular gas, liquid, or solid.

Parts Per Thousand (ppt) - Number of parts of a substance found in one thousand
parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid.

Pascal (Pa) - A International System of Units quantity for measuring force. Used to
measure atmospheric pressure. Equal to one newton over an area of one square
meter.

Passive Margin - A type of continental plate edge that arises from the fragmentation
of a once much larger continental mass. As a result, these passive margins are
characterized by a much lower level of tectonic activity when compared to other
continental margins. Passive margins are usually not being influenced by
convergent plate processes and/or the subduction of plates.

Passive Movement - A form of dispersal where the organism uses some external
factor to initiate movement. Some commonly used external factors are wind and
currents in water bodies. Compare with active movement.

Passive Remote Sensing - Form of remote sensing where the sensor passively
captures electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted by an object being imaged.

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Paternoster Lakes - A linear series of mountain valley lakes that form from glacial
erosion. Pasternoster lakes normally form behind glacial moraines or in glacially
carved out rock basins. The name of this feature is related to the series of lakes
looking like a string of beads.

Pathogen - A microscopic parasitic organism that causes disease in a host. Disease

causes the host to be less fit and may eventually cause premature death.

Patterned Ground - Term used to describe a variety of unique surface features found
in periglacial environments. These features can resemble circles, polygons, nets,
steps, and stripes. The development of some of these shapes is thought to be the
result of freeze-thaw action.

Peak Annual Flow - The largest discharge produced by a stream during a one-year
period.

Peak Discharge - The most significant volume of stream discharge measured for a
stream at a particular location over a specified span of time.

Peat - Is the partially decomposed remains of plants that once flourished in a

waterlogged environment. Some of the plants making up peat are mosses, sedges,
and wetland shrubs. Peat can be classified as being either fibric, hemic, or sapric.
Fibric peats are the least decomposed and are primarily made of undamaged plant
fibers. Hemic peats show more decomposition. Sapric peats are so well decomposed
that it is often difficult to find recognizable plant fibers.

Peatland - A treeless wetland ecosystem dominated by mosses, sedges, and wetland

shrubs that decay to produce peat. Peatlands make up between 50-70% of Earth's
wetlands.

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Pebble - A rounded piece of rock that is larger than gravel. Typically a pebble is
between 2 to 63 millimeters (0.079 to 2.48 inches) in diameter. Synonymous with the
term gravel.

Pedalfer - A soil in a humid environment that is well-drained and has most of its
soluble minerals leached from its upper horizons. Compare with pedocal.

Pediment - A gradually sloping bedrock surface located at the base of fluvial-eroded

mountain range. Found in arid locations and normally covered by fluvial deposits.

Pediplain - An arid landscape of little relief that is occasionally interrupted by the

presence of scattered inselbergs. Formed by the coalescence of several pediments.

Pedocal - A soil in a humid environment that is poorly drained and has none of its
soluble minerals leached from its upper horizons. As a result, there is a precipitation
and accumulation of minerals into larger structures like nodules, seams, and/or
layers. Compare with pedalfer.

Pedogenesis - The process of soil formation.

Pedogenic Regime - The primary soil forming process that normally operates under
a particular climate. Some of the main processes are laterization, salinization,
podzolization, calcification, and gleization.

Pedology - The scientific study of soils.

Pedon - A basic soil sampling unit. Often viewed as a soil profile that goes from the
surface to a depth where soil meets bedrock.

Peds - Larger aggregates of mineral and/or organic particles in a soil.

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Pelagic Zone - Is a layer of water found in a lake, sea, or ocean that extends from the
water surface down to the bottom of the water body. In this extensive column of
water, environmental conditions vary significantly with depth. With increasing
depth in the pelagic zone: pressure increases, temperature decreases, life generally
becomes less common, dissolved oxygen and nutrients become less available, and
the intensity of sunlight decreases greatly. In our oceans, we can find two major
zones in the pelagic zone classified according to light penetration: the photic and
aphotic zones. Below this layer is the demersal zone and benthic zone. Some other
layers found in the pelagic zone include mesopelagic zone, bathyal zone, abyssal
zone, and hadal zone.

Peneplain - A landscape or plain with little topographic relief. The final stage in the
Davis' cycle of erosion.

Penitent Rocks - Beds of residual resistant rocks in an intensely weathered

landscape.

Pennsylvanian - A sub-period during the Carboniferous geologic period that

occurred roughly from 299 to 318 million years ago. During this period, the first
reptiles and winged insects appear. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Perched Groundwater - A layer of

unconfined groundwater, isolated and
found above the main groundwater
for an area. The separation is usually
the result of the presence of a zone of
impermeable rock that is impervious
to horizontal water flow. This
situation will of course, create a
perched water table.

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Perched Water Table - A water table that is positioned above the main water table
for an area because of the presence of an impermeable rock layer (see image in
perched groundwater definition).

Percolation - Vertical movement or infiltration of water from the Earth's surface to its
subsurface. Movement usually stops when the flowing water reaches the water table.

Percolation Gauge - Scientific instrument used to measure the downward flow of

water through a soil by percolation.

Perennial Plant - A plant species that lives for more than two years.

Perennial Stream - A stream which has water flow for the whole year. Compare with
intermittent stream and ephemeral stream.

Peridotite - Coarse grained ultramafic igneous rock composed mainly of olivine and
pyroxene. The mantle is thought to be composed primarily of this rock type.

Perigee - The location in the Moon's orbital path when it is nearest Earth.

Periglacial - Term used to describe landscapes and processes that are connected with
recent deglaciatation or found in areas in close proximity with glaciers. Often
associated with very active freeze-thaw action. Some landforms that are considered
periglacial include pingoes, palsas, patterned ground, block fields, and nivation
hollows.

Periglacial Landform - Landforms created by processes associated with intense

freeze-thaw action in a high latitude areas or near an alpine or continental glacier.

Perihelion - The point in the Earth's orbit when it is closest to the Sun. This distance
is about 147.3 million kilometers (91.5 million miles). Perihelion occurs on the 3rd or
4th of January. Compare with aphelion.

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Period - Geologic time unit that is shorter than an era but longer than an epoch. See
the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for more information
on the geologic time scale.

Periodic Table - Table that describes some of the chemical properties of the known
elements. See the following website for more information:
[Link]

Permafrost - Zone of permanently frozen water found in high latitude soils and
sediments. Five types of permafrost have been recognized: continuous permafrost,
discontinuous permafrost, sporadic permafrost, alpine permafrost, and subsea
permafrost.

Permeability - A measure of the ability of soil, sediment, and rock to transport water
(and other liquids) horizontally and vertically. Permeability is primarily dependent
on the porosity of the medium through which the water is flowing. Some rocks like
granite have very poor permeability, while rocks like shale are actually quite
pervious. As for soils, sand is the most pervious, while clay has the lowest
permeability. Silt usually is somewhere in the middle.

Permian - Last geologic period in the Paleozoic Era. The Permian occurred from
299.0 ± 0.8 to 251.0 ± 0.4 million years ago. This period saw the mass extinction of
many corals, brachiopods, and trilobites. It also saw the diversification and growing
dominance of reptiles. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Permian-Triassic Extinction Event - Mass extinction event that occurred 251 million
years ago at the end of the Permian. Considered our planet's most severe mass
extinction event with the loss of 96% of all marine life, about 70% of land vertebrate
species, and about 80% of insect genera. Numerous possible causes have been
hypothesized, including asteroid impact, severe volcanism, climate change, gamma
ray exposure from a nearby supernova, and the sudden release of methane clathrates
from the ocean bottom.

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Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) - A common toxic chemical found in photochemical
smog. Formed from photochemical reactions involving nitric oxide (NO) and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). A very damaging substance to plants.

Perviousness - Term used to describe the ability of soil, sediment, and rock to move
water (and other liquids) through them.

Pesticide - A chemical substance used to attract, deter, reduce, or kill a pest

organism. Many pesticides are toxic. Also see biocide, herbicide, insecticide, and
fungicide.

Petroleum - A yellow-to-black liquid composed of hydrocarbons and other organic

substances and found primarily in sedimentary deposits below the ground surface.
Petroleum is mainly recovered by ground drilling and pumping. We refine
petroleum to create a variety of products including from gasoline and other fuels,
lubricants, asphalt, tar, chemical substances used to make plastics, paraffin wax, and
pharmaceuticals.

pH - Scale used to measure the alkalinity or acidity of a substance by determining

the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution. A pH of 7.0 is considered neutral.
Values below 7.0, to a minimum of 0.0, indicate increasing acidity. Values above 7.0,
to a maximum of 14.0, reflect increasing alkalinity.

Phacolith - A subsurface mass of younger igneous

rock found older rock. Usually lens shaped and
associated with the top of an anticline or the
bottom of a syncline. In the image shown, the
phacoliths are colored red. Compare with
batholith, dyke, sill, laccolith, and lopolith. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
license.

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Phanerozoic - Geologic eon that occurs from 542 million years ago to today. During
this time, life becomes more diversified and increasingly complex. The Phanerozoic
is divided into three geologic eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Also see
Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic Eons. See the International Commission on
Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Phase Change - The reorganization of a substance at the atomic or molecular level

resulting in a change of the physical state of matter. For example, a change from solid
to liquid to a gas.

Phenology - Is the scientific study of how periodic life cycle events cause organisms
to change their behavior, physiology, morphology, or metabolism. Some events that
can cause a phenological response include the change of seasons, temperature,
moisture, and light availability. For example, the fall coloring and dropping of leaves
of temperate deciduous trees are due to biochemical reactions that are triggered by
changes in day length (photoperiod) and air temperature.

Phloem - Conducting tissue found in a vascular plant that is used to transport

organic nutrients (like sucrose).

Phosphate - Forms of inorganic phosphorus often found in the natural environment.

Mined inorganic phosphates are commonly used as a fertilizer in agriculture.
Inorganic phosphate is also important in industry. Phosphorus is an important
essential macronutrient for plants and animals, and has an important
biogeochemical role in ecosystems. The typical chemical formula for the phosphate
ion is PO43-.

Photic Zone - The topmost layer in a lake, sea, or ocean that receives enough
sunlight to promote photosynthesis in aquatic plants. The depth of this zone may
only be a few centimeters (inches) think in a very murky lake, to more than 100
meters (330 feet) in extremely clear ocean waters. Also called the euphotic zone.
Compare with aphotic zone.

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Photochemical - Something chemically related to or a byproduct of the absorption of
light energy.

Photochemical Smog - Photochemical smog is a condition that develops when

primary pollutants (oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds created from
fossil fuel combustion) interact under the influence of sunlight to produce a mixture
of hundreds of different and hazardous chemicals known as secondary pollutants.
Also see industrial smog.

Photodissociation - The splitting of a molecule by a photon from sunlight.

Photogrammetry - The science of using aerial photographs and other remote sensing
imagery to obtain measurements of natural and human-made features on the Earth.

Photoperiod - The duration of the daylight period.

Photoperiodism - (1) Mechanism possessed by some organisms to use photoperiod

to sense seasonal time. (2) Response by organisms to changes in the duration of day
and night.

Photon - A discrete unit of electromagnetic radiation.

Photosphere - Visible surface of the Sun from which solar radiation is emitted.

Photosynthesis - Is the chemical process where plants and some bacteria can capture
and organically fix the radiant energy of the Sun. This chemical reaction can be
described by the following simple equation:

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy ➜ C6H12O6 + 6O2

The main product of photosynthesis is a carbohydrate, such as the sugar glucose,
and oxygen which is released to the atmosphere. All of the sugar produced in the
photosynthetic cells of plants and other organisms is derived from the initial

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chemical combining of carbon dioxide and water with sunlight. This chemical
reaction is catalyzed by chlorophyll acting in concert with other pigments, lipids,
sugars, protein, and nucleic acid molecules. Sugars created in photosynthesis can be
later converted by the plant to starch for storage, or it can be combined with other
sugar molecules to form specialized carbohydrates such as cellulose, or it can be
combined with other nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, to build
complex molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Also see chemosynthesis.

Photosynthetic Autotroph - An organism that produces food molecules

inorganically by using light and the chemical process of photosynthesis. Plants are
the dominant photosynthetic autotrophs on the Earth. This organism does not
require outside sources of organic food energy for survival.

Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) - This term refers to the type of

electromagnetic radiation that can be used for photosynthesis. For most plants, this
radiation falls in a wavelength band between 0.4 and 0.7 micrometers (µm). Of the
sunlight received at the Earth's surface less than half of it is photosynthetically active
radiation.

Phreatic Divide - An imaginary line on the Earth's surface that marks the source of
groundwater flow from an underground watershed for a particular stream.

Phreatophytes - A type of plant that produces an extremely deep root system. This
evolutionary adaptation allows the plant to access water from areas deep within a
soil or from the water table. Phreatophytes are common in arid and desert climates.

Phyllosilicate Mineral - A type of mineral that has a chemical structure that consists
of silicate tetrahedrons arranged in layers. The following minerals fall into this
group: serpentine, muscovite, biotite, chlorite, and talc.

Phylogenic Classification - A classification system of organisms based on measured

genetic connections between other species.

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Phylum - A group or category used in the taxonomic and/or phylogenic
classification of organisms. A phylum is composed of one or more classes. In the
classification of plants, the category division is often used synonymously.

Physical Geography - Scientific field of knowledge that studies natural features and
phenomena on the Earth from a spatial perspective. Sub-discipline of Geography
and Earth Science.

Physical Meteorology - A subfield of meteorology that studies the physical

properties and processes of the atmosphere. This includes things like electricity,
acoustics, radiation dynamics, chemistry, the physics of aerosols, clouds and
precipitation, and physical climatology.

Physical Weathering - The breakdown of minerals and rocks into smaller sized
particles through mechanical stress. Also called mechanical weathering.

Phytogeography - A subfield of biogeography and ecology that studies the spatial

distribution of plants on our planet.

Phytokarst - A type of karst landform composed of limestone bedrock and

dominated by geomorphic features created by biotic processes of plants. These biotic
processes can include enhanced solution chemical weathering because of the creation
of chelates and erosion through root action.

Phytoplankton - Small photosynthetic organisms, mostly

algae and bacteria, found inhabiting aquatic ecosystems.
Shown is the freshwater phytoplankton (algae) Pediastrum
boryanum (Image Source: United States Environmental
Protection Agency). Also see plankton and zooplankton.

Picrite - A coarse grained ultramafic igneous rock containing the minerals olivine
and augite with small quantities of plagioclase feldspar.

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Piedmont - A zone of foothills running parallel to a mountain range.

Piedmont Glacier - A large glacier formed from the merger of several alpine glaciers.
Compare with cirque glacier, alpine glacier, and continental glacier.

Pigment - Organic substance found in plant and animal cells that creates coloring.

Pingo - A large conical mound that contains an

ice core Pingos can be up to 60 to 70 meters (200
to 300 feet) in height. Form in regions of
permafrost. Common in the Mackenzie Delta
region of Canada. Also see the related palsa. The
image shows two pingos near Tuktoyaktuk,
Northwest Territories, Canada (Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, image is in the public
domain).

Pioneer Community - A plant community dominated by pioneer species.

Pioneer Species - The particular plant species that dominate a developing

community in the early stages of plant succession.

Pitted Topography - Landscape characterized by numerous kettle holes on a glacial

outwash plain.

Place - A term used in geography that describes the factors that make the location of
natural and human-made phenomena unique.

Plagioclase Feldspar - A type of feldspar that is rich in sodium and calcium.

Common rock-forming mineral.

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Planar Map Projection - Is a two-dimensional map projection system that projects
the Earth onto a flat surface or plane. The Earth's
surface touches this plane at only one single point
or tangent. These maps are plagued by area and
shape distortion that increases from the tangent
point. The ancient Greeks constructed the first
planar maps in about 600 BC. Modern versions of
this projection are commonly used to map our
planet's polar regions. An alternative name for
this system is Azimuthal Map Projection.

Plane of the Ecliptic - See ecliptic plane.

Planet - (1) According to the International Astronomical Union (IAU) this is a celestial
body orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to have a spherical shape because of its
own gravity. Further, this celestial body has cleared its orbital path through space of
objects. Planets are not massive enough to create their own light. Our Sun has eight
celestial bodies orbiting that are considered a planet: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. (2) A similar body orbiting another star in the
Universe.

Planetary Albedo - The albedo of an entire planet. This measurement includes all of
the ground and atmospheric surfaces that intercept incoming solar radiation. Earth's
planetary albedo is about 0.31.

Planimeter - A mechanical instrument used to measure the area of a two-

dimensional surface. Also called a platometer.

Plankton - Minute plant (phytoplankton) and animal organisms (zooplankton) that

are found in fresh and marine aquatic ecosystems.

Plant - Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. These organisms have the
following general characteristics: lack of locomotion, lack of a nervous system, and

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cellulose cell walls. Most plants can photosynthesize. See the Encyclopedia of Life for
more information on this group of organisms.
[Link]

Plant Succession - The cumulative directional change in the types plant species that
occupy a given area through time, after a site was partially or completely removed of
plant species by some agent of disturbance. Also called succession.

Plantae - Group, at the kingdom level, in the classification of life. Multicellular

organisms that have a eukaryotic cell type, chloroplasts, mitochondria and a cell wall
composed of cellulose.

Plasma - A fourth state of matter with the other three being gas, liquid, and solid.
Plasma consists of an ionized gas composed of positive ions and electrons freed from
the orbits around their atoms. Plasmas, like a gas, do not have a shape and have
conductive properties similar to metals. A gas can be converted to a plasma with the
addition of heat or other forms of energy. Plasma is believed to make up 99% of the
matter found in the Universe. Most stars are in a plasma state. Plasma is also found
in neon signs, lightning, and plasma televisions.

Plastic Deformation - Irreversible change in the shape of a material without fracture

due to the force of compression or expansion.

Plastic Limit - A measurement made on fine grained soil in Geology and Civil
Engineering. Determines the amount of water in a soil at the point when this
material changes from being a solid to having the ability to be plastic.

Plasticity - Is the tendency for some materials to undergo permanent deformation

under a threshold level of stress or load. Many materials can undergo plastic
deformation, including soil, rock, metals, concrete, foams, and bone.

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Plate Tectonics - Theory suggesting that the Earth's surface is composed of a number
of oceanic and continental plates. Driven by convection currents in the mantle, these
plates have the ability to slowly move across the Earth's plastic asthenosphere. This
theory is critical to Geology and Geomorphology because it helps to explain the
occurrence and formation of mountains, folds, faults, volcanoes, earthquakes, ocean
trenches, and the mid-oceanic ridges.

Plateau - An extensive area with flat terrain that is elevated above the surrounding
landscape.

Plateau Basalt - An accumulation of horizontal flows of basaltic lava. Also called

flood basalt.

Platform - Horizontal sedimentary deposits found on top of continental shield

deposits.

Playa - A dry lakebed found in a desert.

Pleistocene - Geologic epoch from about 2.588 million to 11,700 years ago. During
this time, extensive areas of land in the Northern Hemisphere at the high and middle
latitudes where covered with glacial ice. One of two epochs during the Quaternary
Period. Sometimes called the Ice Age. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Plinian Eruption - A type of volcanic

eruption that is characterized by a
massive explosion that can send gas and
volcanic ash high into the stratosphere
(up to 45 kilometers or 28 miles). This
type of volcanic eruption is usually
associated with very viscous magmas
(composed of dacite and rhyolite). Some
examples of powerful Plinian eruptions

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include Vesuvius (AD 29), Tambora (1815), Krakatoa (1883), Santa María (1902),
Novarupta (1912), Agung (1963), El Chichón (1982), and Pinatubo (1991). Shown is a
photo of the eruption cloud from Redoubt Volcano, April 21, 1990. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, image is in the public domain. Also called a Vesuvian eruption.

Pliocene - Geologic epoch that occurred from 5.332 to 2.588 million years ago. At the
midpoint of this time interval average global temperature was approximately 2 to
3°C (3 to 5°F) warmer than today, while sea level was about 25 meters (80 feet)
higher than current levels. By the end of the Pliocene, global climate became
significantly cooler and drier. Deciduous and coniferous forests were common in the
mid-latitudes, boreal forest and tundra biomes covered much of the high latitudes,
and grasslands were found on all the continents, with the exception of Antarctica.
Grasslands and savannas supported a large variety of grazing mammals. One of two
epochs during the Neogene Period. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Plucking - Erosive process of particle detachment by moving glacial ice. In this

process, basal ice freezes in rock surface cracks. As the main body of the glacial ice
moves material around the ice in the cracks is pulled and plucked out. Also called
quarrying.

Pluton - A mass of intrusive igneous rock.

Plutonic - An intrusive igneous rock produced by the solidification of magma deep

beneath the Earth's surface.

Pluvial - A period of relatively wetter climatic conditions sandwiched in between

two drier climatic phases. Compare with interpluvial.

PM2.5 - Air pollution particulate matter that measures less than (<) 2.5 micrometers
(µm) in size. See the comparison of the relative size of different types of particulate
matter to a human hair (Image Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency).

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PM10 - Air pollution particulate matter that
measures less than (<) 10 micrometers (µm) in
size. See the comparison of the relative size of
different types of particulate matter to a human
hair (Image Source: United States Environmental
Protection Agency).

Poaching - Is a type of hunting where a hunter

kills an animal illegally. Often, this form of
hunting is done because the animal has great value on the black market. Compare
with sport hunting, subsistence hunting, and commercial hunting.

Podzolization - Soil forming process that produces a strongly leached soil with a
distinctive iron hardpan layer in the B horizon. Common in cool, moist forest
environments.

Podzol Soil - (1) Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of Soil
Classification. This soil type is often found under coniferous
forests. Its main identifying traits are a poorly decomposed
organic layer, an eluviated A horizon, and a B horizon with
illuviated organic matter, aluminum, and iron. For more
information on this soil type, see the textbook Canadian System of
Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available online - http://
[Link]/cansis/taxa/cssc3/[Link]. Image Source:
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. (2) Soil commonly found under
coniferous forests.

Point Bar - Stream bar deposit that is normally located on the inside of a stream
channel bend.

Polar Axis - Is a line drawn through the Earth around the planet rotates. The point at
which the polar axis intercepts the Earth's surface in the Northern Hemisphere is

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called the North Pole. Likewise, the point at which the polar axis intercepts the
Earth's surface in the Southern Hemisphere is called the South Pole.

Polar Cell - Three-dimensional atmospheric

circulation cell located at roughly 60 to 90°
North and South of the equator. Vertical airflow
in the polar cell consists of rising air at the polar
font and descending air at the polar vortex (see
image). On the Earth's surface, this global-scale
circulation system generates the Polar Easterlies.
Compare with Hadley Cell and Ferrel Cell.

Polar Climate Zone - Region on our planet

found roughly between 60 to 90° North and South latitude. This region is dominated
by D and E type climates according to the Köppen Climate Classification system.

Polar Easterlies - Surface winds that originate at the polar highs and blow to the
subpolar lows in an east to west direction (see image above).

Polar Front - Weather front located typically in the

mid-latitudes that separates arctic and polar air
masses from tropical air masses (Image Source:
Wikipedia Commons, NOAA). Along the polar front,
we get the development of mid-latitude cyclones.
Above the polar front exists the polar jet stream.

Polar High - Surface area of atmospheric high pressure located at about 90° North
and South latitude. These high pressure systems are produced by vertically
descending air currents from the polar vortex.

Polar Jet Stream - Relatively fast uniform winds concentrated within the upper
atmosphere in a narrow band. The polar jet stream exists in the mid-latitudes at an
altitude of approximately 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) above the ground surface. Polar

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jet stream flows from west to east at speeds between 110 to 185 kilometers per hour
(68 to 115 miles per hour). Also see jet stream and subtropical jet stream.

Polar Stratospheric Clouds - High altitude clouds found in the stratosphere where
the temperature is less than -85°C (-121°F). Commonly found over Antarctica. These
clouds have a role in the creation of the ozone hole over Antarctica.

Polar Vortex - High pressure system located in the upper atmosphere at the polar
regions. In this system, the air in the upper troposphere moves into the vortex center
and then descends to the Earth's surface to create the polar highs.

Polder - An area of land surface that has been artificially recovered from a lake, sea,
or ocean by pumping out water.

Polje - A karst landform feature that consists of depressed broad plain covering an
area from 5 to 1,000 square kilometers (2 to
400 square miles) with underlying limestone
bedrock. These features can often be
completely enclosed by steep valley sides.
Water drainage on these plains can be
surficial and/or subterranean, with streams
disappearing into sinkholes. Smaller poljes
can be the result of the coalescence of many
sinkholes. Shown is a 35 kilometer (22 miles)
long polje located in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Image Source: Wikipedia Commons, photograph by Igor Trklja. This image is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Pollen - Very fine grains of fine organic matter containing male gametes that is
produced by seed plants. Used for sexual reproduction in cycadophyta, ginkophyta,
pinophyta, gnetophyta, and angiosperm plants.

Pollen Analysis - See palynology.

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Pollutant - A substance that has a harmful effect on the health, survival, or activities
of humans or other living organisms.

Pollution - Physical, chemical, or biological change in the characteristics of some

component of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, or biosphere that adversely
influences the health, survival, or activities of humans or other living organisms.

Polyclimax - Idea that suggests the outcome of plant succession can be more than
one type of climax community as many factors act to control the succession process
in an area. Compare with monoclimax.

Polycyclic Landform - Landform that shows the repeated influence of one or more
major geomorphic processes over geological time. Major geomorphic processes are:
weathering, erosion, deposition, and massive crustal movements caused by plate
tectonics.

Polygenetic Landform - Landform that shows the influence of two or more major
geomorphic processes. Major geomorphic processes are: weathering, erosion,
deposition, and massive earth movements caused by plate tectonics.

Polygonal Karst - A karst landscape where the ground surface is marked by a

network soil filled depressions.

Polymorphism - Something that exists in multiple forms. In biology, many species

are polymorphic because they have two or more genetic phenotypes.

Polypedon - An identifiable soil with distinct characteristics found in a location or

region. Composed of numerous pedons.

Pond - A small depression filled with water that is smaller than a lake.

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Pool - Scoured depression found on the stream bed that develops because of
erosional forces. Often associated with riffles. Also see bedforms.

Population - (1) Refers to all the individuals of a given species in a specific area or
region at a certain time. Its significance is more than that of a number of individuals
because not all individuals are identical. Populations contain genetic variation
within themselves and between other populations. (2) A statistical population is the
entire collection of people, animals, plants, or things from which we may collect data
and analyze this data using qualitative or quantitative techniques.

Population Crash - Sudden decline in the number of individuals found in a

population because of a scarcity of environmental resources required for survival,
growth, and reproduction.

Population Density - The number of individuals of a particular species found in a

specified unit area.

Population Dynamics - The numerical and statistical study of the changes in the size
and age distribution of a population over time. One goal of this analysis is to
determine the responsible causal factors. Traditionally, this body of knowledge is a
subfield of Mathematical Biology or Ecology. When applied to humans, population
dynamics called demography and is studied by demographers.

Population Parameter - A value used to represent a certain quantifiable characteristic

of a statistical population. For example, the population mean is a parameter that is
often used to indicate the central value of quantity.

Pore Ice - A form of periglacial ground ice that is found in the spaces that exist
between particles of soil.

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Pore Space - Refers to the voids found in between mineral and organic particles
within a mass of soil. These voids vary in size and can be filled with air and/or
water.

Pore Water Pressure - Is the pressure that exists in the water held in the pore spaces
of soil, sediment, or rock. Positive pressure exists if the pore spaces are all filled with
water. Negative pressure (suction) occurs when the pore spaces are not filled with
water.

Porosity - The void spaces found in rock, sediment, or soil. Commonly measured as
the percentage of space found in a volume of substance.

Positive Feedback - Change in the state of a system that enhances the measured
effect of the initial alteration. Compare with negative feedback.

Potassium-Argon Dating - A dating method that determines past dates from the
radioactive decay of potassium-40 isotopes into stable argon-40. Potassium is found
in mica-type minerals, clay minerals, tephra, and evaporites. This technique is used
for dating things believed to be over 100,000 years old. Also called P-K dating.

Potential Energy - Is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its position, and
that is potentially transformable into another form of energy.

Potential Evaporation - Is a measure of the atmosphere's ability to remove water

from a surface through the processes of evaporation, assuming no limit on water
supply.

Potential Evapotranspiration - Is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to

remove water from the surface through the processes of evaporation and
transpiration assuming no limitation on water supply.

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Potential Resource - Is a substance or thing (resource) known to exist in the
environment and maybe consumed by in the future.

Pothole - A round and sometimes deep hole found on the

rocky beds of streams. Formed by abrasive material
twirling in a stream flow eddy eroding the stream bed.
Geomorphologists can use these features to identify the
past presence of a stream. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, photographer Wncoutdoors. This image is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Power - In physics, this term refers to the rate of work or the rate at which energy is
transferred, consumed, or converted into other forms.

ppb - See parts per billion.

ppm - See parts per million.

ppt - See parts per thousand.

Precambrian - Span of geologic time that dates from 4.6 billion to 570 million years
ago. The Precambrian is made up of three geologic eras: Hadean, Archean, and
Proterozoic. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the
most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Precambrian Shield - Another term for shield.

Precession of the Equinox - The wobble in the Earth's polar axis. This motion
influences the timing of aphelion and perihelion over a cyclical period of 23,000
years.

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Precipitable Water - Amount of water potentially available in the atmosphere for
precipitation. It is usually measured in a vertical column that extends from the
Earth's surface to the upper edge of the troposphere.

Precipitate - Solidification of a previously dissolved substance from a solution.

Precipitation - (1) Is any aqueous deposit, in liquid or solid form, that develops in a
saturated atmosphere (relative humidity equals 100%) and falls to the ground
generally from clouds. Most clouds, however, do not produce precipitation. In many
clouds, water droplets and ice crystals are too small to overcome natural updrafts
found in the atmosphere. As a result, the tiny water droplets and ice crystals remain
suspended in the atmosphere as clouds. Some forms of precipitation include rain,
snow, drizzle, hail, ice pellets, and snow pellets. (2) The state of a substance being
precipitated into a solid from a solution.

Predation - Biological interaction between species where a predator species

consumes a prey species.

Predator - A consumer type organism who feeds on prey. The process of

consumption involves the killing of the prey.

Predator-Prey Relationship - A cyclical numerical relationship that exists between

the number of individuals of a prey species and the predator species that consumes
it. This relationship will exhibit a temporal lag. If the number of individuals in the
prey population increases because food is plentiful, there will be a corresponding
increase in predator numbers as more prey to consume means more predators being
born. However, the number of prey a habitat can support is finite, and at some point
in time higher predator numbers will begin to suppress prey numbers significantly.
This in turn, will cause predator numbers to also crash as the supply of food
dwindles. At this point, the cycle begins again as an abundant food supply will cause
prey numbers in increase again.

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Prediction - A forecast or extrapolation of the future state of a system from current or
past states.

Pressure - Is defined as the force acting on a surface from another mass per unit area.

Pressure Gradient Force - The force due to spatial differences in atmospheric

pressure. Usually expressed in millibars or kilopascals per unit distance measured in
meters or kilometers. This force is mainly responsible for the development of wind.

Pressure Melting Point - (1) Temperature at which minerals deep within the Earth
melt because of high pressure levels. (2) Temperature at which ice below the surface
of a glacier melts because of high pressure levels.

Pressure Release - A process where a large rock exfoliates sheets of rock from their
surface. This occurs because pressures at the Earth's surface
are much less than the pressure deep underground where
the rock was formed. As a result, the reduction of pressure
causes layers close to the surface of the rock to expand,
leading to the formation of fractures. Sheets are created
because the fractures are roughly parallel to the surface of
the rock. Erosion is the primary process that moves these
rocks from within the Earth to the ground surface. Shown is
an image of a sheet of gneiss that has exfoliated off from a
larger mass of rock. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons. This
image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Unported license.

Prevailing Wind - The primary direction that the wind blows from for a location or
region over a specific period of time. Compare with the dominant wind.

Prey - An organism that is consumed by a predator.

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Primary Carnivore - Carnivore type organism that occupies the third trophic level in
a grazing food chain. Also known as a secondary consumer.

Primary Consumer - Organisms that occupy the second trophic level in the grazing
food chain. These organisms are herbivores.

Primary Minerals - Minerals that form from the solidification and crystallization of
magma into rock. Compare with secondary minerals.

Primary Pollutant - Air pollutants that enter the atmosphere directly. Compare with
secondary pollutant.

Primary Producer - Organisms that occupy the first trophic level in the grazing food
chain. These organisms are photosynthetic autotrophs.

Primary Productivity - The organic chemical energy or biomass fixed mainly by

plants in an ecosystem via the processes of photosynthesis. Also see gross primary
productivity and net primary productivity.

Primary Succession - A plant succession on soil or sediments that do not contain an

active seed bank.

Primary Wave - See P-Wave.

Prime Meridian - The location from which meridians of longitude are measured.
Has the measure of 0° of longitude. The prime meridian was selected by
international agreement to run through Greenwich, England.

Probability - The statistical chance that an event will occur. For example, the
probability of a coin landing heads or tails is equal or 50 percent.

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Process-Response System - This is a system that integrates the characteristics of both
morphological and cascading systems. In a process-response system, we can model
the processes involved in the movement, storage, and transformation of energy and/
or matter between system elements, and we fully understand how the form of the
system in terms of between measured features.

Producer - Generally, an organism that can synthesize organic matter by way of

photosynthesis.

Productivity - Rate of energy fixation or storage of biomass by plants. Usually

expressed per unit area and time.

Proglacial - Refers to something next to or near the edge of a glacier or an ice sheet.
Compare with englacial, subglacial, and supraglacial.

Progradation - The natural extension of a shoreline seaward because of an increase

in sediment deposition at beaches. Compare with retrogradation.

Progressive Succession - A plant succession where the developing plant community

becomes complex and contains more species and biomass over time.

Prokaryote - Organisms whose cells have their genetic material in the form of loose
strands of DNA found in the cytoplasm. They also do not have a membrane-bound
nucleus and have few specialized structures located within their cell boundary.

Prominence - A localized eruption of a filament of extremely hot ionized gas

originating from the Sun's photosphere and extending hundreds of thousands of
kilometers (miles) into space. Often these solar features are suspended by magnetic
field loops and often bend back to the Sun's surface. Prominences can exist for days
to weeks.

Propagule - A structure that develops into a plant.

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Proportional - Cause and effect relationship between two variables where a positive
or negative change in the quantity of one causes a predictable similar quantity
change in the other.

Protein - Organic substances primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and

some other minor elements which are arranged in about 20 different compounds
known as amino acids. The various amino acids found in a protein are linked
together by peptide bonds.

Proterozoic - Geologic eon that occurred from 542 to 2,500 million years ago. During
this time, the first single-celled and multi-celled eukaryotic organisms evolved and
developed. Also see Hadean, Archean, and Phanerozoic Eons. See the International
Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the
geologic time scale.

Protista - Group, at the kingdom level, in the classification of life. Organisms that are
mainly unicellular and have a eukaryotic cell type. A few multicellular members
exist. See the Encyclopedia of Life for more information on this group of organisms. https://
[Link]/docs/discover/protists-or-protozoa

Protobiont - Non-living precursor to prokaryote cells that consisted of organized

proteins and nucleic acids bounded by an organic membrane. These complex
molecule systems had a chemical environment quite different from their
surroundings. Protobionts had complex organic molecules that resembled RNA and
DNA but were unable to accomplish accurate reproduction.

Proton - A type subatomic particle of an atom that contains a positive

electromagnetic charge. These particles are found in an atom's nucleus. Compare
with electron and neutron.

Protoplasm - Substances making up a cell, including its exterior membrane.

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Protozoa - Heterotrophic eukaryotic unicellular organisms that belong to the
kingdom protista.

Provisioning Services - One of four benefits humans receive from ecosystems as

describe in the United Nation's Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. This service
suggests that humans can benefit from ecosystems through the natural resources
they provide, such as food, medicines, chemicals, and other commercial products.
Compare with cultural services, regulating services, and supporting services.

Proxy Data - Data that measures the cause and effect relationship between two
variables indirectly.

Pseudokarst - A landscape that shows significant effects from solution type chemical
weathering processes and resembles karst, but the bedrock is not limestone.

Psychrometer - Instrument used to measure atmospheric humidity (relative

humidity) and dew point. It consists of two thermometers (wet-bulb and a dry-bulb)
one of which has its bulb covered by a moistened wick. Humidity is determined by
the difference in readings between the two thermometers after air has passed over
both of them for a specific time period.

Psychrometric Table - Table of values that allows for the determination of relative
humidity and dew point from dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures recorded on a
psychrometer.

Pumice - A fine-grained, low mass, porous igneous rock of

volcanic origin. The numerous pores in this rock came
from gas bubbles found in the lava before it solidified. This
rock differs from scoria in that it will float in water. Shown
is a photograph of a pumice (Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, image is in the public domain).

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Puna - A cold climate grassland found at high altitudes in the Andes.

Pyramid of Biomass - Graphic model describing biomass distribution in a

community or an ecosystem at the trophic level. Also see pyramid of numbers.

Pyramid of Numbers - Graphical model describing the number of organisms that

exist at each trophic level in a community or an ecosystem. Also see pyramid of
biomass.

Pyroclastic Material - Pieces of volcanic rock thrown out in an explosive volcanic

eruption.

Pyroxene - A group of single chained inosilicate minerals whose basic chemical unit
is the silicate tetrahedron (SiO4). Pyroxenes are common rock forming minerals and
are found in most igneous and metamorphic rocks. They form at high temperatures
with very little water in the crystallization environment.

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 Q
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Quantitative Revolution - A change in the focus of academic inquiry when

measurement became the central focus of research. In Geography and Earth Science,
this change took hold in the 1950s and 1960s. Quantitative measurements were used
primarily for hypothesis testing. With measurement came mapping, models,
statistics, and mathematics. Researchers began investigating process rather than
mere description of the environment.

Quarrying - See plucking.

Quartz - A rock-forming mineral with the chemical

formula SiO2. Quartz is common in continental crust but
rare in oceanic crust. Shown is a beautiful crystal
specimen that was found in Brazil. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, photo by Didier Descouens. This image is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Quartzite - Metamorphic rock rich in quartz created by the recrystallization of

sandstone.

Quasi-Equilibrium - An equilibrium where the average condition of a system, as

measured through one of its elements or attributes, does not fluctuate much over
time because of the internal balance between cause and effect processes.

Quaternary - Geologic period that occurred roughly 2.588 million years ago to today.
During much of this period, continental glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere
covered large regions of land surface in the high and mid-latitudes. Homo sapiens
appear about 200,000 years BP (before present) and become the first species to alter

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the Earth's environment on a grand-scale. This period contains two epochs:
Pleistocene and the Holocene. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Quick Clay - A type of clay that when saturated will allow heavy things to sink into
it.

Quickflow - See direct runoff.

Quicksand - A deposit of water saturated sand that appears solid but cannot support
object above a threshold level of weight. Objects with significant weight will sink
into the quicksand.

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 R
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

R Horizon - Soil horizon found beneath the C horizon. Consists of consolidated rock
showing little sign of weathering or pedogenesis.

r- and K-Selection - A theory in ecology introduced by ecologists Robert MacArthur

and E.O. Wilson in 1967 that suggests the stability of habitats influences the
evolution of general traits found in organisms. In unstable habitats, where
disturbance is common, successful species generally have the following traits: Small
body size, short life-span, quick maturation, reproductive effort is delayed until the
end of the organism's life, production of many small offspring, and a large portion of
the organism's production of biomass is used to produce offspring. Species in
frequently disturbed habitats have little time for survival and growth. Organisms
that show these characteristics are called r-selected species. On the other end of the
spectrum are stable or predictable habitats. In these habitats, optimum conditions for
survival and growth exist almost all the time. Dominant species in this environment
tend to have the following characteristics: Large body size, long life-span, slow
maturation, reproductive effort occurs over most of the organism's life, only a few
relatively large offspring are produced with each reproduction event, and most of
the organism's production of biomass goes to promoting its own growth. Species
that show these characteristics are known as K-selected species.

r-Selected Species (Malthusian Strategy) - A species that shows the following

characteristics: short life span, early reproduction, low biomass, and the potential to
produce large numbers of usually small offspring in a short period of time. Compare
with K-selected species. Also see r- and K-Selection.

Radarsat - Satellite program established by the Canadian Space Agency for the
purpose of remotely sensing the Earth's resources. Radarsat uses an active remote
sensing system that transmits microwaves. For more information, see the Radarsat-2

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webpage at:
[Link]

Radiant Energy - Energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Some uses of this
term specifically refer to the radiation emitted from the Sun.

Radiation - The emission of energy from an object in the form of electromagnetic

radiation.

Radiation Fog - A type of fog that is also called ground fog. Radiation fog is
generated by near-surface cooling of the ground by longwave radiation loss during
the evening hours. For the fog to develop, the overnight cooling must cause
saturation to occur. This type of fog is usually quite shallow and close to the ground
surface.

Radiative Cooling - Process where an object cools in temperature and experiences a

reduction in internal heat energy because of the net loss of electromagnetic radiation.
This net loss of radiation occurs because outgoing radiation exceeds incoming
radiation for the object.

Radiative Forcing - A change in the amount of electromagnetic radiation available

for use and/or transfer in some component of the Earth's climate system. This
change can subsequently modify weather and climate patterns on our planet
through variables like temperature, precipitation, wind, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, etc.

Radiative Heating - Process where an object warms in temperature and experiences

an increase in internal heat energy because of a net gain of electromagnetic radiation.
This net gain of radiation occurs because incoming radiation exceeds outgoing
radiation for the object.

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Radio Waves - Form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 1.0
millimeters (0.039 inches) and 100 kilometers (62 miles).

Radioactive - An object that is releasing ionizing radiation or particles because it is

experiencing radioactive decay.

Radioactive Decay - Natural decay of the nucleus of an atom where alpha or beta
particles and/or gamma radiation are released at a fixed rate.

Radioactive Waste - Waste that contains a substance releasing ionizing radiation or

particles because it is experiencing radioactive decay.

Radiocarbon Dating - A dating method used to determine the age of something

containing organic carbon through the natural decay of carbon-14 isotope. When a
plant or animal is living, it incorporates into its biomass both carbon-14 (14C) and
carbon-12 (12C) at a ratio that mirrors the reserve found in the living biosphere. This
reserve is assumed fixed and is maintained by the creation of 14C by cosmic
radiation. However, when the organism dies it no longer adds 14C to its biomass.
Instead, this isotope begins to decay, while the quantity of 12C remains fixed. Because
this decay has a constant rate, we can use the measured ratio between 14C and 12C to
determine the amount of time that has lapsed. This technique is used for dating
things no more than 50,000 years old.

Radioisotope or Radioactive Isotope - A unstable isotope of an element. This

material decays spontaneously and releases subatomic particles and electromagnetic
radiation.

Radiometer - General name for an instrument used to measure electromagnetic

radiation over a specific wavelength range.

Radiosonde - Is a battery-powered meteorological device attached to a weather

ballon to remotely measure weather variables with altitude. Upper air

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meteorological measurements are an important input for numerical weather
forecasting models. Variables measured by this device include altitude, geographic
location, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind speed, wind direction, and
relative humidity. Data from these measurements are transmitted to ground receivers
using a radio frequency of 403 or 1680 MHz. More than 800 radiosonde launch sites
exist worldwide. Radiosondes are launched at these sites every 12 hours at about 45
minutes before 0:00 and 12:00 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

Radon Gas - A colorless, orderless naturally occurring radioactive gas of the

chemical element radon (radon-222). This gas is produced from the radioactive decay
of uranium or thorium. Uranium or thorium are the two most abundant radioactive
elements on our planet. Radon gas has been found to accumulate in some houses
because it seeps in from the ground.

Rain - A form of precipitation. Rain is a liquid deposit that falls from clouds in the
atmosphere to the ground surface. Rain has a diameter between 0.5 and 5.0
millimeters.

Rain Factor - A measure used to determine the aridity of a location or area.

Calculated by the following formula:

Rain Gauge - An instrument that measures the amount of rain that falls at a location
over a period of time. See standard rain gauge and tipping bucket rain gauge.

Rainbow - Common optical phenomena observed in

the atmosphere that usually resembles a curve
consisting of the various colors of the spectrum of
light. Rainbows are created by the reflection and
refraction of sunlight by water droplets. Rainbows
are always found in the opposite direction to the Sun.

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Raindrop Impact - Force produced by a falling raindrop on a rock, sediment, or soil
surface.

Rainfall - The occurrence of rain falling to the Earth's surface.

Rainfall Intensity - Is the rate at which rain is being received at the ground surface.
Meteorologists often use a tipping bucket rain gauge to determine this measurement.

Rainshadow Effect - The reduction of precipitation commonly found on the leeward

side of a mountain. This reduction in precipitation is the result of compression
warming of descending air.

Rainsplash - Soil erosion caused from the impact of raindrops.

Rainwash - The erosion of soil by overland flow (runoff). Typically occurs together
with rainsplash, which plays an important role in dislodging soil particles for
transport.

Raised Beach - A former beach that is now located some distance in land from the
shoreline. Raised beaches can result from a fall in sea level because of tectonic uplift,
isostatic rebound, or climate change. Also called marine terrace and perched
coastline.

Randkluft - A gap that exists between the ice of a glacier and bedrock it rests against
or flows over. Randkluft often forms in the back of smaller cirque type glaciers where
warmer rock melts ice that lies next to it. These gaps can be many meters (feet) deep.

Random - A process or event that occurs by chance.

Range - A statistical measure of the dispersion of observation values in a data set.

Range is determined by taking the difference between the largest and the smallest
observed value.

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Rangeland - Land-use type that supplies vegetation for consumption by grazing and
browsing animals. This land-use type is normally not intensively managed.

Ranker - A shallow, immature soil with limited surface organic matter accumulation
that has developed on non-calcareous bedrock.

Rapids - A section of stream channel where steep topography creates a sudden

increase in flow velocity and turbulence. Rapids often have rocks protruding above
the water surface.

Rating Curve - (1) The line on a graph that describes the cause and effect
relationship that exists between stream discharge and water level (stage) in a stream.
(2) The line on a graph that describes the cause and effect relationship that exists
between stream discharge, and suspended sediment and solute transport.

Rational Formula - A formula used to estimate run-off in cubic meters of peak

stream discharge (Q) from measured precipitation intensity - mm/hr (I), drainage
basin area (A), and a coefficient that varies with the nature of the surface of the basin
area (C).

Q = CAI

Raunkiaer's Life Forms - A system that classifies plants according to location of their
growth bud. This system was developed by Christen C. Raunkiaer.

Rayleigh Scattering - One of three types of atmospheric scattering. In this type, the
particles responsible for the scattering are smaller than the wavelengths of radiation
in striking with them. Particles responsible for rayleigh scattering are primarily gas
molecules. This type of scattering occurs in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 10
km (6.2 mi). Rayleigh scattering does not influence the various wavelengths of solar
radiation uniformly and tends to be most effective with ultraviolet and shorter

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wavelengths of the visible light spectrum. Rayleigh scattering is responsible for
causing the sky to appear blue. Also see mie scattering and non-selective scattering.

Reach - Often describes a stretch of stream channel between two points along its
course. May also refer to a place where a stream channel becomes significantly
wider.

Realized Niche - Describes the part of the fundamental niche that a species actually
occupies. It includes the effects of biotic interactions like interspecific competition
and predation on the geographic distribution of a species.

Recessional Moraine - A moraine that is created during a glacial retreat pause. Also
called a stadial moraine.

Recharge - The process of refilling a store of water found beneath the ground
surface. This term usually refers to an aquifer but can also be used to describe
groundwater or water found below the water table.

Recharge Area - The area on the Earth's surface that receives water for below-ground
storage into a particular aquifer.

Rectangular Coordinate System - System that measures the location of points on the
Earth on a two-dimensional coordinate plane. See the Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) Grid System.

Recumbent Fold - A fold in rock layers where the

axial plane (fold center) is almost horizontal (see
graphic). Compare with anticline, syncline,
monocline, and overturned fold.

Recurrence Interval - The average time period that

separates natural events of a specific magnitude. For example, floods of a specific

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stream discharge level occur an average of X number years.

Red Beds - Generic term used to describe sedimentary rocks (sandstones, siltstones,
and shales) that are red in color because of the presence of ferric oxides coating
sediment grains.

Red List - Is an inventory produced by the International Union for Conservation of

Nature (IUCN) that categorizes the extinction risk of over 60,000 evaluated plant and
animal species. The Red List has nine evaluation categories: extinct, extinct in the
wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, least
concerned, data deficient, and not evaluated. This inventory can be found at the
following website: [Link]

Redox Potential (Reduction Potential) - A chemical measure of the gain (reduction)

or loss (oxidation) of electrons in a chemical reaction. Instruments that measure
redox potential in do so in volts (V) or millivolts (mV). A measure of 0.00 volts/
millivolts indicates a balance is occurring between chemical reduction and oxidation.
Positive redox values indicate that the substance is gaining oxygen, while negative
values indicate oxygen is being lost. Redox potential is mainly used to determine if
oxidizing or reducing conditions are common in water or soil. This measurement can
also be used to gauge water quality with oxidizing conditions usually indicating
good water quality.

Reduction - (1) Chemical process that involves the removal of oxygen from a
compound. (2) A form of chemical weathering.

Reductionist - The study and understanding of a phenomenon isolated from other

connected levels of cause and effect.

Reef - A ridge of rocks found in the tidal zone along a coastline. One common type
of reef is the coral reef.

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Reef Limestone - Limestone sedimentary rock deposition that formed because of the
lithification of mainly coral reefs.

Re-Entrants - A prominent surface indentation in an escarpment, ridge, or shoreline.

Reference Map - A map that shows natural and human-made objects from the
geographical environment with an emphasis on location. Compare with thematic
map.

Reflected Infrared Radiation - A form of electromagnetic radiation with a

wavelength between 0.7 to 3.0 micrometers (µm).

Reflected Wave - A water wave that reflects off the shore or another obstacle and is
redirected back towards the sea or lake.

Reflection - The process of returning sound or light waves back to their source.

Reflection (Atmospheric) - Process where insolation is redirect by 180° after striking

a particle. This redirection causes 100% loss. Most of the reflection in the Earth's
atmosphere occurs in clouds because of light's interception with particles of liquid
and frozen water. The reflectivity of a cloud can range from 40-90%.

Reflective Beach - A type of beach that is characterized by being relatively narrow

and having a steep profile gradient. This particular morphology is the result of the
prevalence of destructive waves. Opposite of a dissipative beach. Also called a swell
beach.

Reforestation - The reestablishment of forest cover by natural means or by humans

planting seeds or young trees. Compare with afforestation.

Refraction - The process where the direction of travel of insolation (solar radiation)
is redirected after entering another medium.

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Refugia (singular Refugium) - A term in Biology and Ecology that describes habitats
that contain an isolated population of a relic species. These relic organisms were once
more widespread and abundant in the past. Then some factor caused the geographic
range and abundance of this species to become reduced. Some mechanisms that
could cause a species to come restricted to refugia include climate change, human
activities like hunting or deforestation, and competition or predation by other
species.

Reg - A rocky desert landscape. See desert pavement.

Regime - In the academic fields of Climatology and Hydrology, this term describes
the average variation that occurs for a variable (system attribute) of some system
over a specified time period. For example, for a stream we may be interested in the
typical fluctuations (regime) that occur in stream discharge over a calendar year.
Such that during this period, the stream is characterized by low discharge in the
winter, high discharge during the spring when snowmelt occurs, and moderate
discharge in the summer and fall because of generally constant rainfall during these
seasons.

Regime Theory - The engineering science associated with building stable channel
shapes for human-made irrigation ditches, canals, and stream channels. Such design
is done to efficiently transport water and sediment and to reduce erosion.

Region - A term used in geography that describes an area of the Earth where some
natural or human-made phenomena display similar traits.

Regional Metamorphism - Large-scale metamorphic modification of existing rock

through the heat and pressure of plutons created at tectonic zones of subduction.

Regolith - A loose layer of rocky material overlying bedrock.

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Regosol Soil - Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of Soil
Classification. A regosol is generally is any young underdeveloped
soil that lacks identifying soil horizons. For more information on this
soil type, see the textbook Canadian System of Soil Classification, 3rd
Edition available online - [Link]
[Link]. Image Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

Regulating Services - One of four benefits humans receive from ecosystems as

describe in the United Nation's Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. This service
suggests that humans can benefit from ecosystems because of their role in regulating
other natural phenomena that are important to human well-being. For example, the
role wetlands play in limiting floods, the fact that forests and other vegetation
modify and moderate climate patterns, and the function birds have in controlling the
population size of pest insects. Compare with cultural services, provisioning
services, and supporting services.

Rejuvenation - A term used in Geomorphology that describes the cyclical renewal of

some landform or geomorphic process to a youthful stage because of factors like
tectonic uplift, volcanism, mountain building, etc.

Relative Age - The age of a geologic event, deposit, rock, or fossil measured relative
to some other phenomenon (younger or older). Relative age does not determine hold
old something is in terms of time. Compare with absolute age.

Relative Humidity - The ratio between the actual amount of water vapor held in the
atmosphere compared to the amount required for saturation. Relative humidity is
influenced by temperature and atmospheric pressure.

Relaxation Time - The time required by some system to re-equilibrate itself after a
change in energy input.

Relief - The range of topographic elevation within a specified region of our planet or
some other celestial body with a solid surface.

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Remanié - A glacier that receives the input component of its mass balance from snow
and ice avalanches and not from a connected snowfield.

Remote Sensing - The gathering of information from an object or surface without

direct contact. The methods used to accomplish remote sensing have changed with
time. Before 1940, this was commonly done using balloons and aircraft, and the
information was captured using photographs. After 1960, the use of satellites to do
remote sensing became more common, and the information was collected from these
platforms using a variety of non-photographic instruments. An excellent example of
satellite based remote sensing is NASA's Landsat program.

Remote Sensor - A mechanical device used to remotely sense an object or

phenomenon.

Rendzina - A shallow, poorly developed soil that forms from rocks like limestone,
dolomite, chalk, and gypsum that easily decomposed by weathering. These soils
have a rich humus layer and a grayish-brown color.

Renewable Resource - Is a substance or thing that is consumed as a resource and

that can replenish itself under the right conditions.

Repetti Discontinuity - A boundary located in the Earth's mantle at a depth of 900 to

1000 kilometers below the surface that causes seismic wave velocities to rise in speed
quickly. Also called Birch Discontinuity.

Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) - Four emission scenarios used to

model future climate change on Earth in the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. These four scenarios are specifically
called Representative Concentration Pathway 2.6 (RCP 2.6), 4.5 (RCP 4.5) 6.0 (RCP
6.0), and 8.5 (RCP 8.5) and are based on four assumptions of how future human
population growth and socioeconomic development will play out from now until the
year 2100. The numbers used in the description name of these scenarios refers to the

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quantity of radiative forcing that will occur in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial
times (+2.6, +4.5, +6.0, and +8.5 W/m2).

Representative Fraction - The expression of map scale as a mathematical ratio.

Reproductive Isolation - A process involved in the evolution of new species where a

group of similar interbreeding individuals of the same species is divided into two or
more sub-populations. Because of a barrier to gene flow, these sub-populations are
no longer able to trade genes between themselves. Further, in each sub-population,
mutations occur producing new adaptations, and the gene frequency of sub-
populations begins changing because they each exist in different habitats. Within
each habitat, natural selection determines which new adaptations become successful.
If the habitats differ greatly between each other, given enough time, the process of
reproductive isolation can cause each of the sub-populations to become a new
species.

Reptile - Group of terrestrial vertebrate animals that includes turtles, tortoises,

snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and alligators. These organisms have four limbs and a
have a sprawling posture, or are
descendent from ancestors that had
four limbs. Most reptiles lay eggs as
part of their reproduction. They are
also covered by scales and are
ecothermal (cold-blooded). Shown is
the reptile species Elgaria coerulea
principis (common name Northwest
Alligator Lizard). See the Encyclopedia of
Life for more information on this group
of organisms. [Link]

Resequent Stream - A stream whose course follows the slope of the land
topography, but at an elevation that is lower than the original land surface. These

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streams flow in a direction that is determined by the configuration of underlying
rock layers.

Residence Time - A widely used term in science that refers to the average length of
time a particle of matter is in some system. For example, the residence time of a
typical water molecule in the atmosphere component of the hydrologic cycle is about
nine days.

Residual Strength - A level of deformation strength for a soil that is just below its
shear strength. Engineers and soil scientists measure residual strength with a device
called a shear box. Also called residual shear strength.

Resource - Anything obtained from the environment to meet the needs of an

organism. Many different types of resources have been defined including: potential
resource, actual resource, non-renewable resource, renewable resource, natural
resource, economic resource, and biological resource.

Resource Partitioning - The evolutionary process of species living in the same

ecosystem dividing up resources so that each species develops different resource
requirements to avoid competition and possible extinction. Also see ecological niche,
fundamental niche, and realized niche.

Respiration - Also called cellular respiration.

Resultant Wind - The average direction of wind for a particular location given as a
single vector for a specified length of time.

Retention Curve - See soil moisture retention curve.

Retention Forces - The forces found in soil, sediment, and rock pores that hold water
to the surface of these materials against the downward force of gravity. Three
different forces are involved in this process. The strongest force is the molecular force

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of elements and compounds found on the surface of soil, sediment, and rock. The
water retained by this force is found within 0.0002 millimeters of the material's
surface. Matric force holds soil water from 0.0002 to 0.06 millimeters from the surface
of soil, sediment, and rock. This force is due to two processes: surface molecular
attraction (adhesion and absorption) to water and the cohesion that water molecules
have to each other. This force declines in strength with distance from the surface
holding the water and becomes nonexistent past 0.06 millimeters. Beyond 0.06
millimeters from the material, water moves freely under the effect of gravity.

Retrogradation - The natural retreat of a shoreline caused by an increase in beach

erosion. Compare with progradation.

Retrogressive Succession - A plant succession where the plant community becomes

simplistic and contains fewer species and less biomass over time.

Return Period - An estimate of the time it will take for an event to occur again. This
estimate is usually made statistically from historical data. Return periods are
routinely calculated out for stream discharge thresholds, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and floods. Also called recurrence interval.

Reverse Fault - Is a type of vertical geologic fault where the hanging wall is forced
over the foot wall. Reverse faults are usually caused by tectonic compressional
forces. One important consequence of this type of fault is that older strata can be
pushed over younger strata. Also called thrust fault.

Reversing Dune - A sand dune that is intermediate between a star and transverse
dunes. The dune ridge is asymmetrical and has two slip-faces.

Revolution - See earth revolution.

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Reynolds Number - A calculated value that measures flow pattern characteristics of
gases and liquids. In general, it is used to determine if flow is laminar or turbulent.
The following equation can be used to calculate the Reynolds number (Re):

Re = (ρ V L)/μ

Where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the average flow velocity of the fluid, μ is the
viscosity of the fluid, L is the length or diameter of the fluid. When used to
characterize the type of flow occurring in a stream channel the hydraulic radius must
be determined and substituted for L in the equation above. For streams, Re values
less than 500 suggest laminar flow, while Re values greater than 750 indicate
turbulent flow.

Rheidity - The ability of some solid materials to deform into viscous flow under
specific conditions of stress. Most types of rocks can display this behavior.

Rhizome - A modified stem of a plant that is found below the ground surface.
Rhizomes are used to store carbohydrates, proteins, and nutrients. Rhizomes can
produce roots and shoots.

Rhizosphere - The zone in a soil that is directly influenced by plant roots, their
secretions, and associated microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.

Rhodoliths - A form of free-living crustose red algae that is branching, unattached,

rigid, and spherical in shape. Rhodoliths are similar in appearance to coral.
Rhodolith beds are found in our planet's oceans and seas, from the tropics to polar
regions. More specifically, they can be found in reefs, shallow lagoons, tidal channels,
sea-grass beds, and in waters with a depth down to about 60 meters (180 feet). Their
growth form results from numerous species of red algae building cell walls that
contain calcium carbonate.

Rhourd - A type of sand dune that has a pyramid shape.

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Rhumb Line - A line of constant compass direction or bearing which crosses the
meridians at the same angle. A part of a great circle.

Rhyolite - A fine grained extrusive igneous rock that is rich in quartz and potassium
feldspar. Derived from felsic magma.

Ria Coast - An extensively carved out coast with conspicuous headlands and deep
re-entrants.

Ribbon Falls - A spectacular narrow waterfalls often found at the edge of a hanging
valley.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) - A form of nucleic acid. Ribonucleic acid is used by most
organisms to read the genetic information found in DNA and to produce specific
organic molecules used in the development and functioning of cells.

Richter Scale - A logarithmic measurement scale of earthquake magnitude. This

scale measures the energy released by the largest seismic wave associated with the
earthquake.

Riegel - A ridge of bedrock in a glacial valley that was exposed because of glacial
erosion.

Riffle - A type of bar deposit found on the stream bed. Often associated with these
alluvial deposits are pools. Also see bedforms.

Rift - The zone between two diverging tectonic plates. The mid-oceanic ridge is an
area where such plate divergence is occurring. Also see continental rift zone.

Rift Valley - Steep-sided valley found on the Earth's surface created by tectonic
rifting.

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Rill - A very small steep sided channel carrying water. This landscape feature is
intermittent and forms for only a short period of time after a rainfall.

Rime - Deposit of ice crystals that occurs when fog or super cooled water droplets
comes in contact with an object with a temperature below freezing (0°C). This
deposit develops outward on the windward side of the object.

Ring of Fire - See Circum-Pacific Belt.

Rip Current - A strong, relatively narrow current of water that flows seaward against
breaking waves.

Riparian - The land and habitat located next to streams, lakes, and wetlands. As
habitats, riparian areas have high biodiversity and contain many species specifically
adapted to living in aquatic environments.

Ripple - Stream bed alluvial depositional feature. Small-scale wave-like undulations

that form in fine sand or silt from the flow of water in one direction. Spacing is
usually less than 50 centimeters (1.5 feet) apart, with the vertical distance from the
trough to the crest of each ripple being no more than 3 centimeters (1.2 inches).
Found in slow-moving streams. Also see bedforms.

Rising Limb - Refers to the section of a hydrograph plot where there is a rapid
increase in recorded stream discharge usually caused by precipitation input.

River - A long narrow channel of water that flows as a function of gravity and
elevation across the Earth's surface. Many rivers empty into lakes, seas, or oceans.
Also called a stream.

River Metamorphosis - A modification in the stream channel morphology caused by

a change in stream discharge and stream load that exceeds a threshold level.

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River Valley - See stream valley.

Riverscape - Refers to the landform features that can be found associated with a
river (stream). Some of the features common to a riverscape include alluvial fans,
oxbow lake, delta, levee, floodplain, terrace, waterfall, meander, gorge, and stream
valley.

Robinson Map Projection - A map projection system that tries to present more
accurate representations of area. Distortion is mainly manifested in terms of map
direction and distance.

Roche Moutonnée - A feature of glacial erosion that resembles an asymmetrical rock

mound. It is smooth and gently sloping on the side of ice advance. The lee-side of
this feature is steep and jagged, suggesting that
it was formed through plucking rather than
abrasion. These landform features can vary
greatly in size. Lengths can be several meters
(feet) to a couple of kilometers (miles), and the
height of these features ranges from tens of
centimeters to hundreds of meters (feet). Roche
moutonnée can be formed by valley glaciers
and continental [Link] Source: Wikimedia
Commons, graphic by Jasmin Ros. This graphic is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Rock - A compact and consolidated mass of mineral matter. Three types of rock are
recognized: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Rock Cycle - General model describing the geomorphic and geologic processes
involved in the longterm creation, modification and recycling of rocks.

Rock Drumlin - A glacial landform feature that is almost the same as a roche
moutonnée. Rock drumlins differ from a roche moutonnée in two respects: 1) their

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steep lee-side is not jagged but smooth, and 2) they can be covered by a thin layer of
till. Lengths can be several meters (feet) to a couple of kilometers (miles), and the
height of these features ranges from tens of centimeters to hundreds of meters (feet).
Rock drumlins can be formed by valley glaciers and continental glaciers.

Rock Flour - Very finely ground rock fragments that form between the base of a
glacier and the underlying bedrock surface.

Rock Glacier - A lobe of mainly rock debris with some

ice that is found in some alpine valleys. The
appearance of a rock glacier is quite similar to a
glacier. Rock glaciers also have some movement
downslope. Shown is a photo of a rock glacier found
in the Chugach Mountains, Alaska, USA (Image Source:
Wikipedia Commons).

Rock Mass Strength - A quantitative rating system that measures the resistance of a
large mass of rock to erosion.

Rock Slide - Large scale mass movement of rock materials downslope.

Rockfall - A type of mass movement that involves the detachment and movement of
a small block of rock from a cliff face to its base (see image - Image Source: USGS).
Often occurs when the rock has well-defined bedding planes that are exaggerated by
freeze-thaw action or thermal expansion and contraction (insolation weathering).

Roll Cloud - A dense, cigar-shaped cloud found

associated with a cold front or above the gust front of
a severe thunderstorm. The air within the roll cloud
rotates around the long axis. Also called an arcus
cloud. Shown is a roll cloud that developed in Racine,
Wisconsin, on June 1st, 2007 (Image Source: Wikipedia
Commons, image is in the public domain).

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Rossby Wave - A large wave in the polar jet stream and the upper air westerlies that
extends from the middle to the upper troposphere. This atmospheric feature is often
associated with the formation of a mid-latitude cyclone at the ground surface.
Contrasts with short waves. Also called long wave.

Rotation - See earth rotation.

Rotational Slide - A type of spoon-shaped mass

movement where material moves suddenly downslope
along a curvilinear rupture surface (see image - Image
Source: USGS). The rotational nature of these slides tends
to quickly restore a resting equilibrium to the materials
moved downslope. Also called a slump and a rotational
slip. Compare with translational slide.

Rotor Streaming - A meteorological phenomenon where turbulent eddies develop in

horizontal atmospheric flow on the downwind side of a mountain barrier. Rotor
streaming is usually associated with the first trough of a lee wave.

Roughness - (1) The level to which a surface lacks smoothness. (2) The degree of
resistance that a surface inflicts on the flow of a liquid or a gas.

Roundness - A measure applied to particles found in a sediment. Roundness

determines the level of abrasion these particles were subjected to by examining the
sharpness of its outer surface. In other words, have edges and corners of the particle
become rounded.

Ruderal Species - According to J.P. Grime's theory of plant strategies, these species
of plants have the highest fitness in habitats with a low intensity of stress and a high
intensity of disturbance. Simply, these plants are able to out compete other species of
plants by having adaptations to successfully survive the effects of disturbance.
Ruderal plant species tend to be short-lived annuals or perennials with high growth
rates. During their rapid growth, they allocate much of their biomass production to

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making many easily dispersed seeds. Compare with competitive and stress-tolerant
species.

Runoff - The topographic flow of water from precipitation to stream channels

located at lower elevations. Runoff occurs when the infiltration capacity of an area's
soil has been exceeded. It also refers to the water leaving an area of drainage. Also
called overland flow.

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 S
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

S-Wave - A seismic wave that moves material it encounters perpendicular to its

direction of travel. This type of seismic wave causes shear stress in the material it
moves through. Also called a secondary wave or a shear wave.

Saffir-Simpson Scale - A tropical storm and hurricane intensity classification system

developed in 1971 by civil engineer Herbert Saffir and meteorologist Bob Simpson.
This system has seven levels of tropical storm and hurricane intensity. The first two
categories describe two stages of storm development before technically becoming a
hurricane: TD – tropical depression and TS – tropical storm. Hurricanes are categorized
according to levels of intensity that range from 1 to 5. A major hurricane is
considered to be categorized 3 and above. These levels are based on the speed of the
storm's sustained winds and its lowest surface atmospheric pressure.

Salcrete - A relatively thin surface deposit common to marine beaches that consists
of sand particles cemented together by salt. This deposit forms when the evaporation
of seawater leaves behind salt.

Salinity - Concentration of dissolved salts found in a sample of water. Measured as

the total amount of dissolved salts in parts per thousand. Seawater has an average
salinity of about 34 parts per thousand.

Salinization - A pedogenic process that concentrates salts at or near the soil surface
because evapotranspiration greatly exceeds water inputs from precipitation.

Salt - (1) Compound mainly made of the mineral sodium chloride (NaCl). (2)
Compounds that are produced as the result of a metal atom replacing a hydrogen
atom in an acid.

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Salt Dome - A convex-shaped layer of salts embedded in the horizontal layers of
rock strata. Salt domes begin their form when evaporation causes the precipitation
and deposition of salt in an enclosed marine basin.
Once covered by a significant layer of clastic
sediment, the salt layer becomes buoyant relative to
the surrounding sediment causing the formation of
the dome. This dome causes the deformation of
adjacent sediment and rock strata, often producing a
hill on the Earth's surface. The vertical growth of
large salt domes, anywhere from 1 to 10 kilometers
(0.6 to 6.0 miles) in diameter, can even cause the
folding and faulting of nearby rock layers. These
features are important in oil exploration as they can
trap petroleum. The white area in the photo
represents an exposed salt dome found in the Zagros
Mountains in southwestern Iran (Image Source: Wikipedia Commons, NASA).

Salt Flat - An extensive flat area of salt crust formed from the drying out of a saline
lake or inland sea.

Salt Marsh - A type of coastal wetland ecosystem that is inundated for some period
of time by seawater. The plants that exist in this community have a special
adaptation to survive in the presence of high salinities in their immediate
environment. Generally, found poleward of 30° North and South latitude. Compare
with mangrove.

Saltation - The transport of sediment that is initiated by moving air or water. In this
process, particles move from a resting surface to the transport medium in quick
continuous, repeated cycles.

Saltwater Intrusion - The invasion of seawater into freshwater aquifers in coastal

and inland areas. This condition can be cause when groundwater, which charges the
aquifer, is withdrawn faster than it is recharged by precipitation.

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Sample - A sample is a subset group of data selected from a larger population group.
Most samples are drawn at random to ensure equal representation in the data for
statistical analysis.

Sand - A mineral particle with a size between 0.063 and 2.0 millimeters (0.0025 to
0.079 inches) in diameter (in the USA, between 0.0625 and 2.0 millimeters). Compare
with clay, silt, gravel, cobble, and boulder.

Sand Dune - A hill or ridge of aeolian sand deposits with a minimum height of less
than one meter (couple feet) and a maximum height of about 50 meters (164 feet).
Sand dunes first begin their life as a
stationary pile of sand that forms behind
some type of vertical obstacle. When
they reach a certain size threshold,
continued growth may also be associated
with active surface migration of sand. In
a migrating dune, grains of sand are
transported by wind from the windward
to the leeward side and begin
accumulating just over the crest. When
the upper leeward slope reaches an
angle of about 30 to 34 degrees the
accumulating pile becomes unstable, and
small avalanches begin to occur, moving sand to the lower part of the leeward slope.
As a result of this process, the dune migrates over the ground as sand is eroded from
one side and deposited on the other. This process also causes the appearance of the
dune to take on a wave shape. Active movement of sand particles across the dune
causes windward slope to become shallow, while the leeward slope maintains a
steep slip-face. Normally found in hot deserts and along sandy coastlines. Many
different types of sand dunes occur, including: barchan, barchanoid ridge,
transverse, parabolic, longitudinal, seif, star, dome, and reversing.

Sand Lens - A sporadic lens shape deposit of sand found in a sedimentary sequence.
Such features are produced by the past existence of unique processes common in

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fluvial or aeolian environments that form dunes, ripples, and other stream channel
deposits. These features can be used to determine the conditions that may have
existed to produce these sedimentary deposits.

Sand Ripples - Another term used for wind ripples.

Sand Sea - A large region of sand and sand dunes in a desert. Common to erg
deserts.

Sand Sheet - A deposit of sometimes stratified, less well-sorted sand that almost
resemble dunes. These geomorphic features are common in northern Europe. Sand
sheets are believed to form when wind blown materials settle on areas of patchy
coverage of snow.

Sand Wedge - A form of ice wedge that contains accumulations of wind blown sand
in long vertical layers. A form of periglacial ground ice.

Sandbank - (1) A mound shaped deposit of sand found on the Earth's surface, or
submerge or partially submerge within a water body. (2) A significant deposit of
sand found in coastal regions, along the continental shelf. These submerged features
can be up to several kilometers (miles) wide, 80 kilometers (120 miles) long, and tens
meters (feet) tall. Sandbanks form when consistent subsurface currents are available
for the transport and deposition of sand available from a source area. Can also be
called an ocean bank.

Sandstone - A type of sedimentary rock that contains a large quantity of weathered

quartz grains.

Sandstorm - A windstorm that has a significant quantity of sand, silt, and clay
particles entrained in the wind of the storm.

Sandur (Sandar plural) - An Icelandic term used to describe a glacial outwash plain.

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Santa Ana Wind - A warm, dry chinook-like wind that occurs in the southern third
of California. This unique type of regional wind
originates from the east, off an elevated desert
plateau. Santa Ana Winds often greatly enhance
brush and forest fires, mainly when drought
conditions exist. The Terra satellite image shows
the evidence of airborne dust blowing out to the
Pacific Ocean that was picked up by Santa Ana
winds on February 9, 2002 (Image Source: JPL-
NASA). The city of Los Angeles is located along
the coastline in the left corner, and San Diego is
found near the center of the image.

Sapping - Term that describes lateral erosion occurring at the base of a cliff. The
process often causes the failure of the cliff over time.

Saprolite - A mass of bedrock that has become weathered or partially weathered in

its original location.

Sapropel - A dark-colored deposit primarily composed of organic compounds and

sediments found at the bottom of fresh and saline water bodies like lakes, coastal
basins, estuaries, and lagoons. Formed when organic matter is mainly decomposed
anaerobically.

Saprophyte - A heterotrophic organism that gets its nutrition from consuming the
biomass of dead organisms or the discarded tissues of living organisms. Many
species of fungi and insects are saprophytes.

Sastrugi - Sharp ridges and hollows created by wind

erosion of surface made of snow and ice. Shown in the
image are several sastrugi located near Amundsen-
Scott Research Station, South Pole (Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, image is in the publci domain).

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Satellite - (1) A term used in astronomy used to describe a
planet's moon(s). (2) An artificial human-constructed
mechanical device that has been placed into orbit. Satellites
and the scientific instruments that they carry are used for a
large number of reasons, including: remote sensing,
communications, navigation, weather forecasting, and
meteorological data collection. Shown is a pre-launch image
of the first USA meteorological satellite TIROS-1 taken on
April 1, 1960 (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) - The

rate of decline in the temperature of a rising
parcel of air after it has reached saturation. This
rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate (9.8°C
per 1,000 meters or 5.4°F per 1,000 feet) because
of the heat energy added to the ascending air
parcel from condensation and deposition
processes (in the graphic, the SALR is modeled at
5.0°C per 1,000 meters). Also called wet adiabatic
lapse rate and moist adiabatic lapse rate.
Compare with dry adiabatic lapse rate.

Saturation - (1) Atmospheric condition where water is changing its phase to liquid or
solid. At saturation, relative humidity is 100% unless there is a shortage of deposition
nuclei or condensation nuclei. Generally, this process is caused by the cooling of the
atmosphere. (2) Condition where the pore spaces in a soil are close to being filled
with water.

Saturation Coefficient - Measure of a rock's ability to absorb moisture relative to the

pore space it contains. The saturation coefficient is used to gauge the potential
mechanical disintegration of rocks by freeze-thaw action.

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Saturation Deficit - (1) The amount of added water vapor required to saturate an air
mass (relative humidity equals 100%), holding air temperature and pressure
constant. (2) The amount of added surface water required to raise the saturation level
in a soil to its surface.

Saturation Mixing Ratio - The mass of water vapor that a kilogram of dry air can
hold at saturation. Measured in grams and varies with air temperature.

Saturation Zone - See zone of saturation.

Savanna - A tropical or sub-tropical plant community characterized by trees and

shrubs scattered among a ground cover of grasses and herbs. The climate of a
savanna is tropical, with a dry season occurring during the low Sun period of the
year. Also spelled savannah.

Scabland - An area where frequent episodes of erosion remove surface vegetation

cover, leaving a ground surface composed of soil, sediment, and rock.

Scale - The specific relative or proportional size or extent of a phenomena as

measured through space and/or time. Objects are often scaled smaller in size, as in
maps, to facilitate the ability to easily comprehend them.

Scarification - The extensive movement of soil, sediment, and rock material caused
by human actions.

Scattering (Atmospheric) - This is an atmospheric process where small particles and

gas molecules diffuse part of the incoming solar radiation in random directions
without any alteration to the wavelength of the electromagnetic energy. Scattering
does, however, reduce the amount of incoming solar radiation reaching the Earth's
surface. As a result, a significant proportion of scattered shortwave solar radiation is
redirected back to space. The amount of scattering that takes place is dependent on
two factors: wavelength of the incoming radiation and the size of the scattering

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particle or gas molecule. In the Earth's atmosphere, the presence of a large number of
particles with a size of about 0.5 µm results in shorter wavelengths being
preferentially scattered. This factor also causes our sky to look blue because this
color corresponds to those wavelengths that are best diffused. Three types of
scattering have been identified to occur in the atmosphere: Mie scattering, non-
selective scattering, and rayleigh scattering.

Scavenger - Heterotrophic organism that mainly consumes dead animals or the parts
of dead animals for food. These organisms do not kill their food. Examples of
scavengers include flies, various species of vultures, crabs, and hyenas. Also see
herbivore, detritivore, omnivore, and carnivore.

Schist - A medium to coarse-grained metamorphic

rock with well-developed bedding planes derived
from the foliated recrystallization of platy like
minerals like mica. Shown is a photograph of a
schist taken by Michael C. Rygel. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.

Science - Science is a way of acquiring knowledge. To do science, one must follow a

specific universal methodology. The central theme in this methodology is the testing
of hypotheses (hypothesis testing) and the ability to make predictions. The overall
goal of science is to better understand nature and our Universe through rational
thought.

Scientific Method - The general rational approach science uses to acquire

knowledge. This method tries to be unbiased and neutral. Involves inductive and
deductive reasoning, hypothesis testing and falsification, and predictive model
building and evaluation.

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Scientific Reductionism - The scientific study of a phenomenon in isolation from
other phenomena that normally have cause and effect relationships with it.

Sciophyte - A plant adapted to survive best under shaded conditions.

Sclerophyllous Vegetation - Term used to describe drought-resistant vegetation

common in Mediterranean climates. Some common adaptations present in this type
of vegetation include deep roots, reduced leaf area exposed to the atmosphere, and
thick waxy leaves with closing stomata that reduce water loss.

Scoria - A type of igneous volcanic rock that is composed of basalt or andesite. Scoria
is often colored dark brown to black and has a
low mass because it contains many small visible
pores. The numerous pores in this rock came from
gas bubbles found in the lava before it solidified.
This rock differs from pumice in that it will sink in
water. Shown is a photograph of a scoria taken by
Jonathan Zander. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
license.

Scour - (1) Refers to the erosive power of water. (2) Abrasive effects of rocks and
sediments incorporated in the ice base of a glacier.

Scree - A significant accumulation of weathered rock fragments at the base of a steep

rock slope or cliff.

Sea - (1) A body of saline water found on the Earth's continental surface. (2) A
portion of an ocean that is close to a continent.

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Sea Arch - A coastal landform composed of
rock that resembles an arch. These landforms
are created when waves erode through a thin
headland from both sides. Shown is a
photograph taken from the Great Ocean Road
in Victoria, Australia. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.

Sea Breeze - A local thermal circulation pattern found at the interface between land
and water. In this air circulation
system, surface winds blow
from water to land during the
daytime. The diagram below
shows the three-dimensional air
circulation pattern associated
with a sea breeze. Note the low
atmospheric pressure over land
occurs because of its faster
heating relative to a water
surface which is cooler in terms
of air temperature. Compare
with land breeze.

Sea Cliff - A cliff that is located at the shoreline.

Sea Floor - See ocean floor.

Sea Ice - Ice that forms when seawater freezes on the surface of an ocean or a sea.
Because of the salts dissolved in seawater, sea ice forms when temperatures are
lower than -1.9°C (28.6°F). Sea ice covers about 12% of our planet's oceans. Most of
the sea ice is found in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica and in the Arctic Ocean.

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Measurements over the last few decades suggest recent human-induced global
warming is significantly reducing the areal coverage of sea ice.

Sea Level - The average surface elevation of our planet's oceans.

Sea Level Pressure - Average atmospheric pressure at sea level. Currently, this value
is 1013.2 millibars.

Sea Mount - See seamount.

Sea Salt - The salt derived from the evaporation of seawater.

Sea Smoke - A type of evaporation fog that forms over marine water bodies.

Sea Stack - A steep pillar of rock located in the ocean a short

distance from the coastline. These coastal landforms are
created when the action of waves erodes through a thin
headland from both sides.

Sea Surface Temperature - Usually, refers to the temperature of the topmost few
meters (several feet) of the ocean.

Sea-Floor - See ocean floor.

Sea-Floor Spreading - The process of oceanic crust creation and seafloor movement
that occurs at the mid-oceanic ridge.

Seafloor - See ocean floor.

Seamount - A volcanic mountain found on an ocean basin with an origin not related
to a mid-oceanic ridge or a tectonic subduction zone.

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Seasons - Time periods generally based on the changes in the intensity and duration
of sunlight as received in the middle and high latitudes. Four seasons are typically
recognized: Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter. The astronomical definition is more
precise and suggests the following times for the four seasons: Spring - March 22 to
June 21, Summer - June 22 to September 22, Fall - September 23 to December 22, and
Winter - December 23 to March 21.

Seaward - Something positioned or located away from land but towards an ocean or
sea.

Seawater - The mixture of water and various dissolved salts found in Earth’s oceans
and seas. The average salinity of seawater is about 35 parts per 1000 (3.5%, 35 g/L or
599 mM). The salinity of seawater is not uniform across the world's oceans and
varies between 31 and 39 parts per 1000. Seawater contains mainly the dissolved ions
of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-). Minor dissolved ions include (in order of
abundance): magnesium (Mg2+), sulfate SO42-), calcium (Ca2+), potassium (K+), and
bromine (Br-). Seawater has pH between 7.7 and 8.4. The density of seawater is 1.025
g/ml (pure freshwater is 1.000 g/ml). The freezing point of seawater becomes lower
as salinity increases. At 35 parts per 1000, seawater freezes at -1.9°C (28.6°F).

Second Law of Motion - The acceleration achieved by an object force is proportional

to the net force applied to the object and inversely proportional to its mass. First
suggested by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. The following two equations describe this
law:

Force = Mass x Acceleration

and

Acceleration = Force / Mass

Second Law of Thermodynamics - This law states that heat can never pass
spontaneously from a colder to a hotter body. As a result of this fact, natural
processes that involve energy flow must have one direction, and all natural processes

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are irreversible. This law also predicts that the entropy of an isolated system always
increases with time.

Second-Growth Forest - A stand of forest that is the result of secondary succession.

Secondary Atmosphere - Earth atmosphere that existed between 4.0 and 2.5 billion
years ago. At the beginning of this stage of the atmosphere's development, it was
mainly composed of the gases water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
nitrogen (N2). By about 3.3 billion years before present, CO2, H2O, and N2 are
dominant. Molecular oxygen (O2) begins to accumulate slowly because of the
presence of ancient life, mainly in the Earth's oceans. Compare with early
atmosphere and living atmosphere.

Secondary Carnivore - Organisms that occupy the fourth trophic level in the grazing
food chain. These organisms are carnivores. Also called tertiary consumer.

Secondary Consumer - Carnivore type organism that occupies the third trophic level
in a grazing food chain. Also known as a primary carnivore.

Secondary Flow - A term in fluid mechanics that describes a minor flow in a gas or
liquid that is moving in a direction transverse to the primary flow.

Secondary Minerals - Minerals that form as byproducts of weathering or

hydrothermal alteration. The most common secondary minerals are hydrated
silicates. Compare with primary minerals.

Secondary Productivity - Is the production of organic chemical energy or biomass in

an ecosystem by way of heterotrophic or consumer organisms consuming dead or
living organic matter from plants and animals. Compare with primary productivity.

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Secondary Pollutant - Atmospheric pollutants that are created chemically in the
atmosphere when primary pollutants and other components of the air react.
Compare with primary pollutant.

Secondary Substance - Organic chemical produced by a plant that has no direct

function in its metabolism. Many of these chemicals are toxic and are believed to be
created by the plant to reduce herbivore damage or the negative effects of
competition by other plants.

Secondary Succession - Plant succession on a previously vegetated surface. The soil

or substrate on this location contains an active seed bank.

Secondary Wave - See S-wave or shear wave.

Sedge - A type of grass-like plant that has adaptations to its morphology and
physiology to allow it to survive successfully in moist habitats.

Sediment - (1) Solid material particles derived from the weathering of rock. (2) Solid
material particles that have been or are being subject to the geomorphic processes of
erosion, transportation, and deposition. Transport can be due to fluvial, marine,
glacial or aeolian agents.

Sediment Rating Curve - Numerical expression or curve on a graph that describes

the quantitative cause and effect relationship between stream discharge and the
sediment transported by a particular stream.

Sediment Yield - The amount of sediment exported from a particular drainage basin.
Often measured yearly and expressed in terms of some unit area (kilograms per
kilometer squared per year: kg km-2 y-1). The magnitude of sediment yield for a
drainage basin is influenced by bedrock type, plant cover, relief, climate, land-cover
change, and land-use. Two human activities that can significantly increase sediment
yield are agriculture and forestry.

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Sedimentary Rock - Rocks formed by the deposition, alteration and/or compression
and lithification of weathered rock debris, chemical precipitates, or organic
sediments. Also see clastic vs non-clastic sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentation - A geomorphic process where sediment particles, once entrained

and transported in air, water, or ice settle on to some surface because of the reduction
of forces keeping them suspended, chemical precipitation, electromagnetic binding
of particles, and gravity.

Seed - Fertilized ovule of a plant that contains an embryo and food products for
germination. Once germinated, the embryo can grow into a mature individual.

Seed Bank - All of the seeds available for germination in the soil.

Seed Dispersal - The transport of a plant seed away from the parent plant by way of
active movement or passive movement.

Seepage - (1) The gradual movement of water into the soil layer. (2) Slow movement
of sub-surface water to the surface. Water flow from seepage is not great enough to
call it a spring.

Seepage Lake - A lake that gets its water primarily from the seepage of groundwater.

Segregated Ice - A form of periglacial ground ice that consists of almost pure ice that
often exists as an extensive horizontal layer. The ice layer grows because of the active
migration of water from around the feature. These features are found just below the
active layer.

Seiche - An oscillating wave found within a body of water like a river, pond, lake,
sea, estuary, or bay that produces a change in the water level. Seiches can be caused
by changes in wind speed, atmospheric pressure, tsunamis, earthquakes, etc. These
features can be found embedded is in tidal fluctuations.

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Seif - (1) A large sand dune that is elongated in the general direction of the dominant
winds. (2) A sand dune formed by winds from multiple directions.

Seismic - The shaking displacement usually caused by an earthquake.

Seismic Wave - Successive wave-type displacement of rock usually caused by an

earthquake.

Seismograph - Instrument that measures the energy contained in seismic waves

from an earthquake or other type of ground displacement.

Seismology - A branch of science focused on the study of earthquakes and seismic

activity.

Selective Absorber - A substance that absorbs only specific wavelength bands of

electromagnetic radiation.

Selective Emitter - A substance that emits only specific wavelength bands of

electromagnetic radiation.

Self-Regulation - The ability of some systems to maintain a steady state equilibrium

through positive feedbacks and negative feedbacks.

Semi-Diurnal Tide - Tides that have two high and two low waters per tidal period.

Sensible Heat - Heat energy that can be measured by a thermometer and thus
potentially sensed by humans.

Sensible Heat Flux - Process where excess heat energy is transferred into the
atmosphere. The process first involves the movement of heat energy from the Earth's

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surface to the atmosphere by conduction and convection. The heat energy then can
move horizontally by advection (atmospheric circulation).

Sensible Temperature - A measure of thermal comfort or discomfort by a human

determined by the effect that humidity, wind, and solar radiation have on perceived
air temperature. For example, most humans perceive that an increase in wind speed
makes air temperature feel cooler.

September Equinox - One of two days during a year when the declination of the Sun
is at the equator. The September Equinox denotes the first day of fall in the Northern
Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, this date marks the first day of spring.
During the September Equinox, all locations on the Earth (except the poles)
experience equal (12 hour) day and night. The September Equinox occurs on either
September 22 or 23.

Seral Community - An identifiable community of plants that occurs as a succession

changes temporally from a non-vegetated site to a climax community.

Serclimax - An identifiable community of plants that forms a relatively long-lived

stable stage during a succession. Despite its stable appearance, this stage is not the
true climax community for this site.

Sere - See seral community.

Serir - A type of desert landscape characterized by a ground surface covered with

gravel.

Severe Thunderstorm - This term is used to designate a thunderstorm that has

reached a particular level of severity. This is an intense storm with frequent lightning
and local wind gusts of 97 kph (60 mph), or hail that is 2 cm (3/4 of inch) in diameter
or larger. Severe thunderstorms can also have tornadoes. In Canada, thunderstorms

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are also considered severe if their rainfall exceeds 50 millimeters (2 inches) in one
hour, or 75 millimeters (3 inches) in three hours.

Sexual Reproduction - Any process of reproduction that involves the fusion of the
genes from two different individuals of the same species to create a new individual.
Compare with asexual reproduction.

Shakehole - See sinkhole.

Shale - A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of lithified clay particles.

Shear Box - An instrument used to measure the shear strength of a soil or some other
material.

Shear Strength - A quantitative measure of the ability of soil or some other material
to withstand shear stress.

Shear Stress - A type of stress caused by forces operating parallel to each other but in
opposite directions. Compare with normal stress.

Shear Wave - A seismic wave that creates wave-like motion perpendicular to the
direction of seismic energy propagation. Also called S-Wave.

Sheet Flow - See overland flow.

Sheeting - A form of physical weathering of rock where surface sheets of material

fracture and exfoliate because of pressure release. Also see exfoliation dome.

Sheetwash - The removal of loose surface materials by overland flow. Process of

erosion.

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Shield - A large stable area of exposed ancient (more than 600 million years) igneous
and metamorphic rock found on continents. This rock forms the core of the
continents.

Shield Volcano - A very large volcano created from alternate layers of numerous
viscous lava flows. Shield volcanoes are slightly convex sloping having a gradient
between 6 and 12°. Their height can be as high as 9,000 meters (29,500 feet). The
chemistry of the magma of these volcanoes is basaltic. The Hawaiian volcano of
Mauna Loa is a classic example of a shield volcano.

Shoal - A region of shallow water found in a lake, sea, or ocean. A shoal can be
caused by the presence of a sandbank and can create navigational problems for
boats.

Shore - The land area bordering a relatively large water body like a lake, sea, or
ocean.

Shore Platform - See wave cut platform.

Shoreline - The line that separates the land surface from a water body. It is
important to note that the elevation of a shoreline can vary over time because of
changes in water level. Changes in water level can be caused by tides, atmospheric
pressure, inflow of water, winds, climate change, etc. Also see coastline.

Short Wave - A small wave in the polar jet stream and the westerlies that extends
from the middle to the upper troposphere. Often associated with the formation of a
mid-latitude cyclone at the ground surface. Contrasts with long waves.

Shortwave Radiation - Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.1

and 0.7 micrometers (µm). Commonly used to describe the radiation emitted from
the Sun.

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Shrub - A woody plant species that is smaller than a tree. Shrubs usually do not have
a trunk that elevates branches way above the ground surface. A shrub's branches are
found close to ground level.

Shrubland - A plant community characterized by a dominance of shrub plant

species. Shrublands can occur naturally or can
be the result of human activity. Shrublands are
common Mediterranean and desert climates.
Often natural shrublands are maintained by
disturbances like fire or herbivore browsing,
which excludes trees from establishing
themselves. Also called scrubland, scrub, and
brush. Shown is a shrubland found in southern
California.

Sial Layer - The part of the Earth's crust that forms the continents and is composed
of relatively light, granitic rocks.

Siberian High - An atmospheric high pressure system that develops in winter over
northern central Asia.

Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) - An imaging instrument that remotely senses
the environment using pulsating transmissions of microwave radiation. Objects are
sensed if their surface reflects the radiation back to a receiver also located on the
instrument. SLAR systems are often mounted on airplanes or satellites. SLAR
systems are commonly used for remotely sensing soil moisture content, landscape
relief, tree yields in forests, oil spills, and sea ice location.

Sidereal Day - Time it takes to complete one Earth rotation relative to the position of
a fixed star. This measurement takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds.
Compare with mean solar day.

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Sieve Deposits - A flood caused stream deposit of a lobe of sediment composed
mainly of gravel and pebbles located on an alluvial fan. Sieve deposits are only
produced when the stream load is deficient in finer textured sediments.

Silcrete - (1) Sedimentary rock created by the chemical precipitation of silica. (2) A
layer found in soils or sediments that is concentrated with silica. This layer is often
compact, quite dense, hard, and sometimes impervious. These layers are common in
arid and semiarid climates where silica found in the soil dissolves into the soil
solution and then precipitates out, cementing a narrow band of soil particles. Also
called a hardpan.

Silica - A mineral that is composed of silicon dioxide, SiO2.

Silicate - A group of minerals that have crystal structures based on a silica

tetrahedron (SiO4).

Silicate Magma - A magma that is felsic in composition.

Silicate Tetrahedron - Simple molecule that consists of a silicon (Si) atom

surrounded by four oxygen (O) atoms. This molecule is a primary
component of most silicate type minerals found in the Earth's crust. The
image shows the atomic arrangement of a silicate tetrahedron with
red representing the oxygen atoms and gray the silicon atom (Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons). The chemical formula of a silicate
tetrahedron is SiO4.

Sill - Horizontal planes of igneous rock that run parallel to the grain of the original
rock deposits. They form when magma enters and cools in bedding planes found
within the Earth's crust. Also see intrusive igneous rock. Compare with batholith,
dyke, laccolith, lopolith, and phacolith.

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Silt - A mineral particle with a size between 0.002 and 0.063 millimeters (0.00008 to
0.0025 inches) in diameter (in the USA between 0.004 and 0.06 millimeters or 0.00016
to 0.0024 inches). Compare with clay, sand, gravel, cobble, and boulder.

Silt Drape - A thin deposit of silt that forms over existing surface features. Silt drape
develops when silt particles drop out of the water that once held them in suspension.

Siltstone - A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of lithified silt particles.

Silurian - One of six geologic periods that occurred from 444 to 416 million years ago
during the Paleozoic Era. During this period, boney fish become common in oceans,
and the first vascular plants appear on land. See the International Commission on
Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Sima Layer - The part of the crust that forms the ocean basins and lower layers in the
Earth's crust and is composed of relatively heavy rocks that formed from basaltic
magma.

Sink - (1) A location where some type of material is stored. (2) Another name for
sinkhole.

Sinkhole - A pit like hole found in areas of karst. These features are caused by the
weathering of limestone or dolomite by subsurface drainage. Also called a sink, sink-
hole, swallet, swallow hole, shakehole or doline.

Sinter - Calcium carbonate or silica precipitate common to hot springs and geysers.

Sinuosity - A measure of a stream channel's tendency to meander back and forth

across the floodplain. It is measured as a ratio between the distance along the center
of the channel and the straight-line distance down the stream valley.

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Sinusoidal Equal-Area Map Projection - A map projection that represents areas in
their true form on a two-dimensional map. Distances on this type of map are only
correct along parallels and central meridian. As a result, shapes become more
distorted away from the central meridian and close to the poles.

Siphon - (1) A sporadically flowing spring typical to karst landscapes. Thought to

form when groundwater flows into an underground cavern that is connected to an
inverted U-shape tunnel. One end of the tunnel is exposed to the ground surface
producing the spring, while the other end is connected to the cavern reservoir. When
the water level in the reservoir reaches the high point of the tunnel, it produces a
siphoning effect drawing the water out of the cavern. The spring stops flowing when
there is no more water to siphon. This process repeats itself when the groundwater
once again fills the cavern with water. Also called rhythmic spring, ebb and flow
spring, periodic spring, and intermittent spring. (2) A tunnel filled with water that
connects two air-filled caverns in a cave system.

Skewness - A statistical measure of the shape of data relative to the normal

distribution. Data that is negatively skewed has a higher proportion of observations

that are larger than the mean when graphed on a histogram. Data that is positively
skewed has a greater proportion of observations that are smaller than the mean.
Also see kurtosis.

Slab Failure - A type of hard rock failure that is caused when weathering weakens
the structure of a rock mass along joints.

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Slack - The low-lying area found between adjacent sand dunes in a dune field.

Slaking - See wetting and drying.

Slate - A type of fine-grained metamorphic rock with well developed bedding planes
derived from the minor recrystallization of shale.

Sleet - See ice pellets.

Slickenside - The smoothed and grooved rock surfaces sometimes found on the
opposing sides of a fault plane. Caused by the friction and grinding associated with
the rock surfaces sliding past each other in opposite directions along the fault plane.

Slide - See landslide.

Sling Psychrometer - Scientific instrument used to measure dew point and relative
humidity. This type of psychrometer
consists of two thermometers (dry-
bulb thermometer and a wet-bulb
thermometer) incased in a housing
(see image). It uses a rotating handle
and a twirling motion to ventilate its
wet-bulb thermometer.

Slip - Another term used to describe a landslide or mudslide.

Slip Face - The leeward side of a dune where material accumulates and slides or
rolls downslope.

Slope - (1) The geometric angle of the ground surface as measured from horizontal.
(2) A generic term used in Geomorphology to describe any topographic component
of the Earth's solid surface above or below sea level.

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Slope Aspect - The main compass direction that a slope faces (North, North East,
East, South East, South, South West, West, and North West).

Slope Failure - The downslope movement of soil and sediment by processes of mass
movement.

Slump - See rotational slip.

Small Circle - A circle on the globe's surface that does not bisect the center of the
Earth. Parallels of latitude are examples of small circles.

Smog - A generic term used to describe mixtures of pollutants in the atmosphere.

Also see industrial smog and photochemical smog.

Snout - The front end of a glacier. Also called the terminus.

Snow - A type of solid precipitation that forms in clouds with an air temperature
below freezing (Image Source: United States Department of
Agriculture). Snow forms when water vapor deposits
directly as a solid on a deposition nuclei. Snowflakes
begin their life as very tiny crystals developing on a six-
sided hexagonal deposition nuclei. The developing
snowflake then grows fastest at the six points of the
nuclei as these surfaces are more exposed to the
atmosphere's water vapor. Snowfall is most common
with the frontal lifting associated with mid-latitude
cyclones during fall, winter, and spring months when air
temperatures are below freezing.

Snow Gauge - A meteorological instrument designed to measure the amount snow

falling to the ground surface accurately. In this device, the snow is heated until it
melts, and a water equivalent is then determined.

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Snow Line - Altitudinal or latitudinal limit separating zones where snow does not
melt during the summer season from areas in which it does. Similar to the concept of
firm limit, except that it is not limited to glaciers.

Snow Patch - An isolated region of snow that has survived the spring/summer
melting process. A surviving snow patch may initiate nivation.

Snow Pellets - A form of precipitation also known as graupel. Snow pellets are
white, spherical bits of ice with a maximum diameter of 5 millimeters (0.20 inches).
Snow pellets develop when supercooled water droplets freeze on snowflakes. Snow
pellets often fall for a brief period when precipitation transforms from ice pellets to
snow. Snow pellets can be easily distinguished from packed snowflakes as they tend
to bounce when they strike the ground. Packed snowflakes are not dense enough to
cause them to bounce.

Snowfield - An area with permanent snow accumulation. Usually found seasonally

or permanently at high altitudes or middle to high latitudes on the Earth's terrestrial
surface.

Snowmelt - The conversion of snow into runoff and groundwater flow with the
onset of warmer temperatures and melting.

Snowpack - An accumulation of layers of snow on that ground surface that is

compressed with depth by its own overlying weight. In some regions of the world,
snowpacks are an essential source of water, especially in the spring.

Soil - Layer of unconsolidated material found at the Earth's surface that has been
influenced by the soil forming factors: climate, relief, parent material, time, and
organisms. Soil normally consists of weathered mineral particles, dead and living
organic matter, air space, and the soil solution.

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Soil Aggregate - Many soil mineral and/or organic particles held together in a single
mass. This natural property of soils improves the movement of air and water
throughout the soil

Soil Colloids - Very small organic and inorganic particles found distributed
throughout a soil, many of which are found floating in the soil solution. Inorganic
colloids are often clay particles. Soil colloids carry a negative electrical charge and
are the primary sites for cation exchange. Soil colloids hold large quantities of
elements and compounds which are used by plants for nutrition.

Soil Compaction - Process where a force applied to the ground surface causes
compression of the near-surface soil layer. This compression reduces the size of soil
pore spaces, displaces soil water, and causes the bulk density of the soil to increase.
Soil compaction can have negative consequences like lower rainfall infiltration,
increased runoff and erosion, and reduced plant growth.

Soil Creep - Slow mass movement of soil downslope. Soil creep occurs where the
stresses on the slope material are too small to create a rapid failure.

Soil Density - Refers to the weight of a sample of soil per unit volume of this
substance. The density of soil is mainly influenced by the relative quantity of pore
space, organic matter particles, and mineral particles. Soil mineral particles have a
density that is between 2.60 to 2.75 grams per cubic centimeter (g cm-3), while
particles of organic matter have a density varying between 1.1 to 1.4 g cm-3. See bulk
density.

Soil Erosion - The erosional transport of soil mineral particles and organic matter by
wind, flowing water, or both. Human activities that disturb the soil surface or
remove vegetation can significantly enhance this natural process.

Soil Fertility - The ability of a soil to provide the required nutrients for plant growth.

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Soil Formation Factors - Five factors are recognized as having a major role in the
formation and development of soils. These five factors are: climate, relief, parent
material, time, and organisms.

Soil Horizon - Layer within a soil profile that differs physically, biologically or
chemically from layers above and/or below it.

Soil Moisture Deficit - A condition that occurs when evapotranspiration and plant
root consumption removes all of the soil water available for plant growth.
Determination of soil moisture deficit is important in managing plant growth with
the use of irrigation water. Two instruments are normally used to assess soil water
conditions: lysimeter and neutron probe.

Soil Moisture Recharge - The process of water filling the pore space found in a soil
(creating water storage).

Soil Moisture Retention Curve - The

mathematical description of a particular type of
soil's ability to store water. Such information is
helpful in predicting the quantity of soil water
available for plant growth. Shown are soil moisture
retention curves for the following types of soils:
sand (Ss), silt (Uu), clay-loam (Lu), and clay (Tt)
(Image Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Soil Organic Matter - The living and dead organic constituents of a soil. The various
constituents that make up organic matter are often at various levels of
decomposition. Soil organic matter has many positive effects on the physical and
chemical properties of a soil.

Soil Permeability - The rate at which water and air move vertically through a soil.

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Soil pH - A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil as determined by pH. It is
also a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions with a soil. Soil pH
normally varies from 3.5 to 9.0. The optimum pH for plant growth is between 6.0 and
8.0.

Soil Porosity - The volume of water that can be held in a soil. It also refers to the
ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.

Soil Profile - The vertical arrangement of layers or horizons in a soil as determined

visually or by some chemical or physical analysis.

Soil Science - The scientific study of soils from an interdisciplinary perspective

incorporating ideas and concepts from biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science.

Soil Solution - The aqueous liquid found within a soil. This liquid typically contains
ions released from mineral particles, organic matter, or plant roots and leaves.

Soil Structure - General term that describes how mineral particles and organic
matter are organized and clumped together in a soil.

Soil Taxonomy - The classification of a soil in a hierarchical system based on its

various properties. This grouping system goes from general to specific.

Soil Texture - The relative quantities of the different types and sizes of mineral
particles in a soil.

Soil Water - The water found occupying the pore spaces between soil particles.

Soil-Heat Flux - The rate of flow of heat energy into, away from, or through the soil.

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Solar Altitude - The height of the Sun above the horizon as measured from either
True North or True South.

Solar Constant - A term used to describe the average quantity of solar radiation
(insolation) received by a horizontal surface at the edge of the Earth's atmosphere.
This value is approximately 1,370 Watts per square meter.

Solar Day - The time required for the Earth to complete one rotation on its axis
relative to the Sun.

Solar Energy - See insolation and solar radiation.

Solar Flare - A sudden and brief release of large quantities of electromagnetic energy
from a localized area on the Sun's surface. These flares release electromagnetic
radiation across a broad spectrum of wavelengths, from long radio waves to
extremely short x-rays and gamma rays. The energy released from a typical flare is
immense, about 1020 Watts.

Solar Noon - The point of time during the day when the Sun is aligned with True
North and True South.

Solar Radiation - A form of electromagnetic radiation that originates from the Sun.
Most of the Sun's radiation is emitted at wavelengths between 1.0 and 0.1 microns
(µm). Also see insolation, direct solar radiation, and diffused solar radiation.

Solar System - The collection of celestial bodies that orbit around a star. The Earth is
one of many celestial bodies that form a Solar System around the Sun.

Solar Wind - A mass of ionized gas emitted to space by the Sun. The solar wind
plays a role in the formation of auroras.

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Solar Year - The time it takes the Earth to make one orbit around the Sun. This is
approximately 365.2422 days.

Solfatara - Small vents that remain active many years after a significant volcanic
event. These vents often emit sulfuric gases mixed with hot water vapor.

Solid - A state of matter where molecules found in a substance does not have the
property of flow.

Solifluction - A form of mass movement in environments that experience freeze-

thaw action. It is characterized by the slow movement of soil material downslope
and the formation of lobe-shaped features. Also see gelifluction.

Solonchak - A type of soil that drains poorly, grey in color, and found in arid to
semi-arid environments. One important defining characteristic of these soils is that
they often have an accumulation of salts in the upper soil horizon. These soils are
similar to soils from the Aridisol order (United States Natural Resources
Conservation Service Soil Classification System) and Solonetzic order (Canadian
System of Soil Classification). This term has a Russian/Ukrainian origin.

Solonetz - A type of soil recognized in the United Nation's Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) soil classification system. These soils have a significant clay
content in the upper horizon of the soil profile and have 15% exchangeable sodium.
These soils are similar to soils from the Aridisol order (United States Natural
Resources Conservation Service Soil Classification System) and Solonetzic order
(Canadian System of Soil Classification). This term has a Russian/Ukrainian origin.

Solonetzic Soil - Soil order (type) of the Canadian System of

Soil Classification. This soil type is associated with grassland
habitats where high levels of evapotranspiration cause the
accumulation of salts at or near the soil surface. These soils are
common in the dry regions of the prairies where
evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation input. For

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more information on this soil type, see the textbook Canadian System of Soil
Classification, 3rd Edition available online. Image Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada.

Solstice - Dates when the declination of the Sun is at 23.5° North or South of the
equator. For the Northern Hemisphere, this date falls on June 21 or 22 (Summer
Solstice). In the Southern Hemisphere, the date is December 21 or 22 (Winter
Solstice).

Solum - The part of a soil that is capable of supporting living organisms.

Solutes - Organic or inorganic substances dissolved in solution in some liquid.

Solution - (1) A form of chemical weathering where rocks and minerals are dissolved
by water. Materials entering the mixture can alter the chemical nature of the solution
and can increase the strength of this weathering agent. For example, the mixing of
carbon dioxide and water can form carbonic acid. (2) The dissolving of a substance
into a liquid.

Solvent - A substance that can chemically dissolve other substances.

Source Region - Region on the Earth where air masses originate and come to possess
their particular moisture and temperature characteristics.

Southeast Trade Winds - Southern hemisphere surface winds found in the tropics
that blow from about 30° South latitude (Subtropical High Pressure Zone) to the
equator (Intertropical Convergence Zone). These winds have a southeast to
northwest direction.

Southern Ocean - The Southern Ocean surrounds Antarctica, extending to the

latitude 60° South (see figure, Map Source: CIA Factbook, Wikimedia Commons). This
ocean region occupies about 4% of the Earth's surface or about 20,327,000 square

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kilometers (7,846,000 square miles). Relative to the other
ocean regions, the floor of the Southern Ocean is quite
deep, ranging from 4,000 to 5,000 meters (13,100 to
16,400 feet) below sea level over most of its area.

Southern Oscillation - The reversal of atmospheric

circulation typical in the tropical Pacific Ocean. This
change often results in the development of an El Niño.

South Magnetic Pole - Location in the Southern Hemisphere where the lines of force
from Earth's magnetic field are at right angles to the Earth's surface. This point on
the Earth gradually changes its position with time.

South Pole - Surface location defined by the intersection of the polar axis with
Earth's surface in the Southern Hemisphere. This location has a latitude of 90° South.

Space - (1) A distance, area, or volume. (2) An infinite three-dimensional area in

which objects have relative coordinates to each other. (3) The region beyond the
outer limits of the Earth's atmosphere that extends to the edge of the Universe.

Spatial Analysis - The study of the spatial patterns of natural and human-made
phenomena using numerical analysis and statistics.

Spatial Isolation - The reproductive isolation of two or more populations of a

species by distance or physical barriers. Over long periods, geographic isolation
leads to speciation through divergent evolution because of environmental
heterogeneity. Also called geographic isolation.

Spatial Tradition - Academic tradition in modern Geography that investigates

geographic phenomena from a strictly spatial perspective.

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Specialist Species - A species that has a relatively narrow ecological niche and a very
limited geographic range. These species are often able to live in only one type of
habitat, can tolerate only specific environmental conditions, and can consume only a
few types of food. Compare with endemic and cosmopolitan species.

Speciation - The process by which new species originate through mutations, natural
selection, and evolution.

Species - (1) The different kinds of organisms found on the Earth as defined by
taxonomic and/or phylogenic classification. (2) A group of interbreeding organisms
that do not ordinarily breed with members of other groups.

Species Association - A particular grouping of species in a defined area. This term is

commonly used in community ecology to describe a predictable mix of species types
that is controlled by the specific environmental conditions operating in a habitat.

Species Diversity - Number of different species in a given region. Also see

biodiversity, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity.

Species-Area Curve - The mathematical relationship between habitat size and the
number of different species living in that space. The following mathematical formula
describes the species-area curve:

S = cAZ

where S is the number of

species, c is a constant which
varies with the unit used to
measure area, A is the habitat
area, and z is the slope of the
species-area relationship. The
graph describes the species-

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area curve for reptilian and amphibian species on seven different islands in the West
Indies (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Specific Gravity - The ratio of the mass of a body to the mass of an identical volume
of water at a specific temperature.

Specific Heat - This is the heat capacity of a unit mass of a substance or heat needed
to raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of a substance 1 degree Celsius.

Specific Humidity - One of several different ways to measure atmospheric humidity.

Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor in a given mass of air. Typically
expressed in grams of water vapor per kilogram of air at a specific temperature.

Specific Retention - The ratio of the quantity of water that a mass of soil or rock can
hold on to compared to its total volume after gravity drainage has occurred. With
soils, specific retention decreases with the size of the soil particles.

Specific Yield - The amount of stored water drained from a saturated mass of soil or
rock under the influence of gravity. In soils, specific yield normally increases with the
size of the soil particles. Specific yield can be used to estimate how much water
might be available from an aquifer.

Spectrum - (1) The complete range of wavelengths found in electromagnetic

radiation. (2) A graph that describes the quantity and quality of radiation emitted
from a particular object or substance at various wavelengths. (3) The range of colors
seen in a rainbow.

Speed of Light - Velocity of light in a vacuum. This velocity is approximately 3 x 108

meters per second (300,000 kilometers per second or 186,000 miles per second). It
takes light from the Sun eight minutes and twenty seconds to reach the Earth.

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Speleology - Scientific field of inquiry that studies caves. Also spelled spelæology or
spelaeology.

Speleothem - General term used to describe secondary mineral depositional features

containing calcium, silica, and/or gypsum found in caves.

Sphericity - A measure of the roundness of an object. It is usually determined by

comparing the surface area of the object to the surface area of a sphere with the same
volume.

Spheroidal Weathering - A type of below-ground chemical weathering where the

corners of jointed rocks become rounded over time. Rock changes from a rectangular
to a more round shape.

Spit - A long and narrow accumulation of sand and/or

gravel that projects into a body of ocean water. These
features form as the result of the deposition of sediments by
longshore drift. Shown is a satellite view of New Zealand's
Farewell Spit (Image Source: NASA).

Spodosols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. A spodosol soil has
pronounced layers of illuviation characterized by accumulations of
iron and aluminum oxides in the B horizon. These soils form in
moist, cool climates. (Image Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture).

Sponge - Are simple invertebrate animals that do not

have nervous, digestive, or circulatory systems (Image
Source: NOAA). These multicellular organisms have
pores and channels throughout their bodies that allow
for water flow to provide them with food, oxygen, and
to remove wastes. Most of the 5,000 to 10,000 species of
sponge live in our planet's oceans and seas. There are a

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few species that live in freshwater aquatic systems. The distribution of this organism
is worldwide, with species found from the Earth's polar regions to the tropics.
Sponges have existed well before the Cambrian Explosion and possibly first evolved
about 750 million years ago.

Sporadic Permafrost - A form of permafrost that exists as small islands of frozen

ground in otherwise unfrozen soil and sediment.

Spore - A unicellular organic unit used for asexual reproduction by many species of
plants, algae, fungi, and protozoa. Spores are often designed for easy dispersal and
survival over extended periods in harsh environmental conditions.

Sport Hunting - Is a type of hunting where humans kill animals for recreation. This
type of hunting is typically done legally. Compare with subsistence hunting,
commercial hunting, and poaching.

SPOT (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales) - Series of satellites developed by the

French Space Agency, with the cooperation with Belgium and Sweden, to remotely
monitor (remote sensing) resources and other objects on the Earth. The first SPOT
satellite was launched in 1986. See the following website for more information -
[Link]

Spring - (1) The season between winter and summer. Astronomically it is the period
from the March Equinox to the June Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere and from
the September Equinox to the December Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. (2) A
continuous natural flow of water from the sub-surface to the surface. It usually
occurs when the water breaks the Earth's surface. Also see hot spring.

Spring Tide - A type of tide that occurs every 14 to 15 days and coincides with the
new and full Moon. This tide has a large tidal range because the gravitational forces
of the Moon and Sun are complementary to each other. Contrasts with neap tide.

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Squall Line - A long band of many adjacent thunderstorm cells found ahead of a
mid-latitude cyclone cold front.

Stability - The capability of a system to tolerate or recover from disturbance or an

environmental stress.

Stability Analysis - Group of methods used to determine the failure potential of a

soil or rock slope. Central to this set of procedures is some knowledge of the
cohesion and friction characteristics of the materials making up the slope.

Stable Atmosphere - Condition in the atmosphere where isolated air parcels have a
tendency to sink. Stable parcels of air tend to be cooler than the air that surrounds
them. Compare with neutral atmosphere and unstable atmosphere.

Stable Equilibrium - This type of equilibrium occurs when the system displays the
tendency to return to the same measured state after a disturbance.

Stack - An isolated part of a coastal cliff that

exists free-standing in the sea as a vertical
column of rock. These unique features are the
result of erosion by energetic waves of a
headland. Shown is a stack Known as Old Man
of Hoy located on the coastline of Scotland. Also
called sea stacks. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons. This image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
license.

Stadial - Term that identifies a period of colder temperatures and glacial advance
within a much larger period when widespread glaciation is dominant in a region's
landscape. Compare with interstadial.

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Stadial Moraine - See recessional moraine.

Staff Gauge - A measuring device used to determine the water depth for a particular
location in a stream.

Stage - The elevation of the water surface in a stream channel.

Stalactite - A ceiling deposit found in caves and mines that often forms from the
precipitation of minerals found in water. It may also be composed of deposits of lava,
clay, silt, sand, and bat excrement. Looks like an icicle.

Stalagmite - A floor deposit found in caves and mines that often forms from the
accumulation of precipitated minerals found in water. The mineral rich water
originates as ceiling drippings. Stalagmites may also be composed of deposits of
lava, clay, silt, sand, and bat excrement. Looks like an icicle.

Standard Atmosphere (atm) - An international reference unit of pressure. 1 atm =

101325 pascals (Pa) = 101.325 kilopascals (kPa) = 1013.25 millibars (mb).

Standard Atmospheric Pressure - A pressure of 101325 pascals (Pa) or 101.325

kilopascals (kPa) or 1013.25 millibars (mb).

Standard Deviation - A statistical measure of the dispersion of observation values in

a data set around the mean (average). Calculated by determining the square root of
the variance.

Standard Rain Gauge - A meteorological instrument designed to accurately measure

the amount of rain falling on the ground surface.

Standard Temperature and Pressure - Standard scientific reference equal to a

temperature of 273.15 Kelvins (0 °C, 32 °F) and an absolute pressure of 100,000
Pascals (1 bar, 14.5 pounds per square inch).

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Standing Wave - A wave found in some medium of transport that appears to have a
constant oscillation. A variety of causes can result in standing waves. One common
cause is when two series of waves moving in the opposite direction interfere with
each other. Also called a stationary wave.

Star - A large and very massive, self-luminous celestial body of gas that appears
illuminated because of the emission of electromagnetic radiation derived from its
internal source of energy.

Star Dune - A large pyramidal or star-shaped dune with three or more sinuous
radiating ridges form a central peak of sand. This sand dune has three or more slip-
faces. This dune forms because of variable winds. This dune does not migrate along
the ground, but it does grow vertically.

Starch - A complex carbohydrate composed of thousands of glucose units. Main

compound that plants use to store their food energy.

State Change - See phase change.

State of Matter - A form of matter. Matter can exist in four different forms gas,
liquid, solid, and plasma.

Static Equilibrium - This type of equilibrium occurs

where force and reaction are balanced, and the
properties of the system remain unchanged over
time.

Stationary Front - A transition zone in the atmosphere where there is little

movement of opposing air masses and winds blow towards the front from opposite
directions.

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Steady Flow - (1) A condition of constant flow velocity in a stream over space or
time. (2) Term used in fluid dynamics to describe a situation where the flow velocity
in a fluid at a specific point does not change over time.

Steady-State Equilibrium - In this type of

equilibrium, the average condition of the system
remains unchanged over time.

Steam Fog - See evaporation fog.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law - This radiation law suggests the amount of electromagnetic

radiation given off by a body is proportional to the 4th power of its temperature as
measured in Kelvin units. The following simple equation can express this law:

E* = σT4
where E* is the amount of radiation emitted by the body in Watts per square meter, σ
is a constant equal to 0.0000000567, and T is the temperature of the body in Kelvins.

Stemflow - Is the process that directs precipitation down plant branches and stems.
The redirection of water by this process causes the ground area around the plant's
stem to receive additional moisture. The amount of stemflow is determined by leaf
shape, and the architecture of stems and branches. In general, deciduous trees
produce more stemflow than coniferous vegetation.

Step-Pool Stream - Is a form of stream channel morphology characterized by

alternating channel-wide steps composed of cobbles and boulders and deep pools.
Common in steep mountain streams.

Steppe - A Russian term used to describe grasslands found in the mid-latitudes.

Stevenson Screen - A specially designed housing for meteorological instruments

used to keep measurements standardize around the world (Image Source: Wikipedia

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Commons, image is in the public domain). This housing consists of a
wooden box painted white with double louvered sides. It is
mounted on a stand 1.5 meters or 4.5 feet (this varies from
country to country between 1.2 to 1.8 meters or 3.9 to 5.9 feet)
above the ground surface and contains a maximum thermometer,
minimum thermometer, barometer, dry-bulb thermometer, and
wet-bulb thermometer.

Stick Slip - A situation where the transport of ice in a alpine glacier flowing over
bedrock has sporadic variations in velocity.

Stillstand - (1) A period where the movement of a glacier appears to be stationary.

(2) A time where tectonic activity in an area seems to be non-existent. (3) Period
when sea level does not change.

Stochastic Model - A mathematical model that simulates cause and effect processes
as being randomly determined or controlled in a probabilistic fashion.

Stochastic Process - A cause and effect process that is randomly determined or

controlled by probability.

Stock - A type of igneous intrusion of rock that is large and unevenly shaped.

Stomata (singular Stoma) - Small openings on the surface of a plant that is used for
gas exchange.

Stone Pavement - See desert pavement.

Storage - This refers to the ability of some component of the hydrologic system to act
as a reservoir or store of water. In the broadest sense, some of the places where water
is kept on our planet including glaciers, ice caps, lakes, oceans, streams, soil, the
atmosphere, and bedrock.

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Storm - A surface disturbance in the atmosphere normally associated with low
atmospheric pressure, fast-moving winds, and heavy precipitation. Common types
of storms include thunderstorms, mid-latitude cyclones, and hurricanes.

Storm Runoff - A rapid and intense form of runoff generated from precipitation
associated with a thunderstorm, mid-latitude cyclone, or hurricane.

Storm Surge - A relatively rapid rise in the height of the ocean along a coastline. It is
often caused by the winds associated with a tropical storm or hurricane pushing
water towards land.

Storm Track - The actual path taken by a storm (thunderstorm, mid-latitude cyclone,
or hurricane) or the average path taken by many storms.

Stoss - Side of a slope that faces the direction of flow of ice, wind, or water. The
opposite of lee.

Strain - (1) An external force that causes the deformation of an object through
pulling or stretching. Compare with stress. (2) The measurement of the external force
that causes the deformation of an object through pulling or stretching.

Stratified Drift - A type of glacial drift that has been partially sorted by glaciofluvial
meltwater.

Stratigraphic Unit - (1) A distinct and definable stratum of rock. (2) A sequential
series of strata that have similar characteristics and properties. These characteristics
and properties can include minerals, fossils, magnetic polarity, chemistry, and the
presence of clasts.

Stratigraphy - Sub-discipline of Geology that studies sequence, spacing,

composition, and spatial distribution of sedimentary deposits and rocks.

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Stratocumulus Cloud - Low altitude gray colored cloud composed of water droplets
with a patchy appearance Each cloud patch consists
of a rounded mass. This cloud has a somewhat
uniform base and usually covers the entire sky.
Between the patches, blue sky can be seen. Found in
an altitude range from the surface to 3,000 meters
(9,843 feet). Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photo by
Simon Eugster. This image is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Stratopause - The stratopause is a relatively thin atmospheric transition layer found

between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. The height of this layer is about 50
kilometers (31 miles) above the Earth's surface.

Stratosphere - Atmospheric layer found at an average altitude of 11 to 50 kilometers

(6.8 to 31.1 miles) above the Earth's surface. Within the stratosphere exists the ozone
layer. Ozone's absorption of ultraviolet sunlight causes air temperature within the
stratosphere to increase with altitude.

Stratovolcano - See composite volcano.

Stratum (Strata plural) - A homogeneous or gradational distinct layer or bed found

in consolidated rock or unconsolidated soil or sediment. Visually identifiable from
layers above and below it.

Stratus Cloud - Low altitude gray colored cloud

composed of water droplets (Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, image is in the public domain).
This cloud has a uniform base and typically covers
the entire sky. It is also quite thick and can obscure
the Sun. Light precipitation is often found falling
from it. Stratus clouds are found in an altitude
range from the surface to 3,000 meters (9,843 feet).

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Stream - A long narrow channel of water that flows as a function of gravity and
elevation across the Earth's surface. Most streams empty into a lake, sea, or ocean.

Stream Bank - The sides of the stream channel.

Stream Bed - The bottom of the stream channel.

Stream Channel - A long trough-like depression that is normally occupied by the

water in a stream.

Stream Discharge - A stream's rate of flow over a particular period. Usually

measured by a current meter and expressed in cubic meters per second. Stream
discharge depends on the volume and velocity of the flow.

Stream Flow - Term used to describe the flow of water in a stream or stream channel.

Stream Gradient - The change in elevation from a stream's headwaters to its mouth
expressed in degrees, percentage, or as a distance ratio (rise/run).

Stream Load - Refers to the material or sediment carried by a stream. Stream load
normally consists of three components: bed load (pebbles and sand which move
along the stream bed without being permanently suspended in the flowing water),
suspended load (silts and clays in suspension), and dissolved load (material in
solution).

Stream Long Profile - Vertical and horizontal profile of a stream. Most streams have
a profile that is concave-shaped.

Stream Order - The relative position, or rank of a stream channel segment in a

drainage network.

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Stream Valley - A relatively long linear depression in the landscape that slopes down
to a stream. This landscape feature is formed by erosion associated with flowing
water.

Streamline - (1) A design of an object where its form offers the least resistance to
fluid flow. (2) A line that is aligned perfectly to the direction of the fluid flow.

Stress - (1) The internal force within an object caused by strain. (2) In biology, this
term refers to an organism's response to adverse abiotic or biotic environmental
conditions.

Stress-Tolerant Species - According to J.P. Grime's theory of plant strategies, these

species of plants have greatest fitness in habitats with a high intensity of stress and a
low intensity of disturbance. These plants live in habitats where shortages of water,
light, heat, nutrients, or a surplus of heat limits growth. Stress-tolerant plants have
morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them to thrive under stress.
However, these adaptations come at a cost to the plant, and consequently, they have
less biomass to allocate to growth and reproduction. Stress-tolerant plant species
tend to be long-lived, have tissues resistant to stress, organs that store nutrients and
water for later use, are often evergreen, and time their flowering to particular
environmental cues. Compare with competitive and ruderal species.

Striations - Deep scratches found on rock surfaces caused by glacial abrasion.

Strike - One of the directional properties of a

geologic structure, such as a fold or a fault.
Strike is the horizontal direction taken by an
imaginary line drawn on the plane of the
formation. The concept of strike is illustrated in
the diagram where N, E, S, and W cardinal
directions, the blue plane is an ideal horizontal
plane, the green plane is an ideal vertical plane,
the red plane is the plane of the stratum bed we

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are measuring, z is the strike, Z is the strike direction, σ is the strike angle (0-180°), F
is the dip direction (0-360°), and φ is the dip angle (0-90°) (Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons). Also see dip.

Strike-Slip Fault - A fault that displays mainly horizontal displacement along a

vertical fracture. This type of fault has minimal vertical
displacement of the fault blocks. Strike-slip faults can be
further classified as being sinistral or dextral faults.
Sinistral faults show left-side displacement, while dextral
faults have left-side movement. Shown is the Piqiang
strike-slip fault just south of the Tien Shan Mountains, in
northwestern Xinjiang province, China, as seen from space
(Image Source: Earth Observatory, NASA). Also called a
transform fault.

Stromatolite - A type of sedimentary deposit created by biochemical processes

associated with bacteria, cyanobacteria, and lichens.
Stromatolites are common in the fossil record of the
Precambrian. They are evidence of some of the earliest life
on our planet. Shown is a sample of chert from Western
Australia that contains stromatolite layers that were
deposited 3.2 to 3.6 billion years ago. Image Source:
Wikimedia Commons, photographed by Didier Descouens. This
image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Structural Landform - This is a landform created by massive Earth movements due

to plate tectonics. Includes landforms with the following geomorphic features: fold-
created mountains, rift valleys, and volcanoes.

Subaerial - Something that is found or exists on the land surface.

Suballuvial Bench - A gradually sloping bedrock mass with surface deposits of

alluvial sediments at its lower elevations.

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Subatomic Particles - Are extremely small particles that make up the internal
structure of individual atoms.

Subduction (Tectonic) - A process associated with plate tectonics where one

lithospheric plate is pushed below another into the asthenosphere.

Subduction Zone - A linear zone where tectonic subduction occurs.

Subglacial - Refers to processes and conditions occurring under a glacier. Compare

with englacial, proglacial, and supraglacial.

Subglacial Stream - A long narrow channel of water or stream that flows as a

function of gravity beneath the main ice mass of an ice sheet or glacier.

Subhumid - An environment, habitat, or location that has a climate similar to a

grassland or a savanna. Subhumid environments often have seasons where moisture
is plentiful and scarce. Compare with humid.

Sublimation - The process where ice changes into water vapor without first
becoming liquid. This process requires approximately 680 calories of heat energy for
each gram of water converted.

Sublittoral - Refers to a zone of elevation between the low tide level at the shoreline
and the edge of the continental shelf at approximately 200
meters (650 feet) below sea level.

Submarine Canyon - V-shaped canyons found beneath the

ocean surface that are cut into the continental slope to a depth
of up to 1,200 meters (3,940 feet). These features are typically
associated with major streams that empty some where along
the edge of the continents. Shown is the submarine canyon
associated with the San Gabriel River, which flows across the

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Los Angeles, California region. Image Source: United States Geological Survey,
Wikimedia Commons.

Submerged Forest - A remanent dead forest that is submerged beneath a lake, ocean,
or some other water body. It occurs when some environmental factor causes water or
seawater to submerge a terrestrial area with forest cover rapidly. One common
human activity that can create submerge forests is a dam that creates a flooded
reservoir.

Submergent Coastline - An area along a coastline that has been influenced by a rise
in sea level because of isostasy or eustasy. Landscape features associated with
submergent coastlines include submerged stream valleys and fjords. Compare with
an emergent coastline.

Subpolar Glacier - A type of glacier where the ice found from its surface to its base
has a temperature as cold as -30°C (-22°F) throughout the year. This temperature is
well below the pressure melting point. However, melting does occur in the
accumulation zone in the summer. One of the three types of glaciers: cold glacier,
temperate glacier, and subpolar glacier.

Subpolar Lows - Surface zone of low atmospheric pressure located at about 60°
North and South latitude. These low pressure systems are produced by the frontal
lifting of subtropical air masses over polar air masses.

Subsea Permafrost - A form of permafrost that exists beneath the sea surface in
ocean sediments.

Subsequent Stream - A stream whose course was the outcome of headward erosion
into easily eroded rock strata.

Subsidence - The lowering or sinking of a portion of the Earth's terrestrial surface.

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Subsistence Hunting - Is a type of hunting where animals are killed for food
required for the hunter's survival. Compare with sport hunting, commercial hunting,
and poaching.

Subsolar Point - The location on the Earth where the Sun is directly overhead. Also
see declination.

Subtropical High Pressure Zone - An extensive region of surface atmospheric high

pressure located at about 30° North and South latitude. These high pressure systems
are produced by vertically descending air currents from the Hadley Cell.

Subtropical Jet Stream - Relatively fast uniform winds concentrated within the
upper atmosphere in a narrow band. The subtropical jet stream exists in the
subtropics at an altitude of approximately 13 kilometers (8.1 miles). This jet stream
flows from west to east and has a speed that is somewhat slower than the polar jet
stream. Also see jet stream.

Subvolcanic Rock - See hypabyssal rock.

Succession - See plant succession or ecological succession.

Succulent Vegetation - Group of plants that can survive in deserts and other dry
climates by having no leaves. Instead, the surface of their branches and stems are
used for photosynthesis. This adaptation reduces the surface area for evaporation,
thus reducing the loss of scarce water.

Suction - The movement of a fluid substance like air and water because of the
creation of a partial vacuum. For example, in the atmosphere, air flows into a region
when a low pressure is created.

Suffosion - An erosional process that creates areas of surface subsidence, usually in

areas with underlying limestone bedrock. It occurs when non-cohesive soil particles

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like silt are gradually washed downward
through the soil layer into fissures and cracks
in the subsurface bedrock. The diagram
describes how suffosion creates sinkholes on
the land surface. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons. This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.

Sugar - A type of simple carbohydrate chemically composed of carbon, oxygen, and

hydrogen.

Sulfation - Chemical reaction that occurs between sulfur oxides and calcium
carbonate in humid environments. Causes the conversion of calcium carbonate into
gypsum and carbon dioxide.

Sulfate Aerosol - Type of solid compound commonly found in the atmosphere.

These particles play an important role in reflecting, absorbing, and scattering
incoming insolation from the Sun. The source of these compounds is both natural
and human-made. Most of the human-made particles come from the combustion of
fossil fuels.

Sulfur Dioxide - A gas produced from volcanic eruptions, ocean spray, organic
matter decomposition, and the burning of fossil fuels. Sulfur dioxide is a component
in the creation of acid precipitation. This colorless gas has the chemical formula SO2.

Sulfur Oxides - This term refers to a number of chemical compounds containing

sulfur and oxygen, including sulfur oxide (SO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and sulfur
trioxide (SO3).

Sulfuric Acid - Acid with the chemical formula: H2SO4.

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Summer - The season between spring and fall. Astronomically it is the period from
the June Solstice to the September Equinox in the Northern Hemisphere and from
the December Solstice to the March Equinox in the Southern Hemisphere.

Summer Solstice - The summer solstice denotes the first day of the summer season.
For the Northern Hemisphere, the date of the summer solstice is either June 21 or 22
(changes yearly). December 21 or 22 is the date of the summer solstice for the
Southern Hemisphere. During the summer solstice, locations in their respective
hemispheres experience the longest day of the year.

Sun - The luminous star around which the Earth and other planets in our solar
system orbit around. The Sun is a large celestial body, having a diameter of about
1.39 million kilometers and a mass 109 times
greater than the Earth. Because of its high surface
temperature (5773 K or 5500°C), the Sun emits
63,000,000 Watts per square meter of
electromagnetic radiation out to space. The Sun is
mainly composed of hydrogen (73,5%) and
helium (24.9%). The Sun has an average distance
from the Earth of about 150 million kilometers (93
million miles). However, the Earth's orbit is not
circular but elliptical, and as a result, the Sun is
closest to the Earth on January 3 (perihelion) and
furtherest away on July 4 (aphelion). Shown is an
image of the Sun taken by NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory satellite on August 19, 2010 (Image Source: NASA).

Sunshine Recorder - See Campbell-Stokes Recorder.

Sunrise - Moment in time when the Sun's edge first appears above the Earth's
horizon.

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Sunset - The moment in time when the Sun's edge completely disappears below the
Earth's horizon.

Sunspot - Dark-colored region on the Sun that

represents an area of cooler temperatures and
extremely high magnetic fields. Shown are a group of
sunspots on a portion of the Sun image taken
September 24, 2011 (Image Source: NASA).

Supercluster - Are gravity-created aggregations of a large number of galaxy groups

located somewhere in the Universe. Superclusters are the largest know celestial
bodies in the Universe, with some having diameters of about 500 million light-years.

Supercooled Water - Cooling of water well below 0°C (32°F) without freezing.
Common in clouds where there is a deficiency of deposition nuclei.

Supercooling - Situation where a substance remains in a liquid state even though its
temperature is below the freezing point. Water droplets in stratus and cumulus
clouds are often supercooled to temperatures between 0°C and -40°C. This cloud
phenomenon occurs because deposition nuclei are in short supply. Deposition nuclei
are required for the formation of ice crystals in clouds.

Supereon - Longest unit in the geologic time scale. There is only one supereon - the
Precambrian. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for
more information on the geologic time scale.

Superimposed Drainage - Situation where a stream drainage pattern that developed

in the past on a different landscape environment is superimposed onto a new
landscape type because of weathering and erosion. Evidence for a superimposed
drainage system is the observation that the drainage pattern does not seem to be
properly hydrologically adjusted to the present landscape.

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Superimposed Ice - An ice accumulation process on the surface of a glacier that
occurs when meltwater refreezes. It is usually found between the equilibrium line
and the firn line on a glacier.

Supersaturation - Atmospheric condition where saturation occurs at a relative

humidity greater than 100% because of a shortage of deposition or condensation
nuclei.

Supporting Services - One of four benefits humans receive from ecosystems as

describe in the United Nation's Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. This service
suggests that humans can benefit from ecosystems because they support the creation
of cultural services, provisioning services, and regulating services. For example,
ecosystems make biomass, create oxygen in the atmosphere, are necessary for
nutrient cycling, and provide habitat for species. Compare with cultural services,
provisioning services, and regulating services.

Supraglacial - Refers to processes and conditions occurring within the body of a

glacier. Same as englacial. Compare with proglacial and subglacial.

Surface Air Temperature - In terms of meteorology and weather forecasting, this

term refers to the temperature of the air about 1.5 meters (4.5 feet) above the ground
surface, where it is routinely measured at weather stations on land surfaces.

Surface Creep - The sliding and rolling movement of soil particles on the Earth's
surface because of wind. Eolian process of soil particle movement.

Surface Heat Flux - Process where heat energy is transferred into land and ocean
surfaces on the Earth. Much of this transfer occurs when solar radiation absorbed at
the land or ocean surface is converted into heat energy. On land surfaces, surface
heat is transferred down into the ground by conduction. Heat energy is transferred
to greater depths in ocean surfaces because liquids have the ability to mix by
convection. Heat energy stored in ocean waters can also move quickly over large
horizontal distances in a poleward direction through ocean currents.

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Surface Storage - Refers to the stored accumulation of water on the ground surface
in the form of ponds, lakes, and other standing bodies of water. The term surface
storage is often applied to a defined drainage basin or, in general, to the concept of
the hydrologic cycle.

Surface Tension - The tension associated with a liquid's surface, caused by the forces
of attraction between molecules.

Surface Wave - Type of seismic wave that travels across the Earth's surface. These
earthquake-generated waves cause the Earth's surface to roll or sway like waves on
the ocean.

Surge - A large, destructive ocean wave caused by very low atmospheric pressure
and strong winds. Hurricanes are often the source of surges.

Surging Glacier - A glacier that is experiencing flow rates that are up to 100 times
faster than normal. This typically occurs as short-lived sporadic events. Stretches of
stagnation prior to the surging event can last from 10 to 200 years. Many glaciers in
Norway, the Canadian Arctic, Alaska, and Iceland are currently experiencing
surging, and some scientists have hypothesized that this is a response to climate
change and warmer temperatures.

Suspended Load - Portion of the stream load that is carried almost permanently
suspended in flowing water.

Suspension - The erosional movement of sediment continually being held in the

transport medium of air, water, or ice.

Sustainable Development - Forms of economic growth and other human activities

that meet the requirements of the present without jeopardizing the ability of future
generations of individuals to meet their own needs.

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Sustained Yield - A concept applied to renewable resources that suggests there is a
level of consumption that will not reduce the base quantity of the resource being
used. However, greater consumption levels will cause the base quantity of the
resource to decline as use exceeds the ability of the resource to replenish itself.

Swale - (1) Areas of low elevation on the uneven surface of a glacial moraine. (2)
Low elevation areas found in between beach ridges. (3) The low elevation zones in
between sand dune ridges.

Swamp - A type of wetland ecosystem where woody plants dominate. Compare

with marsh.

Swash - The thin sheet of water that moves up the beach face after a wave of water
breaks on the shore.

Swell - A relatively smooth ocean wave that travels some distance from its area of
generation.

Symbiosis - Is any biological interaction between two species that involves a close
living arrangement and is required for the survival of one or both of the engaged
species. This interaction may influence the physiological and reproductive fitness of
the species involved negatively, positively, or may have no effect. Biologists
recognize the following types of symbiotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism,
amensalism, and parasitism.

Symbiotic - Mutual relationship between two organisms which is necessary for

either to survive.

Symbiotic Mutualism - Mutualistic biotic interaction where the species interact

physically, and their relationship is biologically essential for survival. Compare with
non-symbiotic mutualism.

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Sympatric Speciation - The evolution of two or more new species that occupy the
same geographical area from a single ancestral species. Compare with allopatric
speciation.

Sympatry - Two or more things that occur in the same geographical area. This term
is often used by biologists concerning species or populations. Compare with
allopatry.

Syncline - Is a fold in rock layers that forms a trough-like

bend. Compare with anticline.

Synoptic Climatology - A subfield of climatology that examines the climate of

locations and regions in relation to large spatial scale analysis of atmospheric
properties and motions.

Synoptic Meteorology - A subfield of meteorology that examines the weather of

locations and regions in relationship to large spatial scale analysis of atmospheric
properties and motions.

Synoptic Scale - Scale of geographic coverage used on daily weather maps to

describe large-scale atmospheric phenomena (for example, mid-latitude cyclones, air
masses, fronts, and hurricanes).

System - A system is a set of interrelated components working through cause and

effect towards some kind of process or outcome.

System Attribute - A system attribute is the perceived character of a system element.

For example, number, size, color, volume, and temperature are characteristics of
clouds in the atmospheric system.

System Boundary - The outer edge of a system. The zone between one system and
another system.

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System Element - System elements are the kinds of things or substances found
within a system. These system elements may be atoms or molecules or larger bodies
of matter - sand grains, raindrops, the numerous plants in an ecosystem, or the
various planets and other celestial bodies found in our Solar System.

System Relationship - This is the association between the elements and attributes of
a system based on cause and effect.

System State - The current value of a system's elements, attributes, and/or

relationships.

Systems Theory - A field of academic study that considers phenomena (or systems)
as being a set of interrelated components working together towards some kind of
process.

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 T
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Taiga - See boreal forest.

Taku - Name for a katabatic type of cold wind that occurs in Alaska.

Talik - An unfrozen section of ground found above, below, or within a layer of

discontinuous permafrost. These layers can also be found beneath water bodies in a
layer of continuous permafrost. Several different types of talik have been
distinguished: closed talik, open talik, and through talik.

Talus - An accumulation of angular rock debris from rockfalls.

Talus Slope - A slope that is composed of talus.

Tarn - A small mountain lake that occurs inside a cirque basin.

Taxon - A classification category for a group of organisms related to each other

because of evolution.

Taxonomic Classification - A systematic classification of organisms based on

structural and physiological connections between other species.

Tectonic Plate - An extensive layer of lithosphere that moves as a discrete unit on the
surface of the Earth's asthenosphere.

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Tectonic Uplift - The lifting of the terrestrial surface in elevation because of geologic
processes associated with plate tectonics. For example, the creation of mountains
occurs when two plates collide with each other.

Tectonics - See plate tectonics.

Teleconnection - A causal linking of different atmospheric events and patterns that

are geographically separate from each other by great distances. For example, the
occurrence of El Niño is often associated with mild winters in the Pacific Northwest
of North America, heavy winter rains in California and Oregon, droughts in
Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, and India, flooding in southern Brazil and
northwest Peru, stronger than usual hurricane season in the eastern North Pacific,
and wet and cool winters in the southeastern USA.

Telescope - Scientific instrument used to better image objects that are a great
distance away from the viewer. The first telescopes invented used lenses and mirrors
to view remote objects by collecting, magnifying, and focussing electromagnetic
radiation in the visible light band. During the 20th century, scientists invented
additional types of telescopes that could use other forms of electromagnetic
radiation, including gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, radio waves, and
microwaves.

Temperate Climate Zone - Region on our planet found roughly between 30 to 60°
North and South latitude. This region is dominated by B, C, and D type climates
according to the Köppen Climate Classification system.

Temperate Deciduous Forest - Type of forested biome found in the mid-latitudes

that is dominated by deciduous trees and other vegetation. The amount of land
covered by temperate deciduous forests has been much reduced over the last 300
years. Most of this loss was caused by deforestation and the subsequent use of that
land to grow crops or support human settlement.

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Temperate Glacier - Glacier in which the ice found below 10 to 20 meters (33 to 66
feet) from its surface is at the pressure melting point. One of the three types of
glaciers: cold glacier, temperate glacier, and subpolar glacier.

Temperate Rain Forest - An ecosystem that is dominated by large and very tall
evergreen species of trees. One location of a temperate rain forest is along the Pacific
Northwest coast of North America, where annual precipitation is high and
temperatures are mild.

Temperature - Temperature is defined as the measure of the average speed of atoms

and molecules. The higher the temperature, the faster they move.

Temperature Humidity Index - See discomfort index.

Temperature Inversion - Situation where a layer of warmer air exists above the
Earth's surface in a typical atmosphere where air temperature decreases with
altitude. In the warmer layer of air, temperature increases with altitude.

Tensiometer - Scientific instrument used to measure the quantity of water available

in a soil. Tensiometers are commonly used by farmers for scheduling times for
irrigation.

Tephigram - Is a thermodynamic chart used for meteorological weather analysis and

forecasting, usually with data obtained from a radiosonde. Variables plotted on a
tephigram with altitude include air pressure, air temperature, humidity, and dew
point temperature. Meteorologists use tephigrams to forecast moisture levels, cloud
formation and cloud heights, atmospheric stability, maximum and minimum air
temperatures, and temperature inversion layers.

Tephra - The fragmented rock material ejected by a volcanic eruption. Also called
pyroclastic material.

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Tephrochronology - A geochronological technique that uses volcanic ash layers as
temporal markers for relative dating in paleoenvironmental and archaeological
studies. This technique relies on the fact that volcanic layers are chemically unique
and that these layers are often found over extensive geographical areas.

Terminal Fall Velocity - Velocity at which a particle being transported, by wind or

water, falls out of the moving medium. This velocity is dependent on the size of the
particle.

Terminal Moraine - A moraine that marks the maximum advance of a glacier.

Terminal Velocity - The maximum speed that can be achieved by a body falling
through a fluid like water or air.

Terminus - The end or snout of a glacier.

Terrace - An elevated terrestrial area above the existing level of a floodplain or

shoreline created by stream or ocean wave erosion.

Terrane - (1) The various dominant rock formations found in an area. Usually, an
identified terrane does not any show resemblance to spatially adjacent rock
formations along its boundary. (2) A group of related rock formations.

Terrestrial Magnetism - (1) The fact that Earth has a magnetic field and magnetic
properties. (2) A subfield of Geophysics that studies the Earth's magnetic field.

Territory (Animal) - A spatial region that an animal of a particular species protects

from other species or other members of its species. Some animals used scent marking
to establish the location of their territory. The purpose of a territory is related to
defending resources required to maximize fitness.

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Tertiary - A former term used to describe the geologic period roughly 2 to 65 million
years ago. The tertiary has been replaced by the Paleogene (65.5 to 23.0 million years
ago) and Neogene Periods (23.0 to 2.6 million years ago). See the International
Commission on Stratigraphy ([Link]) for the most recent version of the
geologic time scale.

Tertiary Consumer - Organisms that occupy the fourth trophic level in the grazing
food chain. These organisms are carnivores. Also known as a secondary carnivore.

Tethys Ocean - The tropical ocean basin that existed between the continental masses
of Gondwana and Laurasia from 250 and 65 million years ago.

Tetrahedron - Silicon atom joined by four oxygen atoms (SiO4). The atomic
properties of this molecule cause it to develop a unique three-dimensional crystal
lattice that is pyramid-shaped.

Texture - The relative quantities of the different types and sizes of mineral particles
in a deposit of sediment. Also see the related soil texture.

Thalweg - An imaginary line of the deepest water in a stream channel as seen from
above, normally associated with the zone of greatest velocity in a stream.

Thaw Lake - A lake that forms from the melting of ground ice in areas where
permafrost is common. Thaw lakes are common in northern Canada and Siberia.

Thematic Map - Map that displays the geographical distribution of one

phenomenon or the spatial associations that occur between several phenomena.
Compare with reference map.

Thematic Mapper - Remote sensing device found on Landsat satellites that scans
images in seven spectral bands from visible light to infrared radiation.

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Theory - A logically proposed explanation for the causal mechanisms responsible for
an observed phenomenon or a set of facts. Also see hypothesis.

Theory of Island Biogeography - Theory published in 1967 by R.H. MacArthur and

E.O. Wilson that proposed a mathematical model to explain the colonization,
establishment, and extinction of species on islands. This theory has been modified
and applied to problems in Conservation Biology.

Thermal - A rising mass of warmer and less dense air in the lower atmosphere.
Thermals commonly form by the localized solar heating of the ground surface. A
form of atmospheric convection.

Thermal Circulation - A type of air circulation caused by the heating and cooling of
air.

Thermal Conductivity - The ability of a substance to transfer heat energy through its
mass by conduction. Some substances with high thermal conductivity include
diamond, silver, copper, gold, aluminum, and iron. Conversely, some substances
with low thermal conductivity include gases like carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor,
nitrogen and oxygen, the air in the atmosphere, snow, foam, and fiberglass.

Thermal Depression - A temporary region of low atmospheric pressure created by

intense solar heating at the Earth's surface.

Thermal Efficiency Index - A relative measure of the effectiveness of temperature in

producing growth in plants. Calculated by adding for all months of the year (T -
32)/4, where T is mean monthly temperature in °F. Thornthwaite first used the term
in 1931. Abbreviated T-E index.

Thermal Equator - A narrow zone with the highest mean annual surface air
temperatures that circles our planet near the equator. On a daily basis, the location of
this zone migrates with changes in the Sun's inclination. Generally has the same

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geographic location as the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Also called the heat
equator.

Thermal High - Area of high pressure in the atmosphere caused by the area having
warmer temperatures relative to the air around it.

Thermal Infrared Radiation - A form of electromagnetic radiation with a

wavelength between 3 to 14 micrometers (µm).

Thermal Low - Area of low pressure in the atmosphere caused by the area having
cooler temperatures relative to the air around it.

Thermal Metamorphism - Is the metamorphic alteration of rock because of intense

heat released from processes related to plate tectonics.

Thermal Pollution - A form of pollution that involves an increase in the normal

temperature of water. Normally involves a sensitive aquatic ecosystem found in a
water body like a stream, pond, lake, or ocean. One common source of the heat
involved in this type of pollution is factories or power plants that use the water as a
coolant.

Thermal Wind - Is the wind shear caused by the horizontal temperature gradient
between two levels in a geostrophic wind.

Thermistor - Is a type of electrical resistor whose resistance to electricity varies

measurably with temperature. As a result, thermistors are used for temperature
sensors and self-regulating heating elements.

Thermocline - A thermally defined boundary in a body of water where the greatest

vertical change in temperature occurs. This boundary is usually the transition zone
between the layer of warm water (epilimnion) near the surface that is mixed, and the
cold deep water layer (hypolimnion).

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Thermocouple - A device widely used to measure temperature. Uses the electric
voltage produced at the junction of where different conductors or semiconductors
meet to determine temperature. Metals are often used for a conductor. Differences in
voltage are calibrated to the measured temperature.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium - This type of

equilibrium describes a condition in a system
where the distribution of mass and energy
moves towards maximum entropy.

Thermodynamic Laws - Laws that describe the physical processes, relationships,

and phenomena associated with heat.

Thermohaline Circulation - A large-scale system of ocean circulation that is

powered by changes in seawater density because of surface heating and inputs of
freshwater. This ocean circulation system operates in a closed loop that takes the
current from the ocean’s surface to great depths (see image - Image Source: NASA -
Wikimedia Commons). Formation zones of the current occurs in two locations: the
North Atlantic Ocean and the Southern Ocean. At these sites, high rates of
evaporation causing the seawater to become more saline and dense. This dense
seawater then begins to sink vertically like an underwater waterfall until the current
reaches the ocean floor. At the ocean floor, the current beings to move in a horizontal
direction to complete the loop.

Thermokarst - A type of landscape dominated by depressions, pits, and caves that is

created by the thawing of ground ice in high latitude locations. It resembles a karst
landscape but is not created by chemical weathering.

Thermoluminescence - A type of luminescence that occurs in some crystalline

minerals when they are subjected to heat. The crystalline mineral must have
previously absorbed energy from electromagnetic radiation or other ionizing
radiation for the luminescence to occur. This property has been used to date objects

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as one can quantify the relationship between the amount of light emitted and the
length of time the object has been absorbing radiation.

Thermometer - Device used to measure temperature. A variety of different devices

have been invented to measure temperature by converting some physical change
into a numerical value. Some of the methods employed in these devices include
thermal expansion of substances, pressure changes associated with substances, and
the measurement of electromagnetic radiation emission.

Thermopile - A series of multiple thermocouples designed to convert heat energy

into electrical energy. Often used to measure and monitor temperature.

Thermosphere - Atmospheric layer above the mesosphere (above 80 kilometers or 50

miles) characterized by air temperatures rising rapidly with height. The
thermosphere is the hottest layer in the atmosphere. In the thermosphere, gamma, X-
ray, and specific wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation are absorbed by certain gases in
the atmosphere. The absorbed radiation is then converted into heat energy.
Temperatures in this layer can be greater than 1,200°C (2,190°F).

Thiessen Polygon - A mathematical procedure for

partitioning the area surrounding some points located on a
two-dimensional surface (plane) into polygons. As shown
on the diagram, polygons are created by drawing a line
(colored black) that is equidistant and perpendicular to
another line (colored red) that connects adjacent points
located on the plane.

Third Law of Thermodynamics - This law states that if all the thermal motion of
atoms (kinetic energy) making up a substance could be removed, a state called
absolute zero would occur.

Tholoid - A volcanic cone found inside a volcanic crater or caldera volcano.

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Thornthwaite Climate Classification - A method for classifying the climates of
locations on the Earth developed by C.W. Thornthwaite in 1931 and revised in 1948.
This method is different from the Köppen Climate Classification system in that it
considers potential evapotranspiration as a variable in categorizing a location's
climate.

Threatened Species - A term used to describe the possible extinction risk of a

species. Normally, a threatened species is still plentiful in its natural range but is
likely to become endangered because of declining population numbers. Compare
with endangered species.

Threshold - Term used in systems theory that describes a situation where exceeding
a specific level of some phenomena or substance within a system causes a sudden or
rapid non-linear change in the way the system works.

Threshold Velocity - Velocity required to cause entrainment in the erosional agents

of wind, water, or ice. Threshold velocity is usually higher than the velocity required
for transport because of factors like particle cohesion. Also see critical entrainment
velocity.

Throughfall - Describes the process of precipitation passing through the plant

canopy. This process is controlled by factors like plant leaf and stem density,
precipitation type, precipitation intensity, and the duration of the precipitation event.
The amount of precipitation passing through varies greatly with vegetation type.

Throughflow - The roughly downward horizontal flow of water through soil,

sediment, or regolith. This type of subsurface water flow can have two outcomes: (1)
it can become part of the groundwater, or (2) it can return to the surface and enter a
stream, lake, or other water body. Throughflow is often considered a component of
interflow.

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Through Talik - Is a form of localized unfrozen ground (talik) in an area of
permafrost. It is open to the ground surface and the area of unfrozen ground beneath
it. However, permafrost is found along the sides of a through talik.

Thrust Fault - See reverse fault.

Thunder - The loud sound produced when lightning causes the rapid expansion of
the gases in the atmosphere along its path.

Thunderstorm - A storm that typically ranges in size from several kilometers

(several miles) to over 50 kilometers (30 miles) in
diameter created by the quick lifting of moist warm
air, which creates a cumulonimbus cloud.
Thunderstorms can occur in isolation as a single-
celled storm or as a multi-celled storm arranged in a
cluster or as a line of adjacent cells (called a squall
line) found along or ahead of a mid-latitude cyclone
cold front. Thunderstorms can have severe weather
associated with them, including: strong winds, hail,
lightning, tornadoes, thunder, and heavy rain.

Tidal Current - A regional or local scale ocean current that is created by the rise and
fall of a tide on the ocean surface. Also see ebb current and flood current.

Tidal Cycle - The cyclic change in the height of sea level or other bodies of water
surface caused by the gravitational attraction of the
Moon and Sun with the Earth's surface. One tidal
cycle takes approximately 24 hours and 52 minutes.

Tidal Flats - A flat area of clay, silt, and sand

deposits devoid of vegetation found in an estuary
that is repeatedly submerged and exposed to the
atmosphere by varying tidal levels (Image Source:

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Wikipedia Commons). This area is found adjacent to the tidal marsh at a lower
elevation. Also called a mudflat.

Tidal Marsh - A type of wetland found in areas influenced by tidal seawater

inundation. Most tidal marshes are limited in
distribution to middle and high latitudes. These
marshes can vary in salinity because of the
addition of freshwater from an associated stream.
Plant species that dominate in these ecosystems
include sedges and grasses. Shown is a tidal
marsh near the mouth of the Fraser River, British
Columbia, Canada.

Tidal Period - The time it takes for one tidal cycle.

Tidal Prism - (1) Refers to the volume of seawater between mean high tide and mean
low tide for an estuary, inlet, or other semi-enclosed area of ocean. (2) Volume of
seawater leaving an estuary, inlet, or other semi-enclosed area of ocean as the result
of an ebb tide.

Tidal Range - The vertical distance in sea level height between high tide and the
coming low tide.

Tidal Zone - Area along the coastline that is influenced by the rise and fall of tides.

Tide - The cyclical rise and fall of the surface of the oceans. Tides are caused by the
gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon on the Earth. Very large lakes can also
experience tides with variations in water levels measuring several centimeters
(inches). Also see low tide and high tide.

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Till - The sediment deposited directly by a glacier. The particles within this deposit
are quite varied in terms of size and have not been size sorted by the action of wind
or water.

Till Fabric - Refers to the arrangement, orientation, and textural characteristics of

particles found in the till. A quick analysis of particle orientation can be used to
approximate the direction the glacier ice traveled.

Till Plain - Extensive flat plain of till that forms when a sheet of ice becomes
detached from the main body of the glacier and melts in place, depositing the
sediments it once carried.

Tillite - A lithified sedimentary rock composed of an amalgamation of non-

weathered rock and glacial till.

Timberline - See tree line.

Time - A measurable period in which the processes of cause and effect occur
resulting in the function of a system. With time we can order the occurrence of
events from past to present and predict future events.

Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge - This meteorological instrument consists of a funnel

that directs falling rain into a small double-sided container that moves up and down
like a seesaw. After a set amount of precipitation collects, the seesaw tips emptying
the collected water in one side of the container, sending a signal to a remote device
that makes a recording. This device allows one to accurately determine how much
rain falls over time.

TIROS (Television and Infrared Observation Satellite) - Series of meteorological

satellites launched by the United States starting in 1960. The primary purpose behind
these satellites was to use a variety of remote sensing devices for weather
forecasting. TIROS program was very successful, providing the first accurate

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weather forecasts based on data gathered from space. TIROS began continuous
monitoring of the Earth's weather in 1962.

Tissue - A group of similar cells in a multicellular organism organized into a

structure that performs a specific purpose for its survival.

Tolerance Model of Succession - This model of plant succession suggests that the
change in plant species dominance over time is caused by competition for resources.
Later colonizing species can tolerate lower resource levels due to competition and
can grow to maturity in the presence of early species, eventually out competing
them.

Tolerance Range - The limits of tolerance a species has to an abiotic factor or

condition in the environment.

Tombolo - A coastal feature that forms when a

line of sand and/or gravel is deposited between
an island and the mainland. This feature is
above sea level for most of the time. Shown is a
tombolo connecting the mainland to the St.
Ninian's Isle (Image Source: Wikipedia Commons,
image is in the public domain).

Topographic Map - A map that displays topography and elevation through the use
of contour lines. The base elevation on topographic maps is usually sea level.

Topographic Profile - A two-dimensional diagram that describes the landscape in a

vertical cross-section.

Topography - (1) The vertical relief shown by a horizontal surface. (2) A subfield of
Earth Science and Space Science that studies the shape of the surface of the Earth and
other celestial objects.

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Toposequence - A succession of different soil types that occurs along a topographic
gradient. Differences between the dissimilar soils are caused by their particular
topographic position.

Topset Bed - A horizontal deltaic deposit composed of coarse alluvial sediment.

Represents the current or past surface of the delta.

Topsoil - The uppermost layer of a soil, usually the top 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8 inches).

Tornado - A vortex of rapidly moving air associated with some severe

thunderstorms. Within the tornado, funnel winds, can exceed 500 kilometers per
hour (310 miles per hour).

Tornado Alley - A popular term used to

describe a region in North America that
receives an extraordinarily high number
of tornadoes. This term has not been
defined explicitly by mainstream
meteorology or climatology science. One
definition of this term suggests the region
extends from north-central Texas northwards to
South Dakota and the southern edge of Minnesota (Image
Source: Wikipedia Commons, NOAA).

Tornado Warning - A warning issued to the public that an individual has observed a
tornado in a specified region. This warning can also be issued if meteorological
information indicates a high probability of a tornado developing in a specified
region.

Tornado Watch - A weather forecast issued to the public that a tornado may occur in
a specified region.

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Torrent - A very fast-moving and chaotic flow of water or volcanic lava.

Total Column Ozone - A measurement of ozone concentration in the Earth's

atmosphere, usually in Dobson
Units (DU). Total column ozone
measurements are used to monitor
the seasonal ozone holes that
develop over Antarctica and to a
lesser extent over the Arctic. Shown
is a measure of total column ozone
for July 28, 2015 using an
instrument on the Suomi NPP
satellite (Image Source: NASA).

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) - A measurement made to determine the quantity of

dissolved inorganic and organic substances in a sample of water. Two techniques are
used to measure total dissolved solids: gravimetry and conductivity. Gravimetry
involves evaporating the water and then measuring the mass of the solids that
remain. Conductivity measures the ionic content of the solution, usually from
electrical resistance.

Tower Karst - A spectacular karst landscape dominated by very tall column-shaped

hills with rounded tops.

Toxin - A potentially poisonous substance created within living cells or organisms.

Tracer - A substance added by scientists to the moving water found in some

component of the surface or subsurface hydrologic system and used to determine the
direction or rate of water transport.

Traction - Erosional movement of particles by rolling, sliding, and shuffling along

the eroded surface. Occurs in all erosional mediums involved in sediment transport
(air, water, and ice).

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Trade Winds - Surface winds that generally dominate air flow in the tropics. These
winds blow from about 30° North latitude (Subtropical High Pressure Zone) to the
equator (Intertropical Convergence Zone) and 30° South latitude (Subtropical High
Pressure Zone) to the equator (Intertropical Convergence Zone). Trade winds in the
Northern Hemisphere have northeast to southwest direction and are referred to as
the Northeast Trade Winds. Southern Hemisphere trade winds have southeast to
northwest direction but are called the Southeast Trade Winds.

Transform Fault - A massive strike-slip fault continental in size. Examples of

transform faults are found along tectonic plate boundaries and at the mid-oceanic
ridge.

Translational Slide - A type of mass movement where material

moves suddenly downslope along a flat plane (see image -
Image Source: USGS). This type of mass movement may move
material a considerable distance because of the lack of
rotational movement at the slide's rupture surface. Compare
with rotational slide.

Transmission (Atmospheric) - The process of solar radiation passing through the

atmosphere without being absorbed, reflected, or backscattered to space. The
amount of transmission occurring at any place and/or time is primarily controlled
by the presence of clouds and the density of particulate matter in the atmosphere.

Transparency - The ability a substance has to transmit light through itself.

Transpiration - Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through

stomata. Stomata are small openings found on the underside of leaves that are
connected to vascular plant tissues. Some dry environment plants can open and close
their stomata. Transpiration is a passive process largely controlled by the humidity
of the atmosphere and the moisture content of the soil. Of the transpired water
passing through a plant, only about 1% is used in the growth process. Transpiration

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also transports nutrients from the soil into the roots and carries them to the various
cells of the plant.

Transport - One of three distinct processes involved in erosion. It is the movement of

eroded material in the medium of air, water, or ice. Also see entrainment and
detachment.

Transverse Crevasse - A crevasse (large and deep fracture in the ice) on the brittle
surface of a glacier that runs perpendicular to the direction of ice flow. Form when
the glacier flows over a steeper elevational gradient.

Transverse Dune - A long and irregular sand dune that forms at right angles to the
wind direction. Form when there is an
abundant supply of sand and relatively
weak winds. These dunes have a single
long slip-face. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, artist Po ke Jung. This image is
licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Transverse Mercator Map Projection - A widely used mapping projection system

used in national and international mapping systems worldwide to depict areas no
more than a few degrees in east-west extent. This map projection system is an
adaptation of the Mercator Map Projection system.

Transverse Rib - A stream bedform feature that consists of a ridge of gravel and
pebbles that runs across the channel and perpendicular to water flow. Often
transverse ribs occur in a repetitive sequence and are evenly spaced. Found in high-
energy stream systems with shallow water flow.

Tree - A large woody plant with a trunk that extends some distance above the
ground surface, supporting branches and leaves.

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Tree Line - A transition zone between habitats that can support the growth of trees
and an adjacent area where tree growth is not supported by the environment. Also
called timber line or timberline.

Triassic - Geologic period that occurred roughly 208 to 245 million years ago. The
Triassic begins after the Permian-Triassic Extinction Event and, as a result, starts with
a depleted biosphere. During this period, the first dinosaurs appeared. One of three
periods during the Mesozoic. See the International Commission on Stratigraphy
([Link]) for the most recent version of the geologic time scale.

Tributary - A smaller branching stream channel that flows into the main stream
channel. The opposite of distributary.

Trophic Level - A level of organization found in the grazing food chain.

Trophic Pyramid - A graphic model that describes the distribution of energy,

biomass, or some other measurable quantity between the different trophic levels
found in an ecosystem.

Tropic of Cancer - Latitude of 23.5° North. The northern limit of the Sun's
declination.

Tropic of Capricorn - Latitude of 23.5° South. The southern limit of the Sun's
declination.

Tropical Broadleaf Forest - A form of tropical rain forest where the trees have dark
green broad leaves. These forests receive high quantities of rainfall throughout the
year and do not drop their leaves. Compare with tropical deciduous forest.

Tropical Climate Zone - Region on our planet found roughly between 0 to 30° North
and South latitude. This region is dominated by A and B type climates according to
the Köppen Climate Classification system.

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Tropical Cyclone - Another name for a hurricane.

Tropical Deciduous Forest - A form of tropical rain forest where the trees are
deciduous. These forests do experience seasonal droughts, and during this time, the
trees shed their leaves to reduce water loss. Compare with tropical broadleaf forest.

Tropical Depression - An organized group of thunderstorms often found over a

tropical ocean that generates a cyclonic flow of between 37 and 63 kilometers per
hour (23 to 38 miles per hour). This type of storm can develop into a hurricane.

Tropical Disturbance - An organized group of thunderstorms often found over a

tropical ocean that generates a slightly cyclonic flow of less than 37 kilometers (23
miles) per hour. Can develop into a hurricane.

Tropical Rain Forest - A forested biome found at and near the equator. Two major
types of tropical forest are found in this biome: tropical broadleaf forest and tropical
deciduous forest.

Tropical Savanna - See savanna.

Tropical Storm - An organized group of thunderstorms often found over a tropical

ocean that generates a cyclonic flow of between 64 and 118 kilometers per hour (39 to
73 miles per hour). Often develops into a hurricane.

Tropopause - The tropopause is a relatively thin atmospheric transition layer found

between the troposphere and the stratosphere. The height of this layer varies from 8
to 16 kilometers (5.0 to 10.0 miles) above the Earth's surface.

Troposphere - Layer in the atmosphere found from the surface to a height of

between 8 to 16 kilometers (5.0 to 10.0 miles) of altitude [average height 11
kilometers (6.8 miles)]. The troposphere is thinnest at poles and gradually increases
in thickness as one approaches the equator. This atmospheric layer contains about

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80% of the total mass of the atmosphere. It is also the layer where the majority of our
planet's weather occurs. Maximum air temperature occurs near the Earth's surface in
this layer. With increasing altitude, air temperature drops uniformly with increasing
height at an average rate of 6.5°C per 1,000 meters (3.6°F per 1,000 feet) (commonly
called the Environmental Lapse Rate), until an average temperature of -56.5°C
(-70°F) is reached at the top of the troposphere.

Trough - An elongated area of low pressure in the atmosphere.

True Dip - The actual direction of inclination of a geologic feature based on dip and
strike information. Compare with apparent dip.

True North - Direction to the North Pole from an observer on the Earth.

True South - Direction to the South Pole from an observer on the Earth.

Truncated Spur - An elevated ridge formed at the intersection of two valleys with
different base elevations because of
erosional truncation (see image). In
between, adjacent truncated spurs is a
hanging valley and an associated
waterfall. Shown is a Bridal Veil Falls in
Yosemite National Park. In this image,
truncated spurs are seen on either side of
the falls. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons,
photographed by Brocken Inaglory. This image
is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Tsunami - A large ocean wave created from an earthquake or volcanic eruption. The
wave height of a tsunami on the open ocean may be as high as 1 meter (3.3 feet).
When entering shallow coastal waters, the land configuration can amplify the height
of these waves to over 15 meters (49 feet).

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Tufa - Deposits of limestone formed by the
precipitation of carbonate minerals in water
bodies. Shown is an image of tufa deposits at
Mono Lake, California. Image Source: Wikimedia
Commons, photographed by Brocken Inaglory. This
image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Tuff - A type of sedimentary or igneous rock composed of volcanic ash that has
become compacted and individual particles cemented over time.

Tundra - A extensive high latitude biome dominated by a few species of dwarf

shrubs, a few grasses, sedges, lichens, and mosses. Biological productivity is low in
this biome because of the extremes of climate.

Tunnel Valley - A type of valley found in many regions of the world that were once
covered by continental glaciers. These valleys form specifically from erosion caused
by subglacial streams. These valleys can be quite long (up to 100 km or 60 mi), wide
(up to 400 m or 1,300 ft), and deep (up to 400 m or 1,300 ft). Tunnel valleys typically
are U-shaped.

Turbulence - A situation where the flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) exhibits chaotic
flow characteristics.

Turbulent Flow - A movement of water within a stream that occurs as discrete

eddies and vortices. Turbulent flow is caused by channel topography and friction.

Two-Tailed Statistical Test - Is an inferential statistical test where the values for the
rejection of the null hypothesis are located on either side of the center of a probability
distribution.

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Type Species - A single species that is commonly used to describe a much larger
group of related species that belong to a particular genus.

Typhoon - Another name used to describe a hurricane. This term is used most often
to specifically describe tropical storms occurring in the Indian Ocean and the
western Pacific Ocean.

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 U
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

U-Shaped Valley - A valley that has a U-shape rather than the typical V-shape. This
shape suggests the valley was created by erosion associated with a glacier.

Ultisols - Soil order (type) of the United States Natural Resources

Conservation Service Soil Classification System. Tropical or
subtropical soil that is in an advanced state of development. These
soils have pronounced eluviation, clay accumulation in a subsurface
layer, and are often poor in base cations. Also called ferrisols. Image
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Ultramafic - A rock that is rich in magnesium and iron content.

Ultramafic Magma - A type of magma that is relatively poor in silica (less than 45%)
but rich in magnesium and iron content. This type of magma solidifies to form dark-
colored igneous rocks rich in magnesium and iron but relatively poor in silica,
aluminum, and calcium. Ultramafic magmas are very hot (>1500°C), and current
conditions do not allow for the formation of ultramafic rocks on the Earth's surface.

Ultraviolet Radiation - Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.1

and 0.4 micrometers (µm).

Unconfined Aquifer - A type of aquifer that is not restricted by impervious layers of

rock.

Unconfined Groundwater - Groundwater that is not restricted by impervious layers

of rock.

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Unconformity - A break in the sequence of sedimentary strata. Often the
unconformity surface is the result of erosion.

Undercut Bank - Steep bank found on the inside of stream meanders. Under cut
banks are formed by the erosion that occurs when a stream channel moves
horizontally.

Underfit Stream - A type of misfit stream that is too small to be responsible for
eroding the valley that surrounds it. This type of stream is common in landscapes
where past glacial erosion processes are actually responsible for producing the
valley.

Underplating - A tectonic process associated with the subduction of an oceanic plate

underneath continental crust. This subduction causes the accumulation of partially
melted magma on the underside of the continental crust and just above the sinking
oceanic plate. The partially melted magma that accumulates is mafic or ultramafic in
chemical composition. Partial melting occurs because of the lowering of the melting
temperature of the rock from the input of water and other substances by the process
of subduction. Underplating helps explain the observation of mountain building and
volcano formation along the edge of many continental boundaries.

Uniclinal - Layers of rock strata that dip evenly in one direction.

Uniformitarianism - Is a theory that rejects the idea that catastrophic forces were
responsible for the current conditions on the Earth. The theory suggested instead
that continuing uniformity of existing processes was responsible for the present and
past conditions of this planet.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - Is a

United Nation's backed international environmental treaty (convention) negotiated
at the Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the
Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from June 3 to 14, 1992. The focus of this treaty
was to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at levels that would

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prevent hazardous anthropogenic modification of the Earth's climate system.
However, this convention is not legal and sets no mandatory limits on greenhouse
gas emissions for individual countries. This convention does provide for legally
binding ratified agreements called protocols, like the Kyoto Protocol, that could set
mandatory emission limits at the nation-state level. See the following website for
more information: [Link]

United States Natural Resources Conservation Service Soil Classification System -

A hierarchical system used in the United States to classify soils. This system has six
levels: order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family, and series. At the order level,
12 types of soils are recognized: gelisols, oxisols, aridsols, mollisols, alfisols, ultisols,
spodsols, entisols, inceptisols, vertisols, histosols, and andisols.

Universal Time (UT) - The mean solar time of the meridian at the Prime Meridian.
Universal Time replaced the time standard known as Greenwich Mean Time in 1928.
Universal Time is commonly used to denote solar time.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid System - A rectangular coordinate

system is commonly used on maps to find the location of points on the Earth's
surface. Based on the Transverse Mercator Map Projection system.

Universe - All of the observable things in the celestial cosmos.

Unloading - The releasing of downward pressure on rocks because of removal of

overlying material by erosion. Unloading can cause the development of horizontal
bedding in once solid rock.

Unstable Atmosphere - Condition in the atmosphere where isolated air parcels tend
to rise, because the parcels of air are warmer than the air that surrounds them.
Compare with neutral atmosphere and stable atmosphere.

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Unstable Equilibrium - In this type of equilibrium,
the system returns to a new measured system state
after a disturbance.

Updraft - Upward movement of a mass of air in the broader atmosphere. Compare

with downdraft.

Upper Air Westerlies - Consistently flowing winds that exist in the upper
troposphere and have a mostly west to east direction around our planet. The upper
air westerlies are normally found from about 20°N to the North Pole and 20°S to the
South Pole. The subtropical and polar jet streams are part of this wind system.

Upper Mantle - Layer of the Earth's interior extending from the base of the crust to
670 kilometers (415 miles) below the ground surface. Part of the Earth's mantle layer.
The upper mantle is composed of peridotite, an ultramafic magma primarily made
up of the minerals olivine and pyroxene. The top layer of the upper mantle, 100 to
350 kilometers (62 to 217 miles) below the surface, is called the asthenosphere.
Compare with lower mantle.

Upslope Fog - A type of fog produced by air flowing over topographic barriers. As
the air is forced to rise, it is cooled by adiabatic expansion. Upslope fog is most
common on the windward slopes of hills or mountains.

Upwelling - The movement of nutrient-rich deep seawater to the ocean's surface.

Ural Glacier - A type of small alpine glacier where its mass balance is supplied with
significant amounts of wind blow snow from adjacent locations. This added snow is
essential for maintaining the glacier.

Urban Area - Geographic area with a high density of people over a limited area.
Homes and other types of buildings tend to be close together. Urban systems also
tend to differentiate themselves spatially into particular types of human activities.

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Urban Heat Island - Climatological condition observed in some urban settlements
where the temperatures in the human-built area tend to be warmer than the
surrounding rural region.

Urbanization - Expansion of cities into rural regions because of population growth.

In most cases, population growth in urban areas is due to the movement of rural-
based people. This is especially true in Less Developed Countries.

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 V
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

V Notch Weir - A specific type of weir designed to measure stream discharge by

partially obstructing the normal flow of a stream. It is named for the V-shaped notch
found on the weir's length.

Vacuum - (1) A space that is devoid of atoms or molecules. (2) The removal of air
from a space.

Valley - A relatively long linear depression in the landscape that slopes down to a
stream, lake, or the ocean. Formed by water and/or ice erosion.

Valley Breeze - Local thermal circulation pattern found in areas of topographic relief.
In this circulation system, surface winds blow from the valley bottom to higher
elevation areas during the daytime.

Valley Fog - A type of fog formed by the movement of cooler, more dense air from
higher elevations to the warm valley bottom.

Valley Glacier - See alpine glacier.

Valley Train - A linear accumulation of glaciofluvial outwash sediments found in a

once glaciated valley. Also called gravel train.

Valley Wall - The side slope of a stream or glacial valley.

Vapor Pressure - The pressure exerted by water vapor molecules in a given quantity
of atmosphere.

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Variance - A statistical measure of the dispersion of observation values in a data set.
The variance of a sample is the sum of the square of each value in the data set
subtracted from the mean (average) divided by one less than the total number of
observations in the data set.

Varve - A thin yearly deposit of sediment found on the bottom of a lake. Within each
yearly varve, there are variations in the color and the texture of the material
deposited. The thickness of the varve and its associated layers can be used to
reconstruct past environmental conditions influencing the lake and its surrounding
environment.

Vascular Plant - A plant that has specialized vascular tissues used to transport water,
nutrients, and other metabolic products.

Velocity - The speed of movement of an object in one direction. An important

concept in physics.

Ventifact - A loose piece of rock that has been polished smooth by wind transported
particles. Common in arid environments.

Venturi Effect - The increase in the velocity of a fluid or gas due to the constriction of
flow.

Vernal Equinox - One of two days during the year when the declination of the Sun is
at the equator. The vernal equinox denotes the first day of the spring season. For the
Northern Hemisphere, the date of the vernal equinox is either March 20 or 21
(changes yearly). September 22 or 23 is the date of the vernal equinox in the
Southern Hemisphere. During the vernal equinox, all locations on the Earth (except
the poles) experience equal (12 hours) day and night.

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Vertebrates - Animals that have a backbone. Compare with invertebrates. See the
Encyclopedia of Life for more information on this group of organisms.
[Link]

Vertical Aerial Photograph - An aerial photograph taken from an overhead or near

overhead angle from a platform in the atmosphere.

Vertisols - (1) Soil order (type) of the United States Natural

Resources Conservation Service Soil Classification System. Tropical
or sub-tropical soil with a high clay content and base cation status.
Image Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2) Soil order (type) of
the Canadian System of Soil Classification. This soil has a high clay
content and exhibits the effects of extreme contraction-expansion
due to temporal changes in soil water content. For more
information on this soil type, see the textbook Canadian System of
Soil Classification, 3rd Edition available online - [Link]
cansis/taxa/cssc3/[Link].

Virga - Is rainfall from a cloud that evaporates or sublimates before it reaches the
ground surface.

Virus - Is a fragment of DNA or RNA that depends on the infection of host cells for
their reproduction. They are not cells. Viruses are thought to be parts of the genetic
code found in either eukaryote or prokaryote cells that can exist on their own. At
times viruses are metabolically inert and technically nonliving.

Viscosity - The amount of the resistance to flow in a fluid due to intermolecular

friction. Viscosity is measured with instruments called viscometers and rheometers.

Visible Light - A form of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to humans. There

are two common wavelength descriptions for this type of radiation. (1) This
radiation has a wavelength between 0.40 and 0.71 micrometers (µm). (2) This

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radiation has a wavelength between 0.39 and 0.74 micrometers (µm). Also called
luminous energy and radiant energy.

Void Ratio - A measure of void space in a substance. It is determined by finding the

ratio between the volume of void space divided by the volume of solid material. This
measurement is commonly used in Soil Science, Geology, and Engineering.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) - Organic molecules that are mainly

composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbons). The most common
volatile organic compound released into the atmosphere is methane. VOCs are
involved in the formation of photochemical smog.

Volatilization - The process where a solid or liquid substance is converted into a gas.

Volcanic Ash - Small-sized loose fragments of solidified lava expelled from a

volcanic crater during a volcanic eruption.

Volcanic Cone - A cone-shaped hill formed by volcanoes. Volcanic cones are created
by the deposition of material (lava, tephra, and volcanic ash) released by a volcanic
vent or many vents. These features vary significantly in size from a few meters (10 to
15 feet) tall to a height of over 8 kilometers (5 miles). The tallest and largest volcanic
cones are built mainly from fluid lava flows.

Volcanic Crater - A circular depression associated with volcanoes and found usually
at the center of a volcanic cone. These features vary greatly in size. Inside the
volcanic crater is one or many volcanic vents which can release lava, tephra, and
volcanic ash.

Volcanic Eruption - An event where lava, tephra, and volcanic ash, and/or gases are
released or ejected from a volcanic vent or fissure.

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Volcanic Fissure - A linear opening on a volcano through which lava and/or gases
are released.

Volcanic Neck - A pipe-like mass of solidified lava (dyke) often associated with a
volcano that reaches the surface of the Earth. Volcanic necks are significantly longer
and larger than a volcanic pipe and involved that transport of magma from the
mantle. Compare with volcanic pipe.

Volcanic Pipe - A relatively narrow pipe-like mass of solidified lava (dyke) often
associated with a volcano that reaches the surface of the Earth. Compare with
volcanic neck.

Volcanic Vent - An opening on a volcano through which lava, tephra, ash, and/or
gases are released or ejected. Also called a chimney.

Volcanism - A process or a thing that is related to a volcano.

Volcano - An elevated area of land created from the release of lava and ejection of
volcanic ash and rock fragments from and volcanic vent. For a volcano to form,
magma must be generated and then it needs to migrate upward through the crust to
the Earth's surface. Geologic factors that can cause this process include subduction
zones, continental rift zones, mid-oceanic ridges, and hot spots.

Volatilization - The process where a solid or liquid substance is converted into a gas.

Volume - The occupation of space in three dimensions. Volume is normally

measured in cubic units.

Vortex - A rapid spiralling motion of air or liquid around a center of rotation.

Vugh - A hollow in a rock that is has a surface covered with precipitated minerals.

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Vulcanism - See volcanism.

Vulnerable - One of the categories used by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature's (IUCN) Red List to describe the status of a species. This category suggests
the species has been evaluated to have a high risk of becoming extinct in the wild.

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 W
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Wallace's Line - A boundary that exists

between Asia and Australia related to the
geographical distribution of animal and
plant species originating from the two
areas. The geographical distribution of
most species from each area is limited to
either side of Wallace's line. This
relationship is strong for most animal
species. Many exceptions exist for plant
species. First suggested by Alfred Russel
Wallace in 1859.

Wallace's Realms - The division of the terrestrial surface of the Earth into six
geographical regions (Nearctic, Neotropic, Afrotropic, Paletropic, Indomalaya, and
Australasia) that are the result of geologic processes and that share species with a
similar evolutionary history. It was first proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1876.
Wallace's work has been updated and improved over the years and is now referred
to as faunal realms. The concept of faunal realms has recently been updated by a
study (2013) that analyzed the geographical distributions and phylogenetic
relationships of 21,037 species of amphibians, birds, and mammals. In this work,
eleven zoogeographical realms were recognized. See [Link]
content/339/6115/[Link]

Warm Desert - A type of desert found in the subtropics or interiors of continents at

the mid-latitudes where precipitation is low, and surface air temperatures can
become extremely hot.

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Warm Front - A transition zone in the
atmosphere where an advancing
warm air mass displaces a cold air
mass. A wide band of cloud
development and light precipitation
usually occurs ahead of the front.
Compare with a cold front and an
occluded front. Warm fronts are
associated with mid-latitude cyclones.

Warm Low - A cyclonic low pressure system that has a central pool of warm air that
extends upward from the ground surface. Also called warm-core low or a warm-core
cyclone. Compare with cold low.

Warm Sector - Is the area found in between the cold front and warm front of a mid-
latitude cyclone. The leading edge of this air forms the warm front. Winds in this
region are generally from south to southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from
the north to the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.

Warping - The deformation of the Earth's crust without the occurrence of folding
and faulting.

Wash - (1) Coarse alluvial sediments. (2) The downslope movement of small particles
of soil by overland flow. Also called sheetwash. (3) A term used in the United States
for a shallow intermittent stream channel found in arid and semi-arid regions.

Washboard Moraine - A landform feature created by glaciers that consists of a series

of successive ridges composed of till that are several meters (feet) tall. The ridges run
at right angles to the direction of glacial ice movement.

Water Balance - An equation or table that accounts for the various components of
water inputs, outputs, and storage for a location or region over an interval of time.
Some of the common components parametrized in a water balance include

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precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, runoff, soil moisture, groundwater, and
groundwater flow.

Water Consumption - The complete removal of water from some source, like
groundwater, for use by humans. This water is not returned to the source. Compare
with water withdrawal.

Water Mass - A region of water found within an ocean with similar temperature,
density, salinity, and other physical and chemical characteristics.

Water Table - The top surface of groundwater.

Water Withdrawal - The removal of water from some type of source, like
groundwater, for some use by humans. This type of water is subsequently returned
after it is used. Often the condition of the returned water is not the same as when it
was originally removed. Returned water may be changed in terms of temperature or
chemical quality. Compare with water consumption.

Waterfall - (1) A location in the long profile of a stream where water flows vertically.
A nickpoint. (2) A drop in elevation that causes a stream's discharge to flow
vertically.

Watershed - (1) In Canada and the USA, this term often means drainage basin. (2) In
the United Kingdom, this phrase describes the elevational boundary between
adjacent drainage basins (see drainage divide).

Waterspout - A vortex of rapidly moving

air that forms over a body of water and is
associated with a strong updraft created by
a thunderstorm. Waterspouts have the
following differences when compared to
their land counterparts the tornado: 1) they

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tend to form mainly in the tropics and subtropics; 2) they are weaker in terms of
wind speed; and 3) they can form even under a simple cumulus type cloud. Shown
are several waterspouts that formed over Lake Huron on September 9th, 1999 (Image
Source: Wikipedia, NOAA).

Watt (W) - A metric unit of power measurement. This unit is defined as one joule per
second and is used to measure energy transfer or conversion. Often used to measure
the intensity of electromagnetic radiation over a two-dimensional surface. A surface
area of one square meter is commonly used for this measurement (W/m2 or Wm-2).

Wave - (1) A moving swell or ridge on a solid or liquid surface or within the medium
of a gas. (2) A periodic disturbance of particles found in a substance that occurs
without any net movement of the particles. For example, the movement of sound
waves. (3) A pattern of travel exhibited in electromagnetic radiation.

Wave Action - The energy and force imparted by the motion of waves.

Wave Clouds - A type of repetitive cloud pattern that

forms on the lee side of some large topographical
obstructions to airflow. Their formation is caused by
the formation of an oscillating internal wave in the
flow of the atmosphere. Shown is an image of wave
clouds over the Tadrart region, southeast Algeria.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photo by Pir6mon.
This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Wave Crest - The curved tops or ridges of an oscillating wave.

Wave Cut Notch - A rock recess at the foot of a sea cliff where the energy of water
waves is concentrated.

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Wave Cut Platform - A flat or slightly sloping bedrock surface that forms in the tidal
zone. This feature is produced by wave erosion. Also called shore platform.

Wave Cyclone - See mid-latitude cyclone.

Wave Height - Vertical distance between a wave's trough and crest.

Wave Period - The time elapsed for a wave to travel the distance of one wavelength.

Wave Refraction - The re-orientation of a wave so that it approaches a shoreline at a

more perpendicular angle. This process is caused by the differential reduction of
water depth as a linear wave approaches a curved shoreline. A reduction in water
depth causes the waves to slow down, which in turn results in the waves
approaching a nonlinear shoreline to bend with the shore's shape.

Wave Trough - Area in between wave crests.

Wavelength - Distance between two successive wave crests or troughs.

Weather - The state of the atmosphere as measured by meteorological variables and

observed atmospheric phenomena for a particular place or region, for a moment or
period in time.

Weather Forecast - The science of predicting the future state of the weather for a
particular place or region, for a moment or period in time. Today, this task is
accomplished using measurements at weather stations, satellite and radar imagery,
and the use of advanced mathematical models that simulate the processes operating
in the Earth's climate with sophisticated computers.

Weather Map - A type of map that displays the condition of the physical state of the
atmosphere and its circulation at a specific time over a region of the Earth. Weather
maps can display the values of many standard meteorological variables measured at

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weather stations. Shown is a portion of a weather
map for the time 00Z on November 11, 2014 for
western Canada (Image Source: Environment Canada).

Weather Station - A facility stocked with

meteorological instruments and data recording
equipment used to measure and monitor weather
and climate conditions in the atmosphere. Many
weather stations belong to a network of facilities
located across the area of a country, and the data they collected is used in local,
regional and international weather forecasting. Typical instruments found at a
weather station include a maximum thermometer, minimum thermometer,
barometer, hygrometer, anemometer, and a standard rain gauge.

Weather Station Buoy - Portable weather station that floats

on the ocean surface and records weather and climate data
(Image Source: NOAA). Some of the weather factors measured
include air temperature above the ocean surface, air
pressure, wind direction, and wind speed. They may also
measure ocean surface temperature (up to a depth of 3
meters or 9.8 feet), wave period, and wave height. Data
collected by these weather stations is transmitted by radio,
cellular, or satellite transmissions to land-based receiving
stations.

Weathering - The physical, chemical, or biological breakdown of rocks and minerals

into smaller-sized particles.

Weathering Landform - A type of common landform created by the physical or

chemical decomposition of rock through weathering. Weathering produces
landforms where rocks and sediments are decomposed and disintegrated. This
includes landforms with some of the following geomorphic features: karst, patterned
ground, and soil profiles.

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Weathering Rind - A chemically altered surface zone found on usually a discrete
piece of rock formed by weathering. Sometimes this zone will have a different color
from the rock's interior mass.

Weight - A measure of the force of gravity acting on an object with mass.

Weir - A human-made barrier placed across a stream for the

purpose of modifying its water flow characteristics. Changes in
flow characteristics are done to lessen flooding, create reservoirs
of water, and improve boat navigation. Shown is a weir located in
Thorp, Washington, USA. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photo
by A. Balet. This image is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Well - A vertical hole humans bore into the ground to access groundwater.

Westerlies - Dominant surface winds of the mid-latitudes. These winds move from
the subtropical highs to the subpolar lows from west to east.

Western Boundary Current - A boundary ocean current found along the eastern
margin of Earth's major continental masses. Subtropical western boundary currents
flow from the mid-latitudes to the equator and transport relatively warm seawater.
Examples of such currents include the Gulf Stream and Brazil Current. Polar western
boundary currents flow from the mid-latitudes to one of the poles and transport
relatively cold seawater. Compare with eastern boundary current.

Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate - See saturated adiabatic lapse rate.

Wet Deposition - The transport of gases and minute liquid and solid particles from
the atmosphere to the ground surface with the aid of precipitation or fog. Compare
with dry deposition.

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Wet-Bulb Depression - The value calculated by subtracting a wet-bulb thermometer
reading from a dry-bulb thermometer reading. Used to determine the air's relative
humidity or dew point from a psychrometric table.

Wet-Bulb Thermometer - One of two thermometers on a sling psychrometer that has

a moistened cotton wick on its reservoir bulb. When ventilated, this thermometer
records a temperature that is modified by the cooling effects of evaporation. This
measurement and the temperature reading from a dry-bulb thermometer are then
used to determine the air's relative humidity or dew point from a psychrometric
table.

Wetland - A common natural land-cover type that is covered by seawater or

freshwater for some time. This land type can be identified by the presence of
particular plant species or characteristic conditions.

Wetted Perimeter - The total distance from one bank along the stream bed to the
opposite bank that is in contact with water held in the stream channel.

Wetting and Drying - Physical weathering process where rocks are mechanically
disintegrated by accumulating successive layers of water molecules in between the
mineral grains of a rock. Sometimes called slaking.

Wetting Front - A zone within a soil saturated with water, and where the water
originated from surface infiltration input after a precipitation event. Wetting fronts
are mobile and generally move downward in the soil profile with the passage of
time.

Whirlpool - Describes a vortex of water or air

rotating inward to some central point. This term is
often applied to vortices that develop in water
bodies. In water bodies, whirlpools are often
formed by the meeting of two currents flowing in
opposite directions or by water flowing in a

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downward direction into some space that is causing flow. Shown is a whirlpool that
developed in a pond. Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, photo by Daniel Gran. This
image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Wien's Law - This radiation law suggests that the wavelength of maximum emission
of a body is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature. The following
equation mathematically describes this law:

λmax = C/T
where λmax is the body's maximum emitted wavelength of radiation in micrometers
(µm), C is a constant equal to 0.2897, and T is the body’s temperature in Kelvins.

Wilderness - A term that refers to a place or region on our planet that has not been
obviously altered by human activity.

Wilting Point - The point at which the rate of water leaving a plant's leaves is greater
than the water uptake by the roots. At this point, the plant will fail to recover its
turgidity.

Wind - A mass of air moving horizontally and/or vertically.

Wind Chill - The

human perceived
decrease in air
temperature due to the
effects of wind. Wind
chill is always colder
than the actual
temperature and is
calculated in several
different ways. All of
these methods assume

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that wind removes heat from a body. Shown is a wind chill chart in degrees
Fahrenheit produced by NOAA (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, image is in the
public domain).

Wind Direction - The direction from which a wind blows. Wind direction is usually
measured in cardinal and intercardinal directions or degrees azimuth.

Wind Gust - A sudden and brief increase in wind speed.

Wind Ripples - Wind ripples are miniature sand dunes between 50 millimeters (2.0
inches) and 2 meters (6.6 feet) in length and 1 to 50 millimeters (0.04 to 2.0 inches) in
height. They are created by saltation when the sand grains are of similar size, and the
wind has a constant speed. Also called sand ripples.

Wind Rose - A type of graph used by meteorologists and climatologists to quantify

wind direction patterns and wind speed
for a specific location. The graph consists
of a series of different-sized circles aligned
to a central point. The distance between
circles is used for proportional or absolute
measurement (see figure). Bars extending
from the center represent a direction being
measured. Shown is a wind rose
measuring wind speed for LaGuardia
Airport, New York, New York, USA. Image
Source: Wikimedia Commons, created by
BREEZE Software. This image is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

Wind Shadow - The area located downwind of an object that can block and modify
wind flow. Humans have used this fact to reduce erosion caused by wind. In
agricultural settings, hedgerows and rows of trees have been used as a windbreak to
protect soil from the erosive effect of prevailing winds.

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Wind Shear - Is a significant horizontal and/or vertical variation in wind speed
and/or direction over a distance. The distance over which wind shear can occur
varies from a few meters (feet) to many kilometers (miles). Some common locations
in the atmosphere where wind shear occurs include air mass fronts, jet streams,
mountains, temperature inversions, and thunderstorms. Also called wind gradient.

Wind Speed - The speed at which a wind is blowing. Wind speed is usually
measured in meters per second, kilometers per hour, feet per second, or miles per
hour.

Wind Vane - A mechanical device used to measure the direction of wind flow. It
usually consists of a horizontal bar with a fin at one end and an aerodynamic pointer
at the other end. The center of the horizontal bar is attached to a vertical spindle
which is connected to a mechanical device that records direction.

Windstorm - A surface disturbance or storm in the atmosphere that generates fast

moving winds, usually with little or no precipitation.

Windward - The upwind side of an object or the side directly influenced by the
direction of wind flow. The opposite of leeward.

Winter - The season between fall and spring. Astronomically it is the period from the
December Solstice to the March Equinox in the Northern Hemisphere and from the
June Solstice to the September Equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. The season
between fall and spring. Astronomically it is the period from the winter solstice to
the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere.

Winter Solstice - The winter solstice denotes the first day of the winter season. For
the Northern Hemisphere, the date of the winter solstice is either December 21 or 22
(changes yearly). June 21 or 22 is the date of the winter solstice in the Southern
Hemisphere. During the winter solstice, locations in their respective hemispheres
experience the shortest day of the year.

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Work - In physics, work in its most simplistic sense occurs when a force acts on a
body, causing it to be displaced in the same direction of the applied force.

Wrench Fault - A type of strike-slip fault where the fault surface is vertical, and the
fault blocks are traveling past each other.

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 X
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

X-axis - The horizontal axis on a graph.

X-Ray Radiation - A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between

0.03 to 30 nanometers.

Xenolith - A rock that has become embedded in another rock when it was magma.

Xerophyte - A plant that has adaptations to survive prolong periods of drought.

Xerosphere - Places and regions on the Earth that are deficient in water. Plants and
animals found in these regions have evolutionary adaptations to survive drought.

Xylem - A type of specialized tissue found in vascular plants used to quickly and
efficiently transport water and mineral nutrients.

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 Y
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Y-axis - Vertical axis on a graph.

Yardang - A rock that has developed a streamlined form because of wind erosion.
The long axis of these features is aligned with the dominant wind direction.

Yazoo Tributary - Small tributary channel that is prevented from joining the main
stream channel by the presence of levees. Yazoo tributaries tend to flow on the
floodplain parallel to the main stream channel.

Younger-Dryas - A cold period during the generally mild Holocene Epoch that
occurred from about 10,000 - 8,500 BC. Scientists speculate that this cooling may
have been caused by the relatively rapid release of freshwater trapped behind ice on
North America into the North Atlantic Ocean.

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 Z
Glossary of Terms for
Physical Geography and Earth Science

Zenith - The imaginary point on the dome-shaped sky that is directly above a place
on the Earth's ground surface.

Zibar - A type of sand dune that has a low profile and a poorly formed slip face.
These features seem to be associated with sand that has a coarse texture.

Zonal - The movement of wind or ocean waters in a direction roughly parallel to the
lines of latitude.

Zonal Circulation - Any circulation of the atmosphere or ocean that is roughly

parallel to the lines of latitude.

Zonal Index - The strength of the surface westerlies and connected upper air
geostrophic wind as measured by determining the surface atmospheric pressure
difference between 35° and 55° N latitude. A zonal index of over 8 millibars indicates
a strong westerly component in the direction of the geostrophic wind. A zonal index
of less than 3 millibars produces a weak geostrophic wind that wants to flow
meridionally. See index cycle.

Zonal Soil - A soil that has developed its particular characteristics primarily from the
pedogenic influence of climate and vegetation. Compare with azonal soil and
intrazonal soil.

Zonation - A term frequently used in Physical Geography to describe a pattern in

some phenomenon that occurs in regions correlated to another environmental
variable. For example, a zonal distribution pattern is often seen in plant communities
that occur along an altitudinal gradient

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Zone of Ablation - The area on a glacier where ice losses from melting, evaporation,
and sublimation exceed additions of snow annually. The zone of ablation is often
defined by elevation because of the fact that air temperature decreases with height.

Zone of Accumulation - The area on a glacier where additions of snow exceed losses
of ice from melting, evaporation, and sublimation. The zone of accumulation is often
defined by elevation because of the fact that air temperature decreases with height.

Zone of Aeration - Horizontal zone that extends from the top of the water table to
the ground surface. Soil and rock pore spaces in this zone may and may not store
water. In this zone, water entering the ground surface percolates downward by
gravitational forces and temporarily fills soil pore space. Water leaves the pore space
in this zone when gravity moves it into the zone of saturation, by plant root water
consumption and transpiration, and by evaporation from the soil surface. Also called
aeration zone.

Zone of Saturation - Groundwater zone within the Earth's bedrock where all
available pores spaces are filled by water. Found beneath the water table. Also called
the saturation zone.

Zoogeography - The scientific study of animals in relation to geography.

Zoogeography examines the spatial distribution of animals over the Earth's surface.

Zooplankton - Small heterotrophic organisms found

inhabiting aquatic ecosystems. Shown is a copepod with
eggs (Image Source: NOAA). Also see Also see plankton
and phytoplankton.

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