SEPTEMBER 2024
NEURODIVERSITY:
A GUIDE FOR TEACHERS
Written By: Vitória Teixeira Alves
Introduction
Neurodiversity encompasses the understanding and acknowledgment that
not all brains function identically. Much of our world is designed around a
typical cognitive framework, catering primarily to individuals who think in
conventional ways. However, it is essential to recognize that we all think, learn,
and experience emotions differently, and such variations are entirely normal.
These differences are sometimes categorized under specific labels, such as
ADHD or Autism. Embracing the concept of neurodiversity means not only
recognizing and respecting these distinctions but also appreciating the
unique advantages that individuals with learning and cognitive differences
can bring. Acknowledging and respecting these differences can help mitigate
stigma and empower individuals to cultivate their distinctive strengths and
capabilities.
The interplay of ability and disability must be viewed within a social context,
particularly within educational systems, which can inadvertently transform a
difference into a disability or disadvantage when such distinctions need not
exist.
Unfortunately, many educational systems are not designed to accommodate
cognitive or learning differences; instead, they often target a 'prototypical'
student. Consequently, neurodivergent students frequently find themselves
outside this prototype. An inclusive approach that redefines learning and
achievement is vital to support their educational journey.
In discussing neurodiversity, one must consider strengths, differences, and
challenges, with success metrics adjusted accordingly. Neurodivergent
individuals may possess skills that are particularly advantageous for post-
secondary education, such as strong memory capabilities, attention to detail,
creativity, and a fervent desire for accurate knowledge. Since neurodivergent
conditions present with considerable heterogeneity, coping mechanisms and
skills vary widely among individuals. Despite having the potential to leverage
these unique skills, neurodivergent students often face heightened risks of
academic and personal challenges due to unmet social and academic
needs, which can hinder their ability to realize their full potential.
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It is evident that a comprehensive understanding of neurodiversity is
essential for effectively supporting neurodivergent students within the
classroom.
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) can significantly influence emotions,
learning capabilities, and memory. Although diagnoses of NDD have been on
the rise, there remain inquiries regarding whether this increase is attributable
to heightened awareness and improved diagnostic practices or reflects a
genuine rise in prevalence. One method for tracking these trends is through
the consumption of medications specific to certain disorders. For instance,
the use of methylphenidate, a medication for ADHD, has seen a dramatic
surge in several countries over the past two decades.
Countries such as Canada, Iceland, and the United States report some of the
highest consumption rates in recent years, followed closely by Denmark, the
Netherlands, and Sweden (INCB, 2017).
Memory is intrinsically linked to the learning process, and its functioning can
significantly influence the effectiveness of learning.
There are three areas of the brain involved in explicit memory; the
hippocampus, the neo-cortex and the amygdala.
The hippocampus, located in the brain's temporal lobe, is where episodic
memories are formed and indexed for later access. Episodic memories are
autobiographical memories from specific events in our lives, like the coffee
we had with a friend last week.
In 1953, a patient named Henry Molaison had his hippocampus surgically
removed during an operation in the United States to treat his epilepsy. His
epilepsy was cured, and Molaison lived a further 55 healthy years. However,
after the surgery he was only able to form episodic memories that lasted a
matter of minutes; he was completely unable to permanently store new
information.
As a result, Molaison’s memory became mostly limited to events that
occurred years before his surgery, in the distant past. He was, however, still
able to improve his performance on various motor tasks, even though he had
no memory of ever encountering or practising them. This indicated that
although the hippocampus is crucial for laying down memories, it is not the
site of permanent memory storage and isn’t needed for motor memories. The
study of Henry Molaison was revolutionary because it showed that multiple
types of memory existed. We now know that rather than relying on the
hippocampus, implicit motor learning occurs in other brain areas – the basal
ganglia and cerebellum. 2
The neocortex is the largest part of the cerebral cortex, the sheet of neural
tissue that forms the outside surface of the brain, distinctive in higher
mammals for its wrinkly appearance. In humans, the neocortex is involved in
higher functions such as sensory perception, generation of motor commands,
spatial reasoning and language. Over time, information from certain
memories that are temporarily stored in the hippocampus can be transferred
to the neocortex as general knowledge – things like knowing that coffee
provides a pick-me-up. Researchers think this transfer from hippocampus to
neocortex happens as we sleep.
The amygdala, an almond-shaped structure in the brain’s temporal lobe,
attaches emotional significance to memories. This is particularly important
because strong emotional memories (e.g. those associated with shame, joy,
love or grief) are difficult to forget. The permanence of these memories
suggests that interactions between the amygdala, hippocampus and
neocortex are crucial in determining the ‘stability’ of a memory – that is, how
effectively it is retained over time.
There's an additional aspect to the amygdala’s involvement in memory. The
amygdala doesn't just modify the strength and emotional content of
memories; it also plays a key role in forming new memories specifically
related to fear. Fearful memories are able to be formed after only a few
repetitions. This makes ‘fear learning’ a popular way to investigate the
mechanisms of memory formation, consolidation and recall. Understanding
how the amygdala processes fear is important because of its relevance to
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which affects many of our veterans as
well as police, paramedics and others exposed to trauma. Anxiety in learning
situations is also likely to involve the amygdala, and may lead to avoidance
of particularly challenging or stressful tasks.
QBI researchers including Professor Pankaj Sah and Dr Timothy Bredy believe
that understanding how fear memories are formed in the amygdala may
help in treating conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder.
It's also known that there are other types of memory such as implicit memory,
which involves the basal ganglia and the cerebellum.
The basal ganglia are structures lying deep within the brain and are involved
in a wide range of processes such as emotion, reward processing, habit
formation, movement and learning. They are particularly involved in co-
ordinating sequences of motor activity, as would be needed when playing a
musical instrument, dancing or playing basketball. The basal ganglia are the
regions most affected by Parkinson’s disease. This is evident in the impaired
movements of Parkinson’s patients. 3
The cerebellum, a separate structure located at the rear base of the brain, is
most important in fine motor control, the type that allows us to use chopsticks
or press that piano key a fraction more softly. A well-studied example of
cerebellar motor learning is the vestibulo-ocular reflex, which lets us maintain
our gaze on a location as we rotate our heads.
And lastly, we have the working memory that takes place in the prefrontal
cortex
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the part of the neocortex that sits at the very
front of the brain. It is the most recent addition to the mammalian brain, and
is involved in many complex cognitive functions. Human neuroimaging
studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines show that when
people perform tasks requiring them to hold information in their short-term
memory, such as the location of a flash of light, the PFC becomes active.
There also seems to be a functional separation between left and right sides of
the PFC: the left is more involved in verbal working memory while the right is
more active in spatial working memory, such as remembering where the
flash of light occurred.
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A disability can be understood as a mismatch between an individual
and their environment. This perspective makes the term "disability" not
only more accurate but also instrumental in enhancing our ability to
support students effectively. Recognizing that a student's needs may
not align with their environment allows us to concentrate on a
constructive solution: modifying the environment itself. This concept is
at the core of accessibility, which aims to rectify such mismatches.
Recent advancements in brain imaging techniques, including
electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET),
and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), have significantly
enhanced our understanding of the brain. These technologies allow us
to investigate the neural processes underlying learning, memory,
cognition, emotions, social behavior, and even aspects of self and
human consciousness.
Until the 1980s, it was widely believed that the brain's structure was
largely fixed after childhood, with little potential for change. However,
contemporary research has revealed that the brain possesses
remarkable neuroplasticity, enabling it to adapt and reorganize itself
in response to learning and experience. This capacity for change
underscores the importance of understanding the brain's function for
effective teaching practices.
I agree with Willis that educators who are knowledgeable about brain
function are more likely to possess the optimism, incentive, and
motivation to integrate these insights into their classrooms. It is a
significant oversight for a teacher to be unaware of the implications of
neuroplasticity, as this understanding is crucial for fostering student
development.
As articulated, "To have a student in a class with a teacher who really
doesn’t understand the implications of brain-changing neuroplasticity
is like sending your car in for repair to a mechanic who doesn’t
understand how the engine works."
Given that the brain governs our thinking, learning, and memory, it is
imperative that we explore the most effective methods for leveraging
this understanding to enhance educational outcomes.
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To effectively teach and learn, it is essential to grasp the neuroscience
of learning. As noted, "The brain controls our ability to think,
communicate, feel, see, hear, remember, and even regulate our
breathing." Educators and institutions worldwide are increasingly
integrating insights and techniques derived from neuroscience— the
scientific study of the nervous system— into their classrooms.
Neuroscience, also referred to as neural science, investigates the
development, structure, and functions of the nervous system, with a
particular focus on the brain's influence on behavior and cognitive
abilities.
Advancements in neuroscience have significantly enhanced our
understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying the learning
process. The concerted efforts to bridge neuroscience, cognitive
science, psychology, and education have birthed an emerging
interdisciplinary field known as "educational neuroscience," "mind,
brain, and education science," or "neuroeducation." This relatively new
discipline aims to improve educational practices by applying
empirical findings from brain research in classroom settings.
Educational neuroscience sheds light on various aspects, including
why certain types of learning are more rewarding than others, the
brain's plasticity and its adaptation to acquiring new skills at different
ages, strategies for enhancing learning capabilities, and the role of
digital technologies in education.
Educational neuroscience encompasses a broad range of factors that
significantly impact learning outcomes. By addressing elements such
as motivation, attention, learning capacity, memory, prior knowledge,
stress, health, and nutrition, it holds the potential to enhance
educational effectiveness. The primary objective of educational
neuroscience is to conduct both fundamental and applied research
that provides a comprehensive, transdisciplinary framework for
understanding learning and teaching, ultimately informing
educational practices. According to Petitto and Dunbar, educational
neuroscience "provides the most relevant level of analysis for resolving
today’s core problems in education." Furthermore, as noted by Barnes,
educational neuroscience can assist teachers in various ways,
including:
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Educational neuroscience holds significant promise for enhancing
educational outcomes by addressing various factors that influence
learning, including motivation, attention, learning capacity, memory,
prior knowledge, stress, health, and nutrition. Its primary objective is to
generate foundational and applied research that offers a
transdisciplinary perspective on learning and teaching, ultimately
informing educational practices. According to Petitto and Dunbar,
educational neuroscience "provides the most relevant level of analysis
for resolving today’s core problems in education." This field can assist
educators in several ways, including:
Enhance reading skills.
Provide individualized learning tailored to each student.
Support teachers in developing learning environments rather than
merely delivering curriculum content.
Foster the learning capacity of each student to facilitate easier
comprehension.
Free up teachers' time to focus on instruction and offer higher-
value learning opportunities.
Equip teachers with a deeper understanding of student learning
processes.
Assist students facing various learning difficulties.
Educational neuroscience (EN) can be effectively conveyed to students
through both technological and non-technological means. The growing
interest in EN arises from two primary sources: neuroscientists advocate
that their research holds the potential to enhance educational practices,
while educators seek to comprehend how neuroscience can inform their
methodologies (Howard-Jones, 2014).
Kaufer identifies several crucial biological aspects of learning, notably
neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's
remarkable ability to adapt and develop, encompassing both synaptic and
dendritic changes. Kaufer posits that modifications can occur in the
connections between neurons (synapses) as well as within the neurons
themselves (dendrites). This implies that we can not only reorganize our
existing knowledge but also alter the quality and nature of that knowledge.
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Neurogenesis, on the other hand, denotes the brain's capacity to produce
new neurons. This phenomenon suggests that certain regions of the brain,
particularly the hippocampus, can generate new cells throughout an
individual's life, challenging the earlier belief that neurogenesis ceases after
a certain age. It was once thought that by adulthood, individuals possess a
finite number of brain cells that gradually decline over time. However, newly
formed neurons are integrated into existing neural networks, thereby
enhancing and strengthening pre-existing connections within the brain.
Kaufer posits that behaviors and conditions—including sleep, nutrition,
exercise, stress (as indicated by cortisol levels), and happiness (reflected by
dopamine levels)—significantly influence plasticity and neurogenesis. These
factors interact dynamically with one another. For instance, engaging in
voluntary exercise can mitigate the adverse effects of stress. Research
indicates that high stress levels are typically associated with poor
performance; however, low stress levels can also lead to suboptimal
performance. Conversely, a moderate level of stress is linked to peak
performance outcomes.
The definition of a "moderate amount" varies significantly among individuals.
Kaufer posits that Active Learning, which involves volitional control, is
beneficial for education as it activates distinct neural systems associated
with executive functions—such as planning, attention, and object processing
—that communicate dynamically with the hippocampus to enhance its
performance. Neuroscientific research further supports the effectiveness of
frameworks like Bloom’s taxonomy, which organizes cognitive tasks in
ascending levels of complexity. While much of neuroscience research
traditionally focuses on learning, an emerging subfield known as "Mind, Brain,
and Education" (MBE) seeks to bridge research with pedagogical practices.
MBE researchers explore ways to leverage the natural human attention span,
apply findings on memory systems to inform lesson planning, and integrate
insights regarding the emotional dimensions of learning.
In the field of neuroscience, the comprehension of information involves the
formation of neural pathways, which must be reinforced for them to become
permanent. This reinforcement is crucial for enhancing effective memory
and learning. However, several factors can compromise this process,
including sleep, stress, diet, skills, mindset, movement, and the physical
environment. Each of these elements can have a positive or negative impact
on how individuals process information and how their brains learn.
Understanding the brain's functionality is essential; aligning educational
approaches with these insights can significantly enhance our learning
capabilities. The brain's capacity to create, strengthen, and eliminate neural
connections is believed to be fundamental to the cognitive processes
associated with memory and learning. 8
More intensity may not equal better results in early
behavioral intervention
A meta-analysis conducted by researchers in the United States
indicates that increasing the intensity of early behavioral
interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
does not necessarily lead to improved outcomes.
Micheal Sandbank and colleagues analyzed data from 144
studies involving over 9,000 children ranging from infancy to
eight years old. The researchers assessed the intensity of
treatment using three metrics: the amount of intervention
provided within a specific timeframe (e.g., hours per day), the
total number of intervention days, and "cumulative intensity,"
which reflects the total amount of intervention delivered
throughout the treatment period.
Their findings revealed that “none of the models evidenced a
significant association between the amount of intervention and
its effects.” The researchers conclude that there is insufficient
evidence to support the notion that the benefits of early
childhood interventions for young autistic children increase
with intensified intervention; thus, practitioners should consider
what levels of intervention are developmentally appropriate.
Furthermore, the researchers caution that intensive interventions may have negative
repercussions, such as limiting children's opportunities for rest and socialization with
family members. Sandbank emphasizes, “To determine the most effective amount of
intervention while minimizing disruptions, we need more high-quality primary studies.
Currently, few high-quality studies systematically compare the same intervention
delivered at varying intensities.” She adds, “There is likely a minimum amount of
intervention necessary to yield any benefit, along with an optimal amount that varies
depending on the child. Unfortunately, we currently lack clear evidence regarding what
that optimal amount should be.”
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STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING:
It is crucial for educators to recognize that Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD) is not classified as a learning (intellectual) disability; rather, it is
categorized as a developmental disability. Unlike learning disabilities such
as dyslexia, which primarily affect language acquisition, mathematical
skills, and sustained attention, ASD is characterized by symptoms such as
repetitive behaviors, social interaction difficulties, and compulsive or
ritualistic actions, with varying degrees of severity among individuals.
However, it is noteworthy that there is significant overlap between ASD and
learning disabilities, as Autism Speaks reports that 31 percent of children
with ASD also exhibit intellectual disabilities.
Although ASD is not deemed a learning disability, it can nonetheless pose
challenges to academic achievement by affecting communication,
socialization, and other critical aspects of a child's behavior and
development. Educators can address these challenges by employing
effective academic strategies tailored for students with autism. Below are
four examples of such strategies.
Teaching is inherently challenging, and instructing students with diverse
learning needs adds an additional layer of complexity. However, some of
the most rewarding outcomes in education arise from overcoming
significant obstacles. With the right mindset, strategies, and dispositions,
all students can achieve success, and both they and their teachers can
share in that success. It is essential to view students with disabilities
primarily as students, rather than solely through the lens of their
disabilities. A student does not need to have a documented disability, an
established Individual Education Plan (IEP), or to be placed in a special
education setting to benefit from effective teaching strategies.
Techniques that assist students with disabilities are likely to be
advantageous for their non-disabled peers as well. Furthermore, it is
important to recognize that what proves effective on one occasion may
not yield the same results another day with different content. Flexibility in
teaching is vital, and the strategies outlined below represent just a few of
the many approaches that could be effective in various situations with
students.
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Limiting Sensory Overload
As experienced educators are well aware, classrooms, particularly at the
elementary level, can be chaotic. The lively sounds of children's laughter
and conversation, coupled with the flickering of lights, can easily divert
students' attention—especially among those who may lack motivation to
engage in learning.
While such environmental factors can be distracting for all students,
they can be particularly overwhelming for those with Autism Spectrum
Disorder (ASD). Research indicates that a significant percentage of
individuals with ASD—ranging from 69 to 93 percent—experience
hypersensitivity and other sensory symptoms. These may manifest as
pronounced reactions to sensory stimuli, such as covering their ears in
response to the sound of singing.
While it may be impossible to completely eradicate all potential
distractions, educators can significantly improve the learning
environment by identifying and managing sources of sensory overload.
For instance, Autism Speaks highlights that students on the autism
spectrum may experience discomfort with sustained eye contact,
transitions in busy locker rooms, or standing in crowded lines.
By implementing straightforward measures to either prevent or
accommodate challenging scenarios—such as allowing students with
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) a few moments to decompress after
navigating a noisy hallway, or permitting them to dress when the locker
room is unoccupied—educators can create a more welcoming and less
distracting classroom environment.
Using Rewards and Incentives (Applied Behavior Analysis)
Applied behavior analysis, or ABA, is a form of therapy that is used to
help children with ASD manage or eliminate problem behaviors, such as
behaviors that result in self-harm or disruptions to other children. One of
the most widely-used treatments for children with ASD, applied behavior
analysis therapy works by using rewards and incentives to reinforce
positive behaviors.
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Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), despite some controversy, has
demonstrated efficacy for certain children, as supported by research. A
peer-reviewed study published in 2020 found that comprehensive, long-
term ABA interventions significantly benefit the lifelong development of
children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), particularly in areas such as
socialization, communication, and expressive language, which are
identified as promising targets for ABA-based strategies.
Becoming a certified ABA therapist requires individuals to meet specific
educational and professional criteria. However, all educators can integrate
the fundamental principles of ABA, such as positive reinforcement, within
their classrooms, whether in-person or online. For a more comprehensive
understanding of these concepts, consider exploring how educators can
implement reward systems to enhance student engagement.
Providing Appropriate Feedback for Students with ASD
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often face challenges in
communication. As such, it is vital to communicate feedback, questions,
and directions in a clear and direct manner. Avoid using metaphorical or
abstract language; instead, opt for simple and straightforward wording to
reduce the potential for misunderstandings. Additionally, it is important to
periodically check in with your students to assess their progress and
identify any specific difficulties they may be encountering with a course,
task, or assignment.
Focusing on Autism Reading Comprehension
Reading is a crucial skill for lifelong learning. Without proficient reading
comprehension abilities, students not only face challenges in completing
assignments and retaining information, but they also risk encountering
additional issues. According to The Children’s Reading Foundation, children
with inadequate reading comprehension are more likely to experience low
self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy, as well as potential attendance
and dropout challenges.
Given that research indicates reading difficulties are prevalent among
children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), it is imperative for educators
to be intentional in their literacy instruction strategies. Below are five
techniques that educators can employ to enhance reading comprehension
skills in students with ASD: 12
1. Begin cultivating a passion for reading at the earliest age possible.
2. Choose reading material that is likely to be intellectually stimulating
for the student, such as material that is related to his or her subjects of
interest. It is common for children with ASD to develop intense interests
in specific subjects, which may provide ideal reading material.
3. Communicate with the student’s family to encourage at-home
reading activities.
4. Talk about the figurative or metaphorical meanings that exist
“between the lines” in fiction.
5. Teach technological literacy, so that your students can easily read on
a variety of devices.
Break Learning Tasks Down into Smaller Parts
Students with disabilities, including those with processing disorders,
learning disabilities, developmental delays, other health impairments such
as ADHD, or emotional disabilities, often face challenges when navigating
multi-step instructions and concepts comprised of numerous
components. To promote student success, it is essential to deconstruct
concepts into their smallest possible parts, ensuring mastery of each sub-
concept—regardless of any assumptions regarding prior knowledge—
before advancing to the next level.
This approach may involve breaking down complex tasks into discrete
steps or chunking content to limit the number of concepts being
addressed simultaneously. When a student encounters difficulties, the
focus should be on identifying the next smallest achievable step they can
successfully complete, thereby providing a foundation for further progress.
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Present Information in a Variety of Ways
Students’ brains process information differently and their background and
experience can influence their understanding of new concepts. To
accommodate these differences, it is important to present information in
various ways, including verbally, in writing, visually, and kinesthetically.
For instance, discussing a new topic, writing down the key concepts
together, creating a graphic anchor chart that can be referenced in the
classroom, and then acting out the new concept can all help students make
connections and deepen their understanding.
Build Relationships and Resilience
Students process information in various ways, shaped by their unique
backgrounds and experiences. To effectively address these differences, it is
crucial to present information using multiple modalities, including verbal,
written, visual, and kinesthetic approaches.
For instance, when introducing a new topic, facilitating a discussion,
collaboratively documenting key concepts, creating a graphic anchor chart
for classroom reference, and even dramatizing the concept can greatly
enhance students' ability to make connections and deepen their
understanding.
Be the Adult
I often remind others that "Parents do not keep the 'good' students at home."
It is the duty and responsibility of teachers to ensure that every student in
their classroom has the opportunity to learn. This challenge should not be
avoided; rather, it should be embraced as the pinnacle of effective
teaching. When students enter a classroom with a complete understanding
of the concepts and can accomplish all learning tasks with minimal teacher
intervention, it indicates that little learning—and even less teaching—has
occurred. However, if the educator can find joy in the pursuit of knowledge,
even amidst challenges, students are far more likely to adopt a similar
attitude. Ultimately, this approach benefits everyone involved. 14
