Physics for the Elite Electricity

Electricity
1. SIMPLE ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA
 In electrostatics, we study the electromagnetic phenomena that occur when there
are no moving charges (after a static equilibrium has been established).
 Charges reach their equilibrium positions rapidly because the electric force is
extremely strong

TYPES OF ELECTRICITY
a) Current Electricity: Net flow of charges in a certain direction.
b) Static Electricity: No net flow of charges in a certain direction
 Matter can be classified into 3 types according to their electrical properties:

CONDUCTORS
 These are substances which have delocalised (free) electrons.
 They have mobile charge carriers, mainly electrons and ions which will drift to
constitute an electric current under the effect of an applied electric field
 Conduct electricity.
 Examples include metals and electrolyte solutions.

INSULATORS
 These are substances which have localised electrons.
 Electrons are firmly bonded to their nuclei.
 They do not have no mobile charge carriers that can drift under the effect of an
applied electric field.
 Do not conduct electricity.
 Examples include rubber, wood and plastic.

SEMICONDUCTORS
 Materials which have intermediate electrical conductivity which vary substantially
with temperature.
 Examples include Germanium, Silicon.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 1 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
1.1 CHARGE
 An atom consists of a positively-charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons orbiting around the nucleus.
 The overall charge of an atom is zero.
 The positively-charged nucleus consists of positively-charged protons held together
by neutral particles called neutrons.

 All substances (matter) are made up of atoms, which consist of a nucleus (containing
protons and neutrons) and orbiting electrons.
 Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons are
neutral.
 In each atom of a material, the number of protons and electrons are equal and there
is no net electrical charges.
 When excess electrons are added to an atom, the atom becomes negatively charged.
 When electrons are removed from an atom, the atom becomes positively charged
 Atoms with net charges are called ions.

1.2 ELECTRIC CHARGES

 Electric charges are either positive or negative.
 Like charges repel each other; unlike charges attract each other.
 The excess charge, Q, carried away by one body must be equal to the number of
electrons removed from the other body.
–19
 The charges are in multiples of an electron charge, e (–1.6 × 10 C) according to the
equation:
𝑸 = 𝑵𝒆
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑵 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒘𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓.
 The unit of charge is the coulomb (Symbol: C).

1.3 CHARGING
 Various method can be implemented to charge a substance.
 Substance can be charged by the following methods
(a) By friction
(b) By induction
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 2 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
Charging by friction (rubbing)
 Rubbing also known as charging by friction.
 When two substances are rubbed together, electrons can be transferred from one
object to another.
 One material gains electrons and become negatively charged, and the other loses the
same amount of electrons and becomes positively charged.
 There is NO MOVEMENT of positive charges (which are the nuclei of the atoms).
Otherwise, the solid will deform.
 Insulators can be charged by rubbing, unlike conductors (metals), because electrons
are not free to move about in an insulator and thus charges are localized to the
surfaces where rubbing occur.
 E.g. rubbing amber rod with a fur

 Charge is transferred from one object to another due to the movement of electrons.
 Examples of insulators and the types of charges they gain from rubbing:

 When a piece of amber, plastic, polythene, or hard rubber is rubbed with fur,
electrons are transferred from fur to the other material.
 Fur acquires net positive charge, since it has fewer electrons than protons.
 Similarly, the amber, plastic, or hard rubber acquires a net negative charge since
they have excess electrons.
 Combing hair charges the comb in the same way.
 Rubbing glass (Perspex) with silk causes the glass to acquire a net positive
charge.
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 3 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
 Charge is conserved during charging by friction.
 The total number of electrons lost by one material is equal to the total number of
electrons gained by the other material.
 So the total charge on both materials remains unchanged.

Charging by induction (contact)

 When two neutral, insulated metal sphere, P and Q touching each other.
 When a negatively-charged rod is brought near P, the electrons (negative charge) on
P are repelled away from the rod.
 They move onto sphere Q.
 Thus P is left with a positive charge.
 Sphere Q is then separated from P while the negatively charged rod is kept in
position.
 The rod is then removed and the sphere P and Q now possess equal amounts of
opposite charge and hence have been charged by induction.

 An alternative method is through the earthing process.

 To produce a negatively charged sphere.

 To produce a positively charged sphere.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 4 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
1.4 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA
 When electrons move into or out of a material the same assumes a charge.
 A positive charge remains when electrons move out of a material while a negative
charge results from the addition of electrons onto a material.
 Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
 From this we find various applications of electrostatic phenomena.

DUST EXTRACTION
 Modern coal powered power stations have equipment for trapping flue- ash that
would otherwise be discharged as a pollutant into the atmosphere.
 Flue ash consists of minute particles of coal dust.
 Precipitators are used to remove about 99% of the flue ash before it reaches the
chimney.
 A precipitator is made up of a mesh which is negatively charged.
 When the flue-ash comes into the contact with the mesh it is given extra electrons
and also assumes a negative charge.
 The charged flue ash is then attracted by the positively charged plates.
 After a while the plates are mechanically shaken to release the flue ash which is
collected as a by-product.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 5 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
ELECTROSTATIC PAINT SPRAYING
 In electrostatic paint spraying the paint is given a charge whilst in the reservoir.
 Some setups charge the paint as it comes into contact with the nozzle.
 The nozzle atomises the paint particles and in this state they repel each other and
spread out.
 The work piece is given a charge opposite to that of the paint particles.
 As the paint particles repel each other they easily spread apart and can even reach
hidden surfaces of the work piece.
 Since the particles are attracted by the work piece, an even paint surface is created
on the work piece as the particles stick on contact with the surface of the work piece.

 A fixed electric potential difference is maintained between the paint spray nozzle
and the object to be painted. (i.e. the nozzle is negatively-charged and the object is
positively charged)
 As the paint leaves the nozzle, the droplets are charged.
 Since the droplets all have the same charge, they repel each other so that the paint
spreads out evenly.
 The paint droplets are all attracted to the positively-charged object and stick
strongly to its surface.
 The paint coating on the object is uniform and it’s effective, efficient and economical.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 6 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
PHOTOCOPYING
 In photocopying electrostatics is applied as shown below.

 The original document is loaded onto the copier.

 The image of the document is projected onto a positively charged copying plate.
 Where light falls onto the plate, the electrical charge leaks away, leaving a positively
charged region that resembles the text to be copied.
 Negatively charged black toner (ink) particles are attracted to the remaining
positive areas.
 Paper is placed over the copying plate, the toner is transferred to the paper and
heated to make it stick.
 The copy is taken of the plate and turned over to reveal the text.

1.5 HAZARDS OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING

LIGHTNING:
 A large charge build-up in the clouds due to the friction between water and air
molecules results in the ionisation of the air.
 The ionised air provides a path for conduction of electrons to the ground through
tall, pointed objects.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 7 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
Remedy:
 Lightning conductors (thick copper strip with metal spikes at the top) can be placed
at the top of tall buildings to allow electrons to flow steadily from the air to the
ground.
 The sharp point at the top of a lightning conductor has high concentration of charge
at the sharp, points makes it high likely for the cloud to occur through the lightning
conductor.
 Thunderclouds carry charges; a negatively charged cloud passing overhead repels
electrons from the spikes to the Earth.
 The points of the spikes are left with a large positive charge (charge concentrates on
sharp points) which removes electrons from nearby air molecules, so charging them
positively and causing them to be repelled from the spike.
 If a flash occurs it is now less violent and the conductor gives it an easy path to
ground.

FIRE:
 An excessive buildup of charges due to friction with air can lead to an explosion or a
fire in aircrafts.
 Remedy: Tyres are made of slightly conductive rubber to discharge the aircraft when
it touches down.
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 8 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
REFUELING
 Sparks from static electricity can be dangerous when flammable vapor is present.
For this reason, the tanks in an oil tanker may be cleaned in an atmosphere of nitrogen
– otherwise oxygen in the air could promote a fire.

AIRCRAFT LANDING
 An aircraft in flight may become charged by ‘rubbing’ the air.
 Its tyres are made of conducting rubber which lets the charge pass harmlessly to
ground on landing, otherwise an explosion could be ‘sparked off’ when the aircraft
refuels.

Other Dangers
 Aircraft in flight- danger on landing
 Plastic sheeting in industry – danger earthing through a person
 Hospital theatre – anaesthetic gases are highly flammable and may catch fire due to
electrostatic discharge.

2. BASIC CONCEPTS
2.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND THE AMPERE
 An electric current consist of the flow of charged particles.
 In metals, the charge is carried by free electrons whereas in electrolytes, the charge
carriers are the positively and negatively charged ions.
 Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge.
 For a steady current (I)
𝑸
𝑰 =
𝒕
Where
I is the electric current (unit: ampere, symbol: A);
Q is the electric charge (unit: coulomb, symbol: C);
t is the time taken (unit: second, symbol: s)
 Where the current is not steady, the instantaneous current (I):
𝒅𝑸
𝑰 =
𝒅𝒕

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 9 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
The Ampere
 The unit of electric current (I) is the ampere

One ampere is defined as the current which flows in a circuit

when one coulomb of charge flows per unit time of one
second.

 Hence, 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb per second

𝟏𝑪
𝟏𝑨 = 𝒐𝒓 𝟏 𝑪𝒔−𝟏
𝟏𝒔

2.2 ELECTRICAL CHARGE AND THE COULOMB

 Particles (ions) can either be positively charged (such as protons) or be negatively
charged (such as electrons) but not both at the same time.
 When particles flow in a circuit they are referred to as charge.
 Electric charge flowing through a section of a circuit is the product of the electric
current and the time that it flows.
 If the current flowing in a conductor in time t seconds is I, then the charge flowing
past a point during that duration of time is given by,
𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
 The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
 The coulomb is defined as;

One Coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge which passes a

section of a conductor in one second when the steady current
flowing is one ampere.
 Hence, 1volt = 1joule per coulomb 𝟏 𝑪 = 𝟏 𝑨 × 𝟏 𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟏 𝑨𝒔

Question

Solution;
Electric charge: 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟔𝟎) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟔 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝑪

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 10 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
Question

QUESTION
The diagram shows current entering and leaving a junction

1. Calculate the charge passing a given point in wire;

a) X in 8 seconds.
b) Y in 8 seconds
c) Z in 8 seconds
2. What can you conclude from your results in 1?

SOLUTION:
1. From 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
a) For wire X: 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 = (1)(8) = 𝟖𝑪
b) For wire Y: 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 = (1)(4) = 𝟒𝑪
c) For wire Z: 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 = (1)(4) = 𝟒𝑪
2. The amount of charge entering the junction is equal to the sum of the charge
leaving the junction. Charge is conserved in a junction.

2.3 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND THE VOLT

 The potential at a point of the circuit is due to the amount of charge present along
with the energy of the charges.
 Thus, the potential along circuit drops from the positive terminal to negative
terminal, and potential differs from points to points.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 11 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
 Consider two points A and B at different potentials in a field of electric field strength
E and a positive charge, Q, has a positive charge and hence the field exerts on it, a
force with component f in the direction AB.
 To move Q towards A one will need to overcome this force and hence will have to do
some work.

 We then define the potential difference between A and B as the work done in moving
a unit positive charge from B to A.
 If we use the symbol VAB for this potential difference we can write,
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒(𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏(𝐶) 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵
 For a charge Q coulomb, being moved through a p.d V volt in an electric circuit, the
work done W is given by,
𝑾 = 𝑸𝑽
 This work done produces the energy that is characteristic of electric circuits.

Definition in terms of energy

Potential difference between two points in a circuit is defined as the energy
transferred (converted) from electrical energy to other forms of energy per
unit charge passing between the two pints through an electrical device
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑷. 𝑫. = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
𝑾
𝒊. 𝒆 𝑽 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑾 = 𝑽𝑸
𝑸

Alternatively, defining p.d in terms of power:

The potential difference between two points in a circuit is defined as the rate
of conversion of electrical energy to other forms of energy per unit current
flowing between the two points.
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑷. 𝑫. =
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑷
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑽 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑰
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 12 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
Where;
V is the p.d in volts (V)
W is the energy converted, in joules (J)
Q is the electric charge moved, in coulombs (C)
P is the power converted, in watts (W)
I is the electric current flowing, in amperes (A)

NB: If two points are at the same potential, no current can flow between them.

The Volt
 The unit of potential difference (p.d) is the volt

One volt is defined as the potential difference between two

points (A and B) in a circuit if one joule of work is done in taking
one coulomb of positive charge from B to A.
OR
One volt is defined as the potential difference between two
points in a circuit in which one joule of electrical energy is
converted to other forms of energy when one coulomb of
charge passes between two points.
 Hence, 1volt = 1joule per coulomb
𝟏𝑱
𝟏𝑽 = 𝒐𝒓 𝟏 𝑱𝑪−𝟏
𝟏𝑪
Question
The diagram shows a model of an electric cooker. A stove is rated 220V/ 7A. It is
switched for 15 minutes. Calculate the:
(a) Amount of charge flowing through the stove.
(b) Work done in heating the water.

Solution:
(a) Charge: 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕 = 7(15)(60 = 𝟔𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑪
(b) Work done: 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑽 = 6300 × 220 = 1 386 000 = 𝟏 𝟑𝟖𝟔𝒌𝑱

Question

Solution:
𝑾 𝑷𝒕 (𝟑 𝟎𝟎𝟎) × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = = = = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝑸 𝑸 𝟐𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 13 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
2.4 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND THE OHM
 Resistance of a material is a measure of the material’s opposition to the flow of
charge.
𝑉
 The resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of where V is the p.d across
𝐼
the conductor and I is the current flowing through it.
 If IA is the current flowing through conductor A and IB is the current flowing through
conductor B then,
 If IA < IB, when the p.d is the same across both conductors, we say conductor A has a
greater resistance to the flow of current than B.
 We can therefore write,
𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰
 The unit of potential difference, V, is the volt, symbol V that of current I is the
ampere, symbol A;

Definition of Electrical Resistance

Electrical Resistance of a conductor is defined as ratio of the

potential difference across it to the current flowing through
it.
𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹 =
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑽
𝒊. 𝒆 𝑹 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑰
Where;
V is the p.d in volts (V)
I is the electric current flowing, in amperes (A)

The Ohm
 The unit of electrical resistance (R) is the ohm, symbol Ω
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 14 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
One ohm is defined as the electrical Resistance of a
conductor if the current flowing through it is one ampere
when a potential difference of one volt is maintained across it.
 Hence, 1ohm = 1volt per ampere
𝟏𝑽
𝟏𝜴= 𝒐𝒓 𝟏 𝑽𝑨−𝟏
𝟏𝑨
Mathematically:
𝑽
𝑰∝𝑽  𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹  𝑹= = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑰
 The proportionality constant R in the equation is the electrical resistance of the
device under steady physical conditions.
 Materials which obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic conductors.
 It is constant for a metallic conductor
Ohm's Law states that the steady current through a metallic
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across it provided its temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant.
 Ohm investigated at length, how the current I in a given material varied with the p.d
V across it.
 Ohm came to a conclusion which is now known as Ohm’s law, is stated as;

Under constant physical conditions, the resistance of a

material is constant.
It is independent on the values and the direction of the
current flowing through it nor the potential difference V
maintained across it.

I-V characteristics

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 15 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
Metallic conductor at constant temperature

 Examples include, copper and tungsten. (Yes the tungsten used in lamp filaments)\
 Non-ohmic conductors are those that do not obey Ohm’s law.
 Examples of non-ohmic conductors include:
a) A junction (semiconductor) diode,
b) neon gas,
c) dilute Sulphuric acid with inert electrodes,
d) Filament lamp,
e) Thermistor

I-V characteristics of non-ohmic conductors

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 16 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
Semiconductor diode

Filament lamp

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 17 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

Thermistor I-V & temperature characteristic

2.5 RESISTIVITY
 Ohm showed that the resistance of a wire, R, is proportional to its length l and
inversely proportional to its cross sectional area A,

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 18 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

𝒍
𝑹𝜶
𝑨

𝒍
𝑹 = 𝝆𝑨

𝑹𝑨
𝝆=
𝒍

 𝝆 is the resistivity of the material, it is a constant characteristic of the material and 𝝆

has units, ohm meter or ( Ω𝒎)
 Resistivity is useful when comparing various materials on their ability to conduct
electricity.
 A high resistivity means a sample of the materials is a poor conductor.
 A low resistivity means a sample of the material is a good conductor.

QUESTION
The resistivity of a material is 3.1 × 10−5 𝛺𝑚. Determine the resistance of a sample of
the material given that its length is 20cm and its cross-section area is 2.0mm2.

SOLUTION
𝒍 (𝟑. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 )(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎)
𝑹= 𝝆 = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝜴
𝑨 (𝟐. 𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏)𝟐

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 19 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
2.6 POWER
Power is defined the rate of doing work, in simple terms,
𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧
𝐖
𝐏=
𝐭
The relationship between power, voltage and current
𝑸𝑽
𝐏= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑽
𝐭
𝑰𝒕𝑽
𝐏= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
𝐭
𝐏 = 𝑰𝑽
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
The relationship between power, current and resistance
𝐏 = 𝑰𝑽
𝐏 = 𝑰(𝑰𝑹) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝐏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
The relationship between power, voltage and resistance
𝐏 = 𝑰𝑽
𝑽 𝑽
𝐏= 𝑽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑰 =
𝑹 𝑹
𝟐
𝑽
𝐏=
𝑹
Question

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 20 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

𝟐
𝑽
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑹
NB: Brightness of a lamp is determined by the power dissipated, NOT: by V, or I or R
alone

QUESTION
A high-voltage transmission line with a resistance of 0.4 Ω km-1 carries a current of 500
A. The line is at a potential of 1200 kV at the power station and carries the current to a
city located 160 km from the power station. Calculate
(a) The power loss in the line.
(b) The fraction of the transmitted power that is lost.

Solution
(𝒂) 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = (𝟓𝟎𝟎)𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟔𝟎) = 𝟏𝟔 𝑴𝑾
(𝒃)𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 = 𝟏 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑾
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟔
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟕%
𝑷𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝟔𝟎𝟎

Question
An electro- mechanical unit is to be fitted onto a gate in an Industrial park. The unit is
to be used to open the gate. The unit is rated 230 V, 13.7 kW.
(a) Calculate the current flowing in the unit during normal operation.
(b) The resistance of the two wires in the cable causes the p.d across the unit to be
reduced. The potential difference across the unit must not be less than 225V. The
wires in the cable are made of copper of resistivity 1.72 × 10−8 Ω𝑚 at 20˚C. Using
the value of current you obtained in (a), calculate;
(i) The maximum resistance of the cable.
(ii) The maximum cross-sectional area of each wire in the cable if its length is 20m.
(c) Connecting the unit to the mains by means of wires having too small a cross-
sectional area would significantly reduce the power output of the unit .
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 21 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
(i) Assuming that the unit is operating at 210V, rather than 230V and that its
resistance is unchanged, determine the ratio
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑡 210𝑉
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑡 230𝑉
Let 𝑉210 and 𝑉230 be the voltages at 210 and 230 V respectively
(ii) Suggest and explain one further danger of using wires with a small cross-
sectional area in the cable.

Solution
𝑃 13.7 × 103
(𝑎) 𝐼 = = = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟔𝑨
𝑉 230
(𝑏)(𝑖) 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑝. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 230 − 225 = 5 V
𝑉 5
𝑅= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝛀
𝐼 59.6
𝐿 2 × 20
(𝑏)(𝑖𝑖) 𝑅 = 𝜌 = 1.72 × 10−8 ( ) = 𝟖. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐦𝟐
𝐴 0.08
2
𝑉210
𝑅 𝑉210 2 2102
(𝑐)(𝑖) 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑
𝑉230 2 𝑉230 2 2302
𝑅
(𝑐)(𝑖𝑖) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡.
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒

3. ELECTROMOTIVE FAULTS
3.1 THE ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
 The e.m.f E of a source is the total energy per coulomb it delivers round a circuit
connected to it.
 E.M.F in terms of the energy transferred by a source in driving unit charge round a
complete circuit

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 22 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
Definition in terms of energy
Electromotive force (e.m.f) of a source is defined as the energy transferred
(converted) from other forms of energy to electrical energy to per unit charge
driven through the source.

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅

𝑬 = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
𝑾
𝒊. 𝒆 𝑬 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑾 = 𝑬𝑸
𝑸

Alternatively, defining in terms of power:

Electromotive force (e.m.f) of a source is defined as the conversion of non-
electrical power to electric power per unit current delivered by the source.

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑬=
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑷
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑬 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑬𝑰
𝑰
Where;
E is the e.m.f. of the source, in volts (V)
W is the energy converted, in joules (J)
Q is the electric charge moved, in coulombs (C)
P is the power converted, in watts (W)
I is the electric current delivered, in amperes (A)
 The SI unit of e.m.f. is the same as that of potential difference. i.e. the volt
 Thus, 1volt = 1joule per coulomb 𝟏 𝑱𝑪−𝟏 𝒐𝒓 𝟏 𝑾𝑨−𝟏
Examples include:
 In a battery, chemical energy converted to electrical energy through chemical
reactions
 In a generator, mechanical energy (in the form of rotational kinetic energy) is
converted to electrical energy.

3.2 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

 In practice, no energy source (battery or generator) is perfect.
 Some of the electrical energy delivered by a source is always dissipated within itself.
 The source is said to have internal resistance.
 When the external load is large, the internal resistance has negligible effect.
 When the external load is not large, the internal resistance can be depicted as a
series resistor within the source as shown in the diagram in next slide.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 23 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
 The circuit below shows a typical purely resistive circuit with an internal resistance.
 The circuit has e.m.f E, internal resistance r and load resistance R.

 If we connect a voltmeter just where the dotted lines cross the circuit, the voltmeter
will measure the terminal p.d of the cell.
 That terminal p.d will be less than the E, the e.m.f of the cell because the reason is that
the voltmeter is actually measuring is the p.d across the load resistance R.
 Since the internal resistance is in series with the resistor, the ammeter A, will record
the current flowing into the load R as well as into the internal resistance.
 Since energy is conserved in a closed circuit , thus;

Energy supplied per coulomb by the cell

=
Energy used in the load resistor
+
Energy wasted in overcoming internal resistance
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 = 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅( 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 + 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍)
𝑬𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 + 𝑰𝟐 𝒓𝒕
𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓

𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)

 Rearranging the equation above to make IR the subject we get;

𝑰𝑹 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 24 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
 Now 𝐼𝑅 = V
 Thus the terminal p.d of a cell is given by the equation;
𝑽 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓
 For a graph of Voltage (V) against current (I) , the equation is written as
𝑽 = −𝑰𝒓 + 𝑬

 The graph has a gradient of –r and a y-intercept of E, hence R and E.

 The terminal p.d. is the potential difference across the source.
 It is equivalent to the potential difference across the external circuit.
 Hence terminal p.d. :

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓
Where;
E is the terminal p.d., in volts (V)
E is the e.m.f. of the source, in volts (V)
I is the electric current delivered, in amperes (A)
R is the resistance of the external circuit, in ohms (Ω)
r is the internal resistance of the source, in ohms (Ω)

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 25 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 = 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅( 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 + 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍)

𝑷𝑬 = 𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒓
𝑬𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 + 𝑰𝟐 𝒓

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼2 𝑅 𝑅
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦  = = 2 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑟) 𝑅 + 𝑟

Question
A battery of e.m.f 12V and internal resistance 0.014 delivers q 2.0A current when first
connected to a motor. Calculate the resistance of the motor.

Solution
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
(𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓) (𝟏𝟐 − 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒)
𝑹= = = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟗
𝑰 𝟐
Maximum power

The diagram show a cell of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r connected to a resistor of
resistance R, then:
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑬
∴ 𝑰=
𝑹+𝒓
Power dissipated in R is:
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
𝑬 𝟐
𝑷=( ) 𝑹
𝑹+𝒓
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 26 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
To determine the value of R which would produce the maximum power in R, we
differentiate P with respect to R, thus
𝒅𝑷 𝒅 𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒓)𝟐 − 𝟐𝑬𝟐 𝑹(𝑹 + 𝒓)
= ( )=
𝒅𝑹 𝒅𝑹 (𝑹 + 𝒓)𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒓)𝟒
𝒅𝑷
When = 𝟎, for maximum power:
𝒅𝑹
𝑬𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒓)𝟐 − 𝟐𝑬𝟐 𝑹(𝑹 + 𝒓) = 𝟎
(𝑹 + 𝒓) − 𝟐𝑹 = 𝟎
𝑹=𝒓
Hence the power dissipated in the external resistor of resistance R is maximum when
R=r, the value of internal resistance.

4. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
4.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT
 There are two types of electric current:

Direct Current (D.C)

 Flow of charges in the circuit is in the same direction all the time, from a higher
potential to a lower potential (e.g. current from battery)
 Hence moves from positive terminal to negative terminal.

Alternating Current
 Flow of charges in the circuit reverses direction at regular intervals (e.g. current from
household mains).
 Hence current flows in both directions.

Carrier velocity

 If carriers, e.g. electrons in a metal wire, are moving with an average drift velocity
along the wire of 𝒗 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , then the current is:
𝑰 = 𝒏𝑨𝒒𝒗
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 27 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐼 − 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 (𝐴)
𝑛 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 )
𝐴 − 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 (𝑚2 )
𝑞 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 (𝐶)
𝑣 − 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

Electric components
 Electric circuits consist of circuit components (e.g. batteries, resistors, and switches)
connected by conductors (e.g. copper cables).
 For electric current to flow, the circuit components and conductors must form
closed loops.
 There must also be sources of electrical energy (e.g. batteries) and sinks of electrical
energy among the circuit components (e.g. resistors, lamps)

4.2 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

 Electrical circuits use a lot of components and when circuits are drawn their
symbols are used.
 The following are the standard symbols used in circuits.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 28 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 29 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
4.3 CIRCUIT COMBINATIONS

SERIES CIRCUIT

 In a series circuit
1. The same current, 𝑰, flows through each component in a circuit e.g. a resistor
Thus:
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑

2. Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance, the total e.m.f produced
by the cells is given by:
𝑬𝑻 = 𝑬 𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬𝟑

3. Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance, there is a potential drop
whenever current flows through a component e.g. a resistor;
The total voltage supplied by the cell/ battery (𝑽𝑻 ) is given by:
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
4. From the definition of resistance
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑰𝑹𝑻 ; 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 ; 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 ; 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑
Where 𝑹𝑻 is the equivalent/ effective resistance of the circuit (the single
resistance which has the same effect as𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑 )
Substituting for 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟑 gives:
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
𝑰𝑹𝑻 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑
𝑰𝑹𝑻 = 𝑰(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 )
∴ 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 30 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
 In a series circuit of resistors, the same current flows through all the resistors.
 However potential gets divided according to individual resistance values.
 Because according to Ohm's law V = I R, and here since I is same, and V is directly
proportional to R.
 Hence the potential will be different across different resistors.
 (Note: Theoretically, for resistors that have equal resistance, they have same V

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

 In a parallel circuit
1. There is the same potential difference, across each component / resistor. Thus:

𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑
2. Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance, the total e.m.f produced
by the cells is given by:

𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑬𝟑
3. Charge is conserved, and therefore the total current flowing through the circuit
(𝑰𝑻 ) is given by:

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
4. From the definition of resistance
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 31 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
𝑰𝑻 = ; 𝑰𝟏 = ; 𝑰𝟐 = ; 𝑰𝟑 =
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Where 𝑹𝑻 is the equivalent/ effective resistance of the circuit (the single
resistance which has the same effect as𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑 )
Substituting for 𝑰𝟏 , 𝑰𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝟑 gives:

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑽( + + )
𝑹𝑻 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∴ = + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
 In the case of parallel combination of resistors, the same potential will exist across
every resistor, but now current gets divided in the inverse ratio of resistance values.
 (I = V / R) this is also in accordance with Ohm's law.

Question
Calculate the effective resistance of a 4 and two 3 resistors connected in series.

Solution
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟒 + 𝟑 + 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎

Question
Calculate the effective resistance of a 2 , 3 and 4 resistors connected in parallel.

Solution
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟔 + 𝟒 + 𝟑 𝟏𝟑
= + + = + + = =
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
∴ 𝑹𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟑 

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 32 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
Question
A household electric lamp is rated as 240 V, 60W. The filament of the lamp is made
from tungsten and is a wire of constant radius 6.0x10–6 m. The resistivity of tungsten at
the normal operating temperature of the lamp is 7.9 x10–7 m.
For the lamp at its normal operating temperature,
(a)(i) calculate the current in the lamp,
(a)(ii) Show that the resistance of the filament is 960 [3]
(b) Calculate the length of the filament. [3]
(c) Comment on your answer to (b). [1]

Solution

Question
The output of a heater is 2.5 kW when connected to a 220 V supply.
(a)(i) Calculate the resistance of the heater. [2]
(a)(ii) The heater is made from a wire of cross-sectional area 2.0 × 10–7 m2 and
resistivity 1.1 × 10–6 m. Use your answer in (i) to calculate the length of the wire. [3]
The supply voltage is changed to 110 V.
(b)(i) Calculate the power output of the heater at this voltage, assuming there is no
change in the resistance of the wire. [1]
(b)(ii) State and explain quantitatively one way that the wire of the heater could be
changed to give the same power as in (a). [2]

Solution

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 33 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

Question
A student set up the circuit shown below

The resistors are of resistance 15 and 45. The battery is found to provide 1.6x105 J
of electrical energy when a charge of 1.8x104 C passes through the ammeter in a time of
1.3x105 s. Determine
(a)(i) The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the battery.
(a)(ii) The average current in the circuit. [4]
During the time for which the charge is moving, 1.1x105 J of energy is dissipated in the
45resistor.
(b)(i) Determine the energy dissipated in the 15resistor during the same time.
(b)(ii) Suggest why the total energy provided is greater than that dissipated in the two
resistors. [4]

Solution

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 34 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

Question
A car battery has an internal resistance of 0.060 it is re-charged using a battery
charger having an e.m.f. of 14 V and an internal resistance of 0.10, as shown below

At the beginning of the re-charging process, the current in the circuit is 42 A and the
e.m.f. of the battery is E (measured in volts).
(a)(i) For the circuit above, state
1. The magnitude of the total resistance.
2. The total e.m.f. in the circuit. Give your answer in terms of E. [2]
(ii) Use your answers to (i) and data from the question to determine the e.m.f. of the car
battery at the beginning of the re-charging process. [2]
(b) For the majority of the charging time of the car battery, the e.m.f. of the car battery
is 12 V and the charging current is 12.5 A. The battery is charged at this current for 4.0
hours. Calculate, for this charging time,
(b)(i) The charge that passes through the battery. [2]
(b)(ii) The energy supplied from the battery charger. [2]
(b)(iii) The total energy dissipated in the internal resistance of the battery charger and
the car battery. [2]
(c) Use your answers in (b) to calculate the percentage efficiency of transfer of energy
from the battery charger to stored energy in the car battery. [2]

Solution

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 35 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

Assignment: Current Electricity

1 (a) (i) 1. Sketch the I-V characteristics of a copper wire at constant temperature
2. Explain the shape of the sketched graph in (i) 1.

(ii) The figure shows a thermistor in a circuit.

Comment on the brightness of the lamp when the thermistor is immersed in

1. Cold water.
2. Hot water. [6]

(b) A metal wire has length 100cm, diameter 0.38mm and has resistivity 𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
m. Show that the resistance of the wire is 4.0. [3]

2. Two resistors A and B have resistances R1 and R2 respectively. The resistors are
connected in series with a battery, as shown below

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 36 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

The battery has electromotive force (e.m.f.) E and zero internal resistance. (a) State the
energy transformation that occurs in
(i) The battery [1]
(ii) The resistors. [1]
(b) The current in the circuit is Ι. State the rate of energy transformation in
(i) The battery [1]
(ii) The resistor A. [1]
The resistors are made from metal wires. Data for the resistors are:

(𝒄) 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴
[3]
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐵

(𝒅) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝐸. 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴
[3]
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐵

3 An electric heater has a constant resistance and is rated as 1.20 kW, 230 V.
The heater is connected to a 230 V supply by means of a cable that is 9.20 m long, as
illustrated below.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 37 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

The two copper wires that make up the cable each have a circular cross-section of
diameter 0.900 mm. The resistivity of copper is 1.70 × 10−8 m.
(a) Show that
(i) The resistance of the heater is 44.1, [2]
(ii) The total resistance of the cable is 0.492. [2]
(b) The current in the cable and heater is switched on. Determine, to three significant
figures, the power dissipated in the heater. [3]
(c) Suggest two disadvantages of connecting the heater to the 230 V supply using a
cable consisting of two thinner copper wires. [2]

4 (a) Distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators using a simple

electron model. [2]

(b) (i) Explain how charge is conserved during charging by friction

(ii) Given that an uncharged metal sphere is attached to an insulating
stand
1. Describe how the sphere can be charged by induction using a
positively charged Perspex rod.
2. Suggest how the type of charge acquired by the sphere can be
verified. [7]

(c) (i) Explain the significance of the sharp points at the top of a lightning
conductor.
(ii) Give any one merit of electrostatic paint spraying. [3]

5 (a) (i) Define potential difference.

(ii) State and explain the effect of internal resistance of a power source
on its terminal potential difference
(iii) The figure below shows a current of 1.5A being driven through a
circuit by a battery of e.m.f 9.0V and internal resistance 2.0.

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 38 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

Determine the
1. Current flowing through the 6.0 resistor.
2. Amount of charge that passes through the 6.0 resistor in 5.0 minutes,
3. Value of the resistor, R. [8]

6 (a) (i) State one practical application of electrostatics.

(ii) Describe the construction of a simple lightning conductor.
(iii) Suggest a reason why a human hand can be used to discharge a
charged metal rod. [5]
(b) Define charge and the coulomb, [2]

(c) An electric kettle takes 2.5 minutes to boil 2 litres of water when it is
connected to a 240V supply.
Assume that all the electrical energy is converted into
𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 J of heat energy
(i) Calculate the
1. Current drawn from the supply,
2. Quantity of electric charge that flowed in the kettle for 2.5
minutes.
(ii) The heating element in the kettle is made of nichrome wire of total
length 2.4 m.
Calculate the diameter of the wire used if the resistance of nichrome
is 1.1 × 10−6 m.
(iii) The diameter of the wire was found to be 0.29 mm using a
micrometre screw gauge. This is different from the answer in c (ii).
Give three possible reasons for this observation. [10]

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 39 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
7 (a) Explain, in terms of energy considerations, the meaning of
(i) The e.m.f of a car battery is 12V,
(ii) The p.d. across a car headlamp is 12V [2]
(b) The figure shows a battery of e.m.f, E, and internal resistance, r, in a circuit
with an ideal voltmeter, a fixed resistor of resistance, R, and ideal ammeter

(i) Initially, when there is a gap between points X and Y, the voltmeter
reads 6.0V. State the value of E.
(ii) When component P is connected between X and Y, the voltmeter
reads 5.8V and the ammeter reads 80mA.
Calculate the value of r.
(iii) Calculate the value of R, given that the p.d across P is 0.8V.
(iv) When the connections to P are reversed, the voltmeter again reads
6.0V. State and explain the identity of P. [9]
(c) Give one advantage of the internal resistance of source of e.m.f [1]

8 (a) Define electromotive force (e.m.f.) for a battery. [1]

(b) A battery of e.m.f. 6.0 V and internal resistance 0.50 is connected in series with
two resistors X and Y, as shown below.

The resistance of X is 4.0  and the resistance of Y is 12. Calculate

(i) The current in the circuit, [2]
(ii) The terminal potential difference (p.d.) across the battery. [1]
(c) Resistor Z is now connected in parallel with resistor Y in the circuit in (b). The new
arrangement is shown below.
MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 40 of 48
Physics for the Elite Electricity

Resistor Y is made from a wire of length l and diameter d. Resistor Z is a wire made
from the same material as Y. The length of the wire for Z is l/2 and the diameter is d/2.
(i) Calculate the resistance R of the combination of resistors Y and Z. [3]
(ii) State and explain the effect on the terminal p.d. across the battery. A numerical
value is not required. [2]

9 A battery connected in series with a resistor R of resistance 5.0 is shown below.

The battery has an electromotive force (e.m.f.) of 9.0 V, internal resistance of r and a
potential difference (p.d.) of 6.9 V across the battery terminals.
(a) Use energy considerations to explain why the p.d. across the battery is not equal to
the e.m.f. of the battery. [2]
(b) Calculate
(i) The current in the circuit, [2]
(ii) The internal resistance r. [2]
(c) Calculate, for the battery in the circuit,
(i) The total power produced, [2]
(ii) The efficiency. [2]

10(a) Electric current is a flow of charge carriers. The charge on the carriers is
quantized. Explain what is meant by quantized. [1]

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 41 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity
(b) A battery of electromotive force (e.m.f.) 9.0 V and internal resistance 0.25is
connected in series with two identical resistors X and a resistor Y, as shown below

The resistance of each resistor X is 0.15 and the resistance of resistor Y is 2.7.
(i) Show that the current in the circuit is 2.8 A. [3]
(ii) Calculate the potential difference across the battery. [2]

(c) Each resistor X connected in the circuit in (b) is made from a wire with a cross-
sectional area of 2.5 mm2. The number of free electrons per unit volume in the wire is
8.5 × 1029 m–3.
(i) Calculate the average drift speed of the electrons in X. [2]
(ii) The two resistors X are replaced by two resistors Z made of the same material and
length but with half the diameter. Describe and explain the difference between the
average drift speed in Z and that in X. [2]

Solution: Current Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 42 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 43 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 44 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 45 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 46 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 47 of 48

Physics for the Elite Electricity

MR NDHLOVU 0713045153 2020 Page 48 of 48