1st Slide (Fish)

Fish
(Read the 1st, 2nd, 3rd bullets). Primitive gnathostomes evolved sequentially into the two most common
modern fish groups, cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as into several extinct groups such as the
placoderms and acanthodians. One group of bony fishes, the lobefins, evolved in turn into tetrapods, and
are our direct ancestors (Fig. 11.2). Fish are indeed vertebrates, meaning they have a backbone or spinal
column. This backbone provides structural support and protection for the spinal cord, which is a part of the
central nervous system. Fish belong to the taxonomic group called Pisces, and they encompass a vast variety
of species, from jawless fish like lampreys and hagfish to bony fish like salmon and cod, as well as
cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays. Despite their diversity, they all share the characteristic of having
a backbone, which places them within the vertebrate category.
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, belong to a group of vertebrates known as Chondrichthyes.
Unlike bony fish, which have skeletons made primarily of bone, cartilaginous fish have skeletons made of
cartilage, a tough and flexible tissue. Sharks and rays are among the most recognizable members of this
group. They have evolved over millions of years and have unique characteristics, such as their streamlined
bodies, sharp teeth, and an excellent sense of smell.
Bony fish, scientifically known as Osteichthyes, represent a large group of fish characterized by their
skeletons primarily made of bone, as opposed to cartilaginous fish whose skeletons are primarily made of
cartilage.
Placoderms were a group of extinct armored fish that lived during the Paleozoic Era, around 430 to 360
million years ago. They were among the earliest jawed vertebrates and represent an important evolutionary
step in the development of vertebrates.
Key characteristics of placoderms include:
Armored Plates: Placoderms had heavy bony plates covering their head and anterior body, providing
protection. Some species had various armor configurations, with plates that overlapped like a kind of
external skeleton.
Jawed Mouths: They were among the first vertebrates to evolve true jaws, which gave them an advantage
in feeding and hunting compared to their jawless predecessors.
Diverse Sizes: Placoderms varied greatly in size, with some species being relatively small while others
grew to impressive lengths, reaching sizes comparable to modern-day sharks.
Extinct Lineage: Placoderms became extinct by the end of the Devonian period, possibly due to various
environmental changes or competition with other emerging groups of fish.
Acanthodians, also known as "spiny sharks," were a group of extinct fish that lived during the Silurian and
Devonian periods, roughly 400 to 250 million years ago. They represent an important evolutionary stage in
the history of fish, being among the earliest jawed vertebrates.
Key characteristics of acanthodians include:
Spines: A defining feature of acanthodians was the presence of spines along their fins and sometimes on
their bodies. These spines likely played a role in defense and stability while swimming.
Jaws: Like placoderms, acanthodians possessed jaws, distinguishing them from their jawless ancestors.
This adaptation allowed them to be more efficient predators compared to earlier fish.
Diversity: Acanthodians displayed a wide diversity of body shapes and sizes. Some were small and slender,
while others were larger and more robust.
Extinction: Acanthodians became extinct by the end of the Devonian period, possibly due to environmental
changes and the rise of other groups of fish.
2nd Slide (Evolution of fish)
So here, we are going to look at the evolutionary relationship of fishes. The most commonly preserved early
vertebrates are conodont animals, a hagfish-like primitive fish. A hagfish is an eel-shaped fish that lives in
the ocean. Hagfish feed on dead fish and other organisms that live on the seafloor. They have gills like
modern fish but have cartilage instead of bones, no jaws and no eyes. Because of these traits, scientists
thought that hagfish were “living fossils,” organisms that are similar to animals that lived long before fish
evolved bones or scales. Going back, these organisms are known best from their teeth, the microfossils
called conodonts (for more details see Chapter 13). Conodont animals were all marine and their remains
are found mainly in shallow water sediments from the Cambrian to the Triassic. Their teeth were made from
dentine and enamel, but represent the only mineralized elements of the skeleton. Soft-bodied remains show
that these organisms were active swimmers, with an elongated body between 5 and 50 cm in length, large
eyes, and no jaws. They were almost certainly predators or scavengers, conodont elements are consistent
with the pattern expected for grasping and cutting teeth.
Other primitive fish are known from Cambrian and Ordovician rocks, but still, all of them lacking preserved
jaws. One of them are the lampreys, which live parasitically. What do we mean parasitically? It means that
the feed on other animals that serves as their host, in their case, another fish.
Lampreys are jawless fish belonging to the class Petromyzontida. They are fascinating creatures with a
unique appearance and life cycle. Here are some key points about lampreys:
Jawless: One of their distinguishing features is the absence of true jaws. Instead, they have a circular,
suction-like mouth filled with sharp teeth, which they use to attach to other fish or animals to feed on their
blood and body fluids.
Life Cycle: Lampreys typically have a complex life cycle that involves metamorphosis. They start as larvae
called ammocoetes, living in freshwater environments and filter-feeding on organic matter. As they mature,
they transform into adult lampreys, which migrate to the sea or large bodies of water. Adult lampreys return
to freshwater to spawn, after which many species die.
Cartilaginous Skeleton: Their skeletons are made of cartilage rather than bone, distinguishing them from
most other fish species.
Habitat: Lampreys can be found in various habitats, including freshwater rivers, lakes, and coastal regions.
Some species are anadromous, meaning they migrate from the sea to freshwater to breed.
Ecological Impact: In certain ecosystems, lampreys can have significant ecological effects. In regions where
they are invasive or introduced to non-native habitats, they may impact local fish populations by attaching
to them and feeding on their tissues.
Next is the evolution of jawless fish. The evolution of fish since the Silurian has led to significant changes
in jaw apparatus and in the animal's ability to swim accurately and at speed. It acquired paired fins, a strong,
flexible body, and a mouth that can be stuck out to suck up food, are all adaptations that have appeared
within the group.
Fishes with jaws, the gnathostomes, evolved in the late Silurian. Jaws probably originated from the bony
arches that support the gills, and may have been modified in order to improve the flow rate of water through
the gills as much as for feeding purposes.
Fish faunas of the time included heavily armored placoderms and the lightly armored acanthodians,
characterized by having spines supporting the front of each fin. Placoderms such as Dunkleosteus reached
10 m in length and had a predatory habit.
Modern sharks and rays have a skeleton built from cartilage that is not mineralized. However, their teeth
and scales are characteristically vertebrate as is their overall body plan. These fish are known as
chondrichthyans and their first clear appearance in the fossil record is Devonian. Two radiations of sharks
and their relatives have occurred, one in the Carboniferous and one in the Triassic/Jurassic. Most modern
forms can be traced back to the Mesozoic, including predators and giant filter-feeders such as the basking
shark.
Modern bony fishes, the osteichthyans, appeared in the late Silurian. During the Devonian they diverged
rapidly into two main groups, the ray-finned fish that dominate modern aquatic environments, and the lobe-
finned fishes. This latter group includes modern lungfish and the coelocanth, a famous "living fossil".
Although rare in the modern world, this is the group that gave rise to all terrestrial vertebrates - including
us.
Some acanthodians had spikes on their gill arches, which might have allowed them to sieve plankton from
water as modern baleen whales do. Primitive jawed fish were common in the Devonian, and are known
from freshwater and marine sediments worldwide. They declined thereafter, and the last acanthodians
became extinct in the end-Permian mass extinction.
Ray-finned fish have flexible fins supported by a lightly built fan of radiating bones, the rays. Most are
rapid swimmers, and the power for this swimming is generally provided by movements of the body or of
the tail, with the fins serving a steering function. Over time, these fish have tended to become more lightly
built, and the external skeletal elements have been abandoned fish, more properly known as
actinopterygians.
Lobe-finned fish are known as sarcopterygians. Their fins are sturdy and supported by a few large central
bones, usually supported by a strong linkage to the skeleton. In contrast to actinopterygians, the fins produce
a power stroke to move the fish along. This strongly built, powehl fin is a useful preadaptation to life on
land. Another useful adaptation is the ability to breath air. This is relatively common in fish, especially those
living in warm, shallow water, which is prone to become stagnant. In this environment many fish will suck
in bubbles of air from which they extract oxygen. Modern lungfish can breath air indefinitely.
Sarcopterygians reached their maximum diversity during the Devonian, and also gave rise to amphibians
in that period. They have formed a very minor component of fish faunas since that time.

3rd Slide (diagram of fish heads)

These took place in the late Palaeozoic, the late Triassic/Jurassic, and in the late Jurassic/Cretaceous. The
latest of these radiations saw the spread of teleost fish, whose mouthparts can be pushed outwards to form
a delicate sucking or plucking shape (Fig. 11.3). This innovation may have contributed to the success of the
group, which now includes at least 20,000 species.
(a) These early jaws were likely made of bone, although they might have been less specialized and
complex compared to the jaws of contemporary fish. They allowed for a wider range of feeding
strategies, providing a significant advantage in capturing and processing food compared to their
jawless counterparts.
(b) The jaw of a primitive bony fish likely consisted of bony elements derived from the modification
of the anterior gill arches. These bony elements formed a structure that allowed for more efficient
feeding and capturing of prey compared to their jawless ancestors. These jaws were less specialized
and sophisticated than those found in more derived bony fish. They might have been more rigid
and less versatile in their movements, lacking the intricate structures seen in later fish species.
(c) Advanced bony fish, such as many modern teleosts (ray-finned fish), possess more sophisticated
and specialized jaw structures compared to their primitive ancestors. These advanced bony fish
have evolved complex jaw mechanisms that allow for diverse feeding strategies and enhanced prey
capture. Key features of the jaw in advanced bony fish include: Mobile Joints: Modern bony fish
have highly mobile and articulated jaws, allowing them to open their mouths wide and generate
suction to engulf prey efficiently. This mobility provides greater flexibility and precision in feeding
movements. Multiple Bones: Their jaws are composed of several bones, including the premaxilla,
maxilla, dentary, and others, forming a complex structure that allows for grasping, manipulation,
and processing of food. Specialized Teeth: Advanced bony fish often have specialized teeth adapted
for different feeding habits. For instance, some have sharp teeth for tearing flesh, while others have
comb-like structures for filter-feeding or crushing plates for grinding food. Muscular Control:
Muscles attached to these jaw bones provide powerful and precise control over mouth movements,
aiding in prey capture, manipulation, and ingestion. Diversity of Feeding Strategies: Due to the
complexity of their jaws, advanced bony fish exhibit a wide array of feeding behaviors, including
predatory hunting, filter-feeding, grazing, scraping, and suction feeding
4th Slide
(Read the 4 bullets)
Amphibians are a diverse group of vertebrates that typically lead a dual life, inhabiting both aquatic and
terrestrial environments during their lifecycles. They play a crucial ecological role as both predators and
prey in various ecosystems. Amphibians are characterized by several key features:
Metamorphosis: Most amphibians undergo metamorphosis, starting as aquatic larvae (like tadpoles) and
transforming into adults that can live on land. This metamorphosis involves significant changes in their
body structure, including the development of limbs and the ability to breathe air.
Moist Skin: Amphibians have permeable skin that allows them to exchange water, electrolytes, and gases
with their environment. This characteristic skin necessitates a moist habitat to prevent dehydration.
Dual Life: They often breed and lay eggs in water bodies, where their larvae develop. As they mature, they
transition to a semi-aquatic or terrestrial lifestyle, though many species remain closely associated with moist
environments.
Ectothermic: Amphibians are ectothermic, meaning they rely on external sources to regulate their body
temperature. They are more active in warmer environments.
Feeding Habits: Their diet can vary significantly among species and includes insects, worms, small
invertebrates, and, in the case of some larger species, small vertebrates.
Amphibians are represented by three main groups: frogs and toads (Anura), salamanders and newts
(Caudata), and caecilians (Gymnophiona). However, they face numerous threats, including habitat loss,
pollution, disease, and climate change. These factors have led to a decline in amphibian populations
worldwide, making them a focus of conservation efforts.
This is the pattern of one upper bone, two lower bones, and many peripheral bones in each limb. For most
tetrapods there are five peripheral bones, for example our fingers, but some species have modified this
number and the earliest amphibians tended to have more than this, typically seven or eight digits.
(explanation sa diagram)

5th Slide
The coelacanth is a captivating fish renowned as a "living fossil" due to its ancient lineage and unique
features:
1. **Ancient Origins:** Dating back 400 million years, coelacanths are among the oldest vertebrates
known. Previously presumed extinct, they were rediscovered in 1938 off South Africa's coast.
2. **Unique Traits:** Their lobed fins resemble tetrapod limbs, containing bony structures akin to land
vertebrates' limbs, showcasing primitive characteristics.
3. **Habitat:** These deep-sea dwellers inhabit the Indian Ocean near the Comoros Islands and Indonesia,
favoring steep underwater caves at depths of 500 to 2,000 feet.
4. **Elusive Nature:** Due to their deep-sea habitat and slow movements, coelacanths are challenging to
study directly, contributing to their mystique.
5. **Conservation Concerns:** Despite being "vulnerable," their restricted range and low populations face
threats from accidental fishing capture and potential human-induced habitat disturbances.
Lungfish are fascinating and ancient fish known for their ability to breathe air. Here are some key points
about lungfish:
Primitive Lineage: Lungfish belong to an ancient lineage of fish that dates back around 400 million years.
They are considered "living fossils" due to their evolutionary history.
Ability to Breathe Air: One of the most distinctive features of lungfish is their ability to breathe air. They
possess both gills for underwater breathing and a specialized respiratory system that allows them to gulp
air from the surface. This adaptation helps them survive in oxygen-depleted water.
Rhiphidistian fish:

Ichthyostega is an extinct genus of tetrapodomorph—a group of vertebrates that includes the ancestors of
all terrestrial vertebrates, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. It's considered one of the
earliest tetrapods and an important transitional form in the evolution from fish to terrestrial vertebrates.
Key points about Ichthyostega:
1. Age and Discovery: Ichthyostega lived during the Late Devonian period, approximately 360
million years ago. Fossils of Ichthyostega were discovered in Greenland in the early 20th century.
2. Transitional Features: It had features of both fish and tetrapods. While it had limb-like
appendages, allowing it to potentially move on land, it still retained fish-like characteristics such
as gills and a fish-like tail, indicating it was likely amphibious.
3. Anatomy: Ichthyostega had a sturdy, four-legged body with a well-developed shoulder and hip
structure. Its limbs were likely capable of supporting its weight to some extent on land, although it
likely spent most of its time in the water.
4. Ecology: It probably lived in shallow-water habitats, using its limbs to navigate in water and
possibly venturing onto land for short periods.
5. Evolutionary Significance: Ichthyostega provides valuable insights into the transition from
aquatic to terrestrial life in vertebrates, showing how fish evolved into the first land-dwelling
tetrapods. Studying its anatomy and fossil record helps scientists understand the adaptations
necessary for life on land.
Modern amphibians are a diverse group of vertebrates known for their unique life cycle, typically involving
an aquatic larval stage and a semi-aquatic or terrestrial adult stage. This group includes three main orders:
Anura (frogs and toads), Caudata (salamanders and newts), and Gymnophiona (caecilians).
Key features and characteristics of modern amphibians:
1. Habitats and Lifestyles: Amphibians are found in a variety of habitats worldwide, ranging from
tropical rainforests to deserts. They often require moist environments as their skin is permeable,
allowing them to breathe through their skin. This reliance on moisture restricts many species to
habitats near water sources.
2. Metamorphosis: Most amphibians undergo metamorphosis, transitioning from aquatic larvae
(tadpoles in frogs and toads) with gills to terrestrial or semi-aquatic adults with lungs. This
transformation involves significant changes in body structure and function.
3. Skin and Respiration: Amphibians have permeable skin that allows for gas exchange. They can
absorb water and oxygen through their skin, but this also makes them sensitive to environmental
pollutants and changes. As adults, most rely on lungs for breathing, although some species have
adapted to absorb oxygen through their skin throughout their lives.
4. Reproduction: Amphibians typically reproduce by laying eggs in water, although some species lay
eggs in moist environments. The eggs lack a hard protective shell, making them susceptible to
desiccation, so they're usually laid in water or damp areas.
5. Diet and Feeding: Amphibians have varied diets. Many larvae are herbivorous or omnivorous,
feeding on algae or small organisms. Adults can be carnivorous, feeding on insects, small
invertebrates, or even other amphibians.
6. Conservation Concerns: Amphibians face significant threats due to habitat loss, pollution, climate
change, disease (such as chytrid fungus), and the introduction of non-native species. Many species
are declining or endangered, making amphibian conservation a global concern.
Amphibians are an ancient group of animals that have persisted for hundreds of millions of years, but they
face numerous challenges in the modern world. Their sensitivity to environmental changes makes them
important indicators of ecosystem health, and efforts to protect their habitats are crucial for their survival.
Hylonomus is a genus of small, lizard-like reptiles that is considered one of the earliest known reptiles. It
lived during the Late Carboniferous period around 315 million years ago. Hylonomus is significant because
it represents one of the first amniotes, a group of vertebrates that includes reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Key points about Hylonomus:
1. Size and Appearance: Hylonomus was relatively small, around 20-30 centimeters (8-12 inches)
in length. It had a lizard-like appearance, with a long body, short legs, and likely a long tail. Its
body structure suggests it was adapted for both climbing and walking.
2. Habitat: It likely inhabited forested environments, living among ancient plants such as ferns and
primitive trees during the Carboniferous period.
3. Amniotic Egg: Hylonomus is particularly significant because it belonged to the group of amniotes,
which are characterized by the presence of an amniotic egg. This type of egg allowed reptiles (and
later birds and mammals) to reproduce on land without the need for water, which was a crucial
adaptation for life on land.
4. Evolutionary Significance: As one of the earliest amniotes, Hylonomus holds a key place in the
evolutionary timeline, representing an important step in the transition of vertebrates from aquatic
to terrestrial habitats.
5. Feeding Habits: While specific details of its diet are not fully known, it's inferred that Hylonomus
likely fed on insects and other small invertebrates, typical of many small reptiles.

Synapsids are a group of vertebrates that includes mammals and their extinct relatives. They represent a
lineage of animals that diverged from other early amniotes and eventually gave rise to mammals. Synapsids
have a key distinguishing feature: a single opening in the skull behind the eye socket, called the temporal
fenestra.
Key points about synapsids:
1. Evolutionary History: Synapsids emerged during the Late Carboniferous period, around 315
million years ago. They were a diverse group that dominated terrestrial ecosystems during the
Permian and Triassic periods.
2. Skull Structure: The presence of the temporal fenestra in the skull is a defining characteristic of
synapsids. This opening allowed for the enlargement of jaw muscles, which likely contributed to
their success in adapting to various ecological niches.
3. Diversity: Synapsids exhibited diverse forms and sizes. Some were small, lizard-like creatures,
while others were much larger and more mammal-like in appearance. This diversity led to various
ecological adaptations.
4. Mammalian Evolution: Synapsids represent the evolutionary lineage that eventually gave rise to
mammals. Over time, certain synapsid groups developed characteristics such as specialized teeth,
 upright limb posture, and more advanced skull structures, which gradually evolved into the features
seen in early mammals.
5. Extinction and Successors: Many synapsid lineages became extinct by the end of the Triassic
period, but one branch survived and evolved into mammals, leading to the diverse mammalian
forms seen today.

Diapsids are a group of reptiles characterized by the presence of two openings, or fenestrae, on each side
of their skulls behind the eye socket. This skull structure distinguishes them from other reptiles like
synapsids, which have a single temporal fenestra on each side.
Key points about diapsids:
1. Skull Structure: Diapsids have a specific skull anatomy with two fenestrae on each side of the
skull. These openings provided additional space for jaw muscles, allowing for more efficient and
powerful biting.
2. Evolutionary History: The diapsids emerged during the late Carboniferous period and underwent
significant diversification during the Mesozoic era. They gave rise to various reptilian groups,
including dinosaurs, crocodiles, pterosaurs (flying reptiles), and modern reptiles such as lizards,
snakes, and tuataras.
3. Diverse Lineages: Diapsids evolved into numerous branches, each adapted to different ecological
niches. This diversity led to the emergence of various body forms, lifestyles, and habitats within
the diapsid lineage.
4. Extant and Extinct Members: Today, diapsids include a wide array of living reptiles, from the
agile and diverse lizards to the powerful and semi-aquatic crocodiles. Extinct diapsids include
iconic groups like the dinosaurs, which dominated terrestrial ecosystems for millions of years.
5. Evolutionary Success: Diapsids have been remarkably successful in adapting to various
environments, which contributed to their survival and diversification throughout the Mesozoic era
and into modern times.

Anapsids are a group of reptiles characterized by a lack of temporal fenestrae, the openings found in the
skulls of diapsids and synapsids. The term "anapsid" literally means "without arches." Unlike diapsids
(which have two temporal fenestrae) and synapsids (which have one), anapsids lack these skull fenestrae
altogether.
Key points about anapsids:
1. Skull Structure: Anapsids are characterized by a solid, unperforated skull lacking temporal
fenestrae. This skull structure is considered a primitive condition among reptiles.
2. Evolutionary History: Anapsids represent an ancient group of reptiles that emerged during the late
Carboniferous and early Permian periods. They were diverse during the Paleozoic era but declined
in diversity over time.
 3. Taxonomic Diversity: Anapsids included various groups, such as certain early reptiles like the
millerettids, certain turtles (though the classification of turtles has been a subject of debate), and
other ancient reptilian forms that went extinct long ago.
4. Turtles and Anapsid Classification: Turtles were traditionally considered anapsids due to their
seemingly solid skull structure lacking temporal fenestrae. However, modern studies have
suggested that turtles might have evolved from diapsid ancestors, with the fenestrae being lost or
modified over time, leading to uncertainties about their exact classification.
5. Decline and Extinction: Anapsids experienced a decline in diversity over geological time, with
many of their lineages becoming extinct. Turtles, if considered anapsids, are one of the few
surviving representatives of this group.

6th Slide
(Read the first 3 bullets)
An amniotic egg develops from a single fertilized cell. It contains the yolk, which develops into an embryo,
and its food supply (the "white"). In addition, there is a space for storing waste products and an air pocket
through which gases exchange with the air outside. The whole package is wrapped in a water-proof
membrane that can be rigid or flexible (Fig. 11.6). (explanation of the egg)
Other details of amniote anatomy can therefore be used to infer the appearance of egg-layers in the fossil
record. Unfortunately, eggs are very rare in the fossil record and the oldest known egg is Triassic in age.
(Read the first bullet) and this may be a reflection of their physiology. (Read the second bullet) and need to
maintain a functional body temperature by behavioral methods. They may bask in the sun, or need to burrow
to escape from excessive heat, for example. Such temperature regulation is much faster for a small animal,
with a high surface to volume ratio. (Read the 3rd bullet) as they lived mainly in water where temperature
control is easier.
7th Slide (diagram)
During the Carboniferous, reptiles radiated into the three main evolutionary lines, or clades, that have
dominated terrestrial environments since. This early radiation was into distinct lineages, which are most
characteristically differentiated by their skull structure. The anapsid lineage is primitive and has no holes
in the upper skull apart from the eye and nose apertures. This lineage is represented today by modern turtles
and tortoises. It has occasionally been more diverse than at present, but has never rivaled in importance the
two lines that evolved from it. The synapsid lineage evolved next, and had a single hole in the upper skull
behind the eye. This group evolved into mammal-like reptiles and eventually into mammals. The diapsids
evolved later and are characterized by two openings in the skull behind the eye. This group diversified into
most modern reptile groups, marine reptiles, dinosaurs, and birds.
Each advanced family of reptiles developed different solutions to the problem of greater mobility on land.
Amphibians have limbs that articulate at the knee and elbow. Their pelvic and shoulder girdles are rigid and
the backbone between flexes to one side and then the other as they walk. This limits their speed and also
the length of time for which they can move. As the spine flexes, it compresses one lung and then the other,
making it impossible to breath and walk at the same time. This limitation also applies to modern reptiles,
such as crocodiles, that can lunge at prey, but not chase a prey animal over any distance. Synapsids and
diapsids have at different times solved this problem, known as Carrier's constraint, in a variety of different
ways.