1) Why is the cell the basic unit of life?
The cell is the basic unit of life because it is the smallest structure capable of performing all the functions necessary
for life. Cells carry out essential processes such as metabolism, reproduction, and response to stimuli. All living
organisms are composed of one or more cells, and cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.
2) What are the modern tenets of the cell theory?
The modern cell theory states: 1) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2) The cell is the basic unit
of structure and function in living organisms. 3) All cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.
3) What are the mainly three types of junctions in animal cells?
The three main types of junctions in animal cells are: Tight junctions: Seal adjacent cells together, preventing the
passage of molecules between them.
Anchoring junctions: Connect cells to each other or to the extracellular matrix, providing mechanical stability.
Gap junctions: Allow direct communication between cells by permitting the passage of small molecules and ions.
4) What factors affect the membrane fluidity?
The fluidity of the cell membrane is influenced by several factors:
1. Temperature: Higher temperatures increase fluidity, while lower temperatures decrease
2. Cholesterol content: Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane and modulates fluidity.
3. Length of Fatty Acid Chains: Shorter fatty acid chains increase fluidity because they have less surface area to
interact with each other, while longer chains decrease fluidity.
5) Compare the components and the structure of ribosomes between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Prokaryotic ribosomes: 70S (50S + 30S subunits), smaller, and found in the cytoplasm.
• Eukaryotic ribosomes: 80S (60S + 40S subunits), larger, and found in the cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
6) What are the functions of glycosylation?
• Glycosylation, the addition of sugar molecules to proteins or lipids, has several functions:
1. Protein folding: Assists in proper protein folding and stability.
2. Cell-cell recognition: Plays a role in cell-cell communication and immune responses.
3. Protection: Protects proteins from degradation.
7) Describe the basic types of signal molecules and receptors.
Signal molecules: Include hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors.
Receptors: Most cell-surface receptors belong to three large families (e.g., G-protein-coupled receptors, Ion-
channel-coupled receptors, Enzyme-coupled receptors).
8) What is a nucleosome, and what are the proteins present in this structure?
A nucleosome is the basic unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotic cells. It consists of DNA wrapped around a core of
eight histone proteins (two copies each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4).
9) What "checkpoints" occur in the cell cycle? What is the role of each?
• G1 checkpoint: Ensures the cell is ready for DNA synthesis.
• G2 checkpoint: Ensures DNA replication is complete and the cell is ready for mitosis. •
M checkpoint: Ensures chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle fibers.
10) Give short definitions of the following terms:
1. Receptor: A receptor is a protein that binds to specific signaling molecules (ligands) like hormones or
neurotransmitters, initiating a cellular response. Examples include G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and receptor
tyrosine kinases (RTKs).
2. Second Messenger: Second messengers are small molecules (e.g., cAMP, IP3) that relay signals from receptors to
target molecules inside the cell, amplifying the signal and triggering cellular responses.
3. Cell Junction: Cell junctions are structures that connect cells to each other or to the extracellular matrix,
facilitating communication, adhesion, and mechanical stability. Examples include tight junctions, anchoring junctions,
and gap junctions.
4. Maturation-Promoting Factor (MPF) : MPF is a complex of cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) that regulates
the transition from the G2 phase to the M phase in the cell cycle, ensuring proper cell division.
5. Signal Transduction: Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal into a
specific intracellular response through a series of molecular events, such as receptor activation and pathway
signaling.
6. Cell Cycle Control : Cell cycle control involves regulatory mechanisms, including cyclins and Cdks, that ensure
proper progression through the cell cycle and prevent errors like DNA damage or incomplete replication.
7. Cyclin-Cdk: Cyclin-Cdk complexes are proteins that regulate the cell cycle by phosphorylating target proteins.
Different cyclin-Cdk pairs control specific stages of the cycle, such as G1 progression or mitosis.
8. Cell Differentiation : Cell differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells (e.g., stem cells) become
specialized in structure and function, leading to the development of specific cell types like muscle or nerve cells.
9. Cell Determination : Cell determination is the process by which a cell becomes committed to a specific
developmental pathway or fate. It occurs before differentiation and involves the activation of specific genes that
guide the cell toward its final specialized role.
