CHEMISTRY LESSON NOTICE

FORM THREE
PREPARED BY:
AMOS SIMON KATAMBI
[Link] (UDSM)

TOPICS
1. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
2. HARDNESS OF WATER
3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
4. THE MOLE CONCEPT AND RELATED CALCULATIONS
5. VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
6. IONIC THEORY AND ELECTROLYSIS
7. CHEMICAL KINETICS, EQUILIBRIUM AND ENERGETICS
8. EXTRACTION OF METALS
9. COMPOUNDS OF METALS

Page 1 of 91
TOPIC ONE; CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
SUB TOPICS
• Molecular Equations
• Ionic Equations

CONCEPT OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Chemical equation is a symbolic or words representation of a chemical reaction.
• It consists of two sides; reactant and product side.
• The numbers may be written in front of the formula or symbol, these are called
stoichiometric values/coefficients.

COMPONENTS OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical equation bears the following important components;
 Reactants
 Products
 Plus sign
 Arrow
1. REACTANTS
Refers to chemicals that starch the process of chemical reaction

2. PRODUCTS
Refers to the new substances formed from a chemical reaction

3. PLUS SIGN (+)

Is a sign used to separate each substance (reactants and products) in a chemical equation.

4. ARROW SIGN
Is sign used to show the direction of a reaction in a chemical equation meaning ‗produce‘ or
'yield'.

TYPES OF ARROWS
There two types of arrows used in chemical equations, namely
 Full headed arrow
 Half headed arrows

(a) Full headed arrow

A full headed arrow is used to separate reactants and products for an irreversible reaction.
 An irreversible reaction is a reaction which proceeds only in one direction
For example;
Reactants Products
Reactant 1+ Reactant 2 Product 1 + Product 2
Page 2 of 91
 (b) Half headed arrow
Double half headed arrows pointing in the opposite directions are used to separate reactants and
products for a reversible reaction.

 Reversible reaction is the type of reaction which proceeds in both forward and backward
direction.

WAYS OF REPRESENTIG CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Chemical equations are represented by using;
(i) Word equation
(ii) Molecular(formula) equation

WORD EQUATION

A word equation is the equation which is expressed in words.

 For example, when calcium metal reacts with chlorine gas to form solid calcium chloride,
the word equation is written as:
Calcium + Chlorine gas Calcium chloride

Limitations of word equation

(i) Do not give details on the composition, quantities, states of the reactants and products
(ii) Do not give the conditions for the reaction to take place.
(iii)Consumes a lot of space and time

FORMULA/MOLECULAR EQUATION

Is the equation which is written using the chemical symbols and formulas.
 For example, the formula equation for a reaction between calcium metal and chlorine gas:
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)

Advantages molecular equation

The formula equation is more useful than the word equation, although it is advantageous to write
the word equation first.
1. Formula equations give details on the composition, quantities, states of the reactants and
products
2. Formula equations give the conditions for the reaction to take place
3. Saves space and time

Page 3 of 91
Differences between molecular and word equation

S/N MOLECULAR EQUATION WORD EQUATION

1. It can be balanced It can‘t be balanced

2. It shows physical states of the Does not show physical states of the reagents
reagents
3. Shows relative proportions of the Does not show the relative proportions of the
reacting substances reacting substances
4. Occupies very small space with a lot occupies large space with little information
of information
5. Conditions required for the reaction, Conditions required for the reaction, such as heat
such as heat are included are normally not included

WRITING AND BALANCING MOOLECULAR EQUATIONS

When writing a chemical equation, the reactants and products must be balanced to abide with the
law of conservation of mass which states that ―in a chemical reaction, the total mass of the
products equals to the total mass of the reactants‖.

Balancing chemical equation involves ensuring that, the number of each atom on both sides of
the equation must be equal because atoms do not varnish during the reaction but reorganized.

Steps in writing and balancing chemical equation

(i) Write the equation in word form

(ii) Write the equation by using symbols and ensure all the formulas are correct.
(iii)Balance the number of atoms of all the elements on each side of the equation. Balance the
number of atoms by writing the appropriate number on the left side of a respective chemical
formula.
(iv) Include the state symbols.

Examples

1. Hydrogen chloride is formed when hydrogen burns in chlorine. Write an equation for the
reaction
Solution
 Write the equation in word form
Hydrogen + chlorine hydrogen chloride
 Write the formula equation.
H2+Cl2 HCl
Page 4 of 91
  Balance the formula equation.
The equation is not balanced because; hydrogen (H) has 2 atoms on the left and 1 atom
on the right. Chlorine (Cl) has 2 atoms on the left and 1 atom on the right. Another
molecule of hydrogen chloride (HCI) is needed on the right to balance the equation.
Thus, 2 is put before HCI to give H2+Cl2 2HCl
 Include the state symbols
H2(g)+Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

2. Zinc dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. Write a
balanced equation for this reaction

Solution
 Write the equation in word form
zinc + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride + hydrogen
 Write the formula equation.
Zn+HCl ZnCl2 + H2
 Balance the formula equation.
The equation is not balanced because, chlorine has 1 atom on the left and 2 atoms on the
right and hydrogen has 1 atom on the left and 2 atoms on the right. To balance this
equation, another molecule of HCI is needed on the left. Therefore, 2 is put before the
HCl molecule to give; Zn+2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
 Include the state symbols
Zn(s)+2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
EXERCISE 1.1
Balance each of the following equations
(i) 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑠) + 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝐻3(𝑔) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
(ii) 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂3)2(𝑎𝑞)
(iii) 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
(iv) 𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝐵𝑟2(𝑔) ⇌ 𝐻𝐵𝑟(𝑔)
(v) 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙(𝑠) ⇌ 𝑁𝐻3(𝑔) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔)

Page 5 of 91
IONIC EQUATIONS
An ionic equation is a chemical equation in which compounds in aqueous solution or ionic
compounds in molten state are written as dissociated ions.

 In this equations, spectator ions are omitted to give a net ionic equation
Spectator ions
Are ions which do not change their valence states in the reaction, since they remain unchanged in
a chemical reaction.

Net ionic equation

Is an ionic equation obtained after omitting spectator ions from the ionic equation.

Steps in writing an ionic equation

1.
Write the equation in words
2.
Write the equation in symbols making sure all formula are correct
3.
Ensure the equation is balanced
4.
Split all soluble ionic compounds into individual ions.(note: insoluble ionic compounds
should not be split into ions)
5. Appropriately insert the state symbols to indicate the state in which ions are in the
equation
6. Cancel out spectator ions and write the net ionic equation.
Examples

1. Write a net ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous solution of silver nitrate and
calcium chloride.
Solution
 Word equation
Silver nitrate +calcium chloride silver chloride+ calcium nitrate
 Formula equation
2AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) 2AgCl(s) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
 Total ionic equation
2 𝑔 + 2𝑁𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎 + 2𝐶𝑙 2 𝑔𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑎 + 2𝑁𝑂

 Cancel spectator ions

2 𝑔 + 2𝑁𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎 + 2𝐶𝑙 2 𝑔𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑎 + 2𝑁𝑂

 Net ionic equation

𝟐 +𝟐 𝟐

Page 6 of 91
2. Write a net ionic equation for the reaction of barium chloride with sodium sulphate aqueous
solution.
Solution
 Word equation
Barium chloride +sodium sulphate barium sulphate + sodium chloride
 Formula equation
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
 Total ionic equation
𝐵𝑎 + 2𝐶𝑙 + 2𝑁𝑎 + 𝑆𝑂 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 2𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐶𝑙
 Cancel spectator ions
 𝐵𝑎 + 2𝐶𝑙 + 2𝑁𝑎 + 𝑆𝑂 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 2𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐶𝑙
 Net ionic equation
𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟒 𝟒

3. Write a net ionic equation for the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and aqueous
sodium hydroxide.
Solution
 Word equation
Dilute hydrochloric acid +sodium hydroxide sodium chloride+ water
 Formula equation
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
 Total ionic equation
𝐻 + 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑂𝐻 𝐻𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙

 Cancel spectator ions

𝐻 + 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑂𝐻 𝐻𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙

 Net ionic equation

+ 𝟐

EXERCISE 1.2
Write the ionic equation for the following molecular equations
(i) NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O (l)
(ii) KOH(aq) + HCl (aq) KCl(aq) + H2O (l)
(iii)Cacl2(aq) + AgNO3 (aq) Ca(NO3)2 + AgCl (s)
(iv) NH4Cl(s)+Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) +NH3(g)
(v) Ba(NO3)2(aq) +Na2SO4(aq) BasSO4(s) + NaNo3 (aq)

Page 7 of 91
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one
set of chemical substances to another.
 The chemicals which begin the reaction are called reactants and the chemical substances
formed are called products.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

There are four major types of chemical reactions, these are;
(a) Synthesis/combination reaction
(b) Decomposition reaction
(c) Displacement reaction
(d) Double displacement reaction
(a) SYNTHESIS REACTION (DIRECT COMBINATION)

A combination reaction is a chemical reaction in which two or more chemical species combine
to form a single product. The general form of these reactions is: A + B → AB

Types of combination reaction

(i) Reaction between two or more elements
Two or more elements react to form a single compound
Examples:
 Magnesium+ oxygen magnesium oxide
Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s)
 Hydrogen + oxygen water
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
 Nitrogen gas + hydrogen gas Ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
(ii) Reaction between an elements and compounds
An element reacts with a compound to form another compound
Examples:
Carbon monoxide + oxygen carbon dioxide
CO(g) + O2(g) CO2(g)

(iii)Reaction between two or more compounds

Two compounds may react with each other to form another compound.
Examples:
 Calcium oxide + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate
CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s)
 Lead(IV) oxide + sulphur dioxide gas Lead (II) sulphate
PbO2(s) + SO2(g) PbSO4(s)

Page 8 of 91
(b) DECOMPOSITION REACTION
A decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction in which a single compound breaks down
(decomposes) into its component parts.
The reaction is expressed in basic form of AB A+B
The decomposition reaction is the opposite of a combination reaction.
Types of decomposition reaction
Generally, decomposition reactions are classified into three main types namely;
(a) Catalytic decomposition reaction
(b) Electrolytic decomposition reaction
(c) Thermal decomposition reaction

Catalytic decomposition reaction

In a catalytic decomposition, an agent called a catalyst is introduced that alters the rate of a
chemical reaction but remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Example : catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen perooxide water + oxygen

2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l)+ O2(g)

Electrolytic decomposition reaction
An electrolytic decomposition is achieved by exposing an aqueous solution or molten compound
to an electric current.
An example of an electrolytic decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water, which is
represented by the following chemical equation:
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Thermal decomposition reaction
Thermal decomposition occurs when a compound is exposed to direct heat or radiation.
 For example, when lead(II) nitrate crystals are heated, they decompose with a cracking
sound to produce lead(II) oxide, a brown nitrogen dioxide gas, and oxygen gas.
Lead(II) nitrate lead(II) oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen gas
2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
 Some decomposition reactions are caused by light. For example, white silver chloride breaks
down when exposed to light to give tiny black crystals of silver and chlorine gas.
Silver chloride silver + chlorine gas

2AgCl(s) 2Ag + Cl2(g)

Page 9 of 91
 (c) DISPLACEMENT REACTION
A displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive element from its compound.
This reaction is expressed in the general form as: A+BC AC+ B
Examples;
 When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it displaces hydrogen to produce zinc chloride and
hydrogen gas.
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride +hydrogen gas
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
 Reaction on reacts with copper(ll) sulphate. In this reaction, iron displaces copper from
copper(ll) sulphate.
Iron + Copper(II) sulphate Copper + iron(II) sulphate
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)

(d) DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION

Is the reaction where by the anions and cations of two compounds switch
places and form different compounds.
 It also known as double decomposition reaction .
 The general form of these reactions is: AB + CD → AD + CB
Examples:
(i) PbCl2(s) + HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + HCl(aq)
(ii) Ba(NO ) + H SO BaSO + 2HNO
3 2(aq) 2 4(aq) 4 (s) 3(aq)
(iii) MgCl + 2NH OH Mg(OH) + 2NH Cl
2(aq) 4 (aq) 2 (s) 4 (aq)

OTHER TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Other types of chemical reactions can be described as per the evntoccurring during chemical reaction.
These may actually fall in the four types described earlier. These are;
(i) Redox reaction
(ii) Precipitation reaction

REDOX REACTIONS
Is the reaction in which both oxidation and reduction occurs at a time.
• This reaction may involve transfer of electrons from one specie (((reducing agent) to another
(oxidizing agent).
• It may also involve exchange of oxygen or/and hydrogen.
• In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation state.
• However there are many reactions that are classified as "redox" even though no electron
transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds)

Page 10 of 91
EXAMPLES:

(i) When copper is heated with hydrogen it is reduced to copper metal while hydrogen gas is
oxidized to water
Copper (II) oxide + hydrogen gas copper + steam

 Copper is reduced by losing oxygen hence it is an oxidizing agent.

 Hydrogen is oxidized as it gains oxygen, hence it is a reducing agent.

(ii) When iron metal is heated in chlorine gas form iron (III) chloride
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2 FeCl3(s)

 In this reaction, Iron metal is oxidized by losing electron; hence it is a reducing agent. While
Chlorine is reduced by gaining electron, hence it is an oxidizing agent.
Fe(s) 𝑒 + 3e

Cl2(g) + 2e 2𝐶𝑙

PRECIPITATION REACTION
Is the reaction in which two soluble compounds (aqueous) reacts to form soluble and insoluble
compound.
The insoluble compound appears as solid particles known as precipitates, hence its name
It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions excdsthe solubility limit and forms an
insoluble salt.
Example:

(i) NaCl + AgNO NaNO + AgCl

(aq) 3(aq) 3(aq) (s)
(ii) Ba(NO ) + H SO BaSO + 2HNO
3 2(aq) 2 4(aq) 4 (s) 3(aq)
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Differentiate between the following
(a) Ionic equation and molecular equation
(b) Total ionic equation and net ionic equation
2. Why the use of balanced equation so important in the chemical manufacturing industries?
3. Study the following chemical reaction and answer the questions that follow;
CaCl2(aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 + AgCl (s)
(a) Write the type of reaction represented by the chemical equation
(b) Write a net ionic equation for the chemical reaction

Page 11 of 91
TOPIC TWO: HARDNESS OF WATER
SUB TOPICS
• The concept of hardness of water
• Types of hardness of water
• Treatment and purification of hard water

THE CONCEPT OF HARDNESS OF WATER

As water percolates through deposits of limestone, chalk or gypsum which are largely made up
of carbonates and bicarbonates, sulphates of calcium and magnesium it dissolves these
salts and direct them together with water in rivers, lakes and oceans.
• Water containing these dissolved minerals is said to be hard water.
• Rain water forms lather easily with soap, thus it is said to be soft water.
Hard water is the one which does not form lather easily with soap.
Hardness of water is the measure of the amount calcium and magnesium salts in water.

Formation of scum
Scum is a layer of debris or froth on the surface of a liquid. It is formed when hard water reacts with soap.
Soap is made up of sodium and potassium salts of organic acids called stearic acid.
This salt(scum) is simply represented as 𝐶𝑎(𝑆𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑔(𝑆𝑡) .
2 2

 When this salt from soap react with calcium or magnesium ions from hard water forms
scum(sodium stearate/potassium stearate)

Calcium sulphate + sodium stearate calcium stearate + sodium sulphate

CaSO4(aq) + 2NaSt(aq) Ca(St)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)

Hardness soap scum

 The problem of scum formation only occurs with soaps. Soap less detrgnsdoes not produce scum.

CAUSES OF HARDNESS OF WATER

Hardness of water is caused by dissolved calcium and compounds, these includes

 Calcium sulphate
 Calcium hydrogen carbonate
 Magnesium sulphate
 Magnesium hydrogen carbonate

Rocks which causes hardness of water

The rocks which causes hardness of water are
 Limestone rock(𝐶�𝑎�𝐶�O3)  Chalk rock(𝐶�𝑎�𝐶�O3)n
 Gypsum rock(𝐶�𝑎�𝑆�O4)  Dolomite rock(𝑀�𝑔�𝐶�O3)

Page 12 of 91
TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER
There are two types of hardness of water ,namely;
• Temporary hard water
• Permanent hard water

TEMPORARY HARD WATER

Temporary hard water is the one which can be softened by boiling.
• Temporary hard water is caused by dissolved hydrogen carbonates of calcium or
magnesium.

• It is formed when rain water pass through the limestone or chalk rocks(𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3) in
presence of carbon dioxide gas.

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂3)2(𝑎𝑞)

𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) 𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂3)2(𝑎𝑞)

PERMANENT HARD WATER

Permanent hard water is the one which cannot be softened by boiling.
• Permanent hard water is caused by dissolved sulphates and chlorides of calcium or
magnesium.
• It is formed when rain water pass through the gypsum rocks.

METHODS OF SOFTENING HARD WATER

• Boiling
• Distillation
• Treatment with lime water(calcium hydroxide)
• Use of sodium carbonate (washing soda)
• Use of ion exchangers
• Addition of aqueous ammonia

1. BOILING:
Boiling decomposes calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonates to form carbonates, water and
carbon dioxide gas. The calcium and magnesium ions are removed from water as insoluble
carbonates and then deposited as solids at the bottom of boilers. For example,

Ca(HCO3)(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Mg(HCO3)(aq) MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

• Boiling method is used to remove only temporary hardness of water because the sulphates or
chlorides of calcium or magnesium in hard water become more soluble as the temperature

increases .
Page 13 of 91
2. DISTILLATION
This process relies on evaporation followed by condensation to purify hard water. During
distillation, the hard water is heated to form steam which then cools and condenses to form soft
water.
The salts are left behind when water evaporates. This method is used to get rid of both
temporary and permanent water hardness.
It also gives the softest water that is used for various purposes such as in chemical industries,
medical laboratories, and research laboratories. However, distillation process is the most
expensive way to soften water.
• Distillation removes both temporary and permanent hardness of water.

3. TREATMENT WITH CALCIUM HYDROXIDE (LIMEWATER)

The soluble magnesium or calcium hydrogen carbonates react with calcium hydroxide to form
insoluble magnesium carbonate or calcium carbonate and water. For example,
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)+Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s)+ 2H2O

• The insoluble calcium carbonates are deposited and soft water is obtained.
• This method is used to remove temporary hardness of water.

4. USE OF WASHING SODA (NA2CO3 )

Sodium carbonate is added into water to form calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate
precipitates. This removes both temporary and permanent hardness of water. The reactions are
represented by the following equations:

• Ca(HCO3)2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s)+ 2NaHCO3(aq)

• Mg(HCO3)2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq) MgCO3(s)+ 2NaHCO3(aq)
• MgSO4(aq)+Na2CO3(aq) MgCO3(s)+ 2Na2SO4(aq)
• CaSO4(aq)+Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s)+ 2Na2SO4(aq)

5. ADDITION OF AQUEOUS AMMONIA

When aqueous ammonia is added to temporary hard water, the soluble hydrogen carbonates of
magnesium and calcium are converted into insoluble carbonates.
For example,
2𝑁𝐻 𝑂𝐻 +𝑀𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑂 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂 + 𝑁𝐻 𝐶𝑂 +2𝐻 𝑂
When aqueous ammonia is added to permanent hard water, the soluble sulphate of magnesium
and calcium are converted into insoluble hydroxides.
For example,
2𝑁𝐻 𝑂𝐻 +𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 → 𝑀𝑔 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝐻 𝑆𝑂

Page 14 of 91
6. USE OF ION EXCHANGERS
An ion exchanger is a container full of small beads which are made of a special polymer matrix
called ion exchange resin, containing sodium ions that are weakly attached to it.
When hard water is passed through an ion exchanger, calcium or magnesium ions replace
sodium ions and attach themselves on the resins. Calcium and magnesium ions are therefore left
behind in the resin as the soft water flows out with sodium ions.
• These treat both temporary and permanent hardness of water by removing all the calcium and
magnesium ions from water.
CaSO4(aq)+Na2Y(aq) CaY(s)+ 2Na2SO4(aq)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)+Na2Y(aq) CaY(s)+ 2NaHCO3(aq)

Hard water(with Ca2+) flows in in the ion exchanger

Soft water (with Na+ ions) flows out from ion exchanger

IMPORTANCE OF TREATMENT AND PURIFICATION OF HARD WATER

Treatment and purification of hard water is very important due to the following reasons:
l. Treated water minimises the quantity of soap that must be used for washing clothes, bathing,
and cleaning floor or tile surfaces.
2. Hard water that has been treated is suitable for uses in laboratories and medical facilities to
ensure accurate experimental findings and effective medical treatments.

3. Treated water reduces the scale build up on different containers and equipment, and
therefore prolonging their lifespan.
4. Treated water saves electrical energy because no formations of scums or scales on
appliances and utensils, making them more efficient.

ADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER

1. It tastes better due to dissolved compounds
2. It provides useful calcium for growth of bones and teeth.
3. Formation of lime scale (insulation) in pipes which prevent them from rust.
4. Help in the formation of strong shells in some aquatic animals.

Page 15 of 91
ADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER
1. It need more soap than soft water.
2. Scum leaves marks on clothing and in baths.
3. It spoils the quality some special finishes on clothes.
4. It causes lime scale layer in hot water pipes, boilers, kettles. This can make them less
efficient and even block them.
5. It‘s boiling point is elevated hence more fuel is used to boil it.
REVISION EXERCISE
1. The formation of lime scales in water pipes is both an
advantage and adisadvantage. Explain
2. Sample of water from four different areas were tested which soap
solution to establish how much soap solution was needed to form a
lather that lasted for at least 30 seconds. The experiment was repeated a
second time using samples that had been boiled and then a third time
using samples that had been passed through an ion exchanger. The
results as shown in the following table.
Sample Volume of soap solution used (cm3)
Untreatedwater Boiled Water passed in ion
water exchanger
A. 12 1.8 1.8
B. 17 17 1.7
C. 26 20 1.8
D. 1.6 1.6 1.6
(a) Which is the sample is the hardest water? Give a reason for your answer
(b) Which sample behaves like distilled water? Explain.
(c) Name a chemical substance that could be the causes of hardness in:
(i) Sample A
(ii) Sample B
(d) Write an equation for the reaction of removing hardness in sample C
3. Table below gives some information about the composition of three
samples ofwater from wells in Kahama, Maswa and Bukombe districts.
Ions Mineral content of water in mg per litre
Kahama Maswa Bukombe
Calcium, Ca2+ 28 82 18
Magnesium, Mg2+ 14 45 14
Chlorine, Cl - 52 7 25
Sodium, Na+ 7 140 40
Sulphate, SO42- 2 12 15
Hydrogen carbonate, HCO3- 280 5 90
(a) State two ways in which these ions get into the samples of water
(b) Giving two reasons, state the hardest sample of water.
(c) State two ways that can be used to remove ions in (b) above.

Page 16 of 91
 TOPIC THREE: ACIDS ,BASES AND SALTS
SUB TOPICS
• Acids and bases
• Indicators
• Salts

ACIDS
An acid is any substance which produces hydrogen ions (H+) in water as the only positively
charged ions.

• They are made of hydrogen ions and other ions.

• Examples of common acids include ;hydrochloric acid(HCl) ,sulphuric acid(H2SO4), nitric
acid (HNO3), acetic acid(CH3COOH), phosphoric acid(H3PO4), carbonic acid(H2CO3)and
methanoic acid(HCOOH) .
• Some acids occur naturally and some can be synthesised. The table below shows some
natural sources of acids and some natural acids with their corresponding sources,
respectively.

Name of natural acid Natural sources

Citric acid Citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges

Lactic acid Sour milk, cheese, and muscles

Acetic acid Vinegar and rotten fruits such as grapes, pineapple and orange

Tartaric acid Grapes , bananas and tamarind

Oxalic acid Spinach and tomatoes

Formic acid Bee or ant stings

Ascorbic acid Fruits and vegetables, for example tomatoes

Folic acid Fruits, vegetables, nuts and grains

Malic acid Apples, strawberries, and plums

TYPES OF ACIDS
Acids can be classified depending on two criteria
(a) Basing on the strength of the acid.
(b) Basing on the nature of the acid.

Page 17 of 91
(a) BASING ON STRENGTH OF THE ACID
Basing on strength of acids, there are two types of acids namely; strong acids and weak acids
(i) STRONG ACIDS
Are the acids which dissociate completely when dissolved in water to form free ion in aqueous
solution.
• Strong acids release a lot of hydrogen ions.
The table below shows examples of strong acids with their respective complete dissociation into
ions.

Strong acid Dissociation when dissolved in water

Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) 𝐻 𝐶𝑙
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) 𝐻 𝑁𝑂
Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) 2𝐻 𝑆𝑂

(ii) WEAK ACIDS

Are the acids which dissociate partially when dissolved in water to form free ions in aqueous
solution .
• Weak acids releases limited (few) number of hydrogen ions
The table below shows examples of weak acids with their respective partial dissociation into
ions.
weak acid Dissociation when dissolved in water
Acetic acid CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ 𝐻 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝑂𝑂
Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) ⇌ 2𝐻 𝐶𝑂
Oxalic acid H2C2O4(aq) ⇌ 2𝐻 𝐶𝑂
Phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq) ⇌ 3𝐻 𝑃𝑂

(b) BASING ON NATURE OF THE ACID

Basing on nature of acids, there are two types of acids namely; organic acids and inorganic acids

(i) ORGANIC ACID

Organic acids are the acids that are derived from organic compounds.
• Most of the organic acids are found in our daily life.
• Examples: Acetic acid, ascorbic acid, tannic acid, oxalic acid.

(ii) INORGANIC ACIDS

Inorganic acids are the acids which derived from inorganic compounds.
• They are also known as mineral acids.
• Examples; nitric acid, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, carbonic acid.

Page 18 of 91
BASICITY OF AN ACID
Basicity of an acid is the number of ionisable hydrogen atoms per molecule of an acid that can be
replaced by a metal in solution.

• According to basicity, acids can be grouped into three groups namely; monobasic, dibasic and
tribasic acids.

MONOBASIC ACIDS
Are the acids with one ionisable hydrogen atom per molecule of an acid that can be replaced by a
metal in a solution.

DIBASIC ACIDS
Are the acids with two ionisable hydrogen atoms per molecule of an acid that can be replaced by
a metal in a solution.

TRIBASIC ACIDS
Are the acids with three ionisable hydrogen atoms per molecule of an acid that can be replaced
by a metal in a solution.

The table below shows basicity of some acids

Name of an acid Dissociation when dissolved in water Basicity
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) 𝐻 𝐶𝑙 Monobasic
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) 𝐻 𝑁𝑂 Monobasic

Acetic acid CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ 𝐻 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝑂𝑂 Monobasic

Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) 2𝐻 𝑆𝑂 Dibasic

Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) ⇌ 2𝐻 𝐶𝑂 Dibasic

Oxalic acid H2C2O4(aq) ⇌ 2𝐻 𝐶𝑂 Dibasic

Phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq) ⇌ 3𝐻 𝑃𝑂 Tribasic

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

Acids have certain physical and chemical properties

(a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

1. Acid has a sour taste.
2. Most acids are water soluble ; They can be diluted to reduce their intensity of their acidity
3. Solutions of acids turn blue litmus paper red.
4. Bases change the colour of phenolphthalein (POP) indicator colourless and that of methyl
orange (MO) indicator pink/red.
5. Acid is electrolyte, hence have ability to conduct electricity when in solution form.
Page 19 of 91
6. Acids are corrosive in nature. They can corrode various substances such as papers, clothes and
wooden materials.

(b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

1. Acids have a pH less than 7 in the pH scale.

2. Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce salt, water and
carbondioxide gas.
Examples ;
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaHCO3(s) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

3. Acids react with metals above hydrogen in reactivity series to form salt and hydrogen gas.
Examples;
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

4. Acids react with metal oxides or hydroxides to form salts and water only.
Examples;
2HCl (aq) + CaO(s) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
5. Acid react with ammonia gas to form ammonium salts
Examples;
HCl(aq) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

BASES
A base is a chemical substance that neutralizes an acid by reacting with hydrogen ions.
• Bases include the oxides ,hydroxides and carbonates of metals
• Examples of bases are sodium hydroxide(NaOH),potassium hydroxide (KOH) ,calcium oxide
(CaO), Lithium oxide (𝐿�𝑖� 2 𝑂�),sodium carbonate(𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 )and potassium carbonate
(𝐾 𝐶𝑂 )

ALKALI
An alkali is a soluble base which when dissolved in water forms hydroxides as the only negatively
charged ions.
• Examples of alkali are Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide, Ammonium hydroxide,
Sodium oxide, Potassium oxide

Page 20 of 91
NOTE:
• Calcium hydroxide and lead hydroxide are moderately soluble in water. Oxides and hydroxides
of other metals are insoluble except those of sodium and potassium.
• All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

STRENGTH OF BASES
The strength of a base or alkali is its ability to ionize in aqueous solution to produce hydroxide
ions. The more the base ionizes in solution ,the stronger it is.
• Based on the strength of a base, there are two types of bases namely; strong bases and weak
bases.

STRONG BASES
Strong bases are the bases which dissociate completely when dissolved in water to form free ions
in aqueous solution.
• Examples of strong bases are potassium hydroxide(KOH) and sodium hydroxide(NaOH)
KOH(aq) 𝐾 𝑂𝐻
NaOH(aq) 𝑁𝑎 𝑂𝐻

WEAK BASES
Weak bases are those bases which do not completely dissociate into their free ions in aqueous
solutions.
• The most common weak base is ammonium hydroxide
NH4OH(aq) ⇌ 𝑁𝐻 𝑂𝐻

PROPERTIES OF BASES

Bases have physical and chemical properties that differ from those of acids.

(a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES

1. Most bases have a bitter taste.
2. Bases turn red litmus paper blue.
3. Have a soap or slippery feel.
4. Most bases are insoluble in water
5. Bases change the colour of phenolphthalein (POP) indicator pink and that of methyl orange
(MO) indicator yellow.
6. Bases generally do not have odour except ammonia which has pungent smell.
7. They are corrosive depending on their pH and concentrations.
8. Soluble bases (alkalis) conduct electricity when dissociated in ions.

(b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES

1. The bases have pH values greater than 7
2. Bases react with most cations to precipitate hydroxides.
Examples;
3KOH(aq) + FeCl3(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + 3KCl(aq)
2NaOH(aq) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Page 21 of 91
3. Bases react with bases to form salt and water as the major products.
Examples ;
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaHCO3(s) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2HCl (aq) + CaO(s) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

4. Alkalis react with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas, water and salt.
Examples ;
𝑁a(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙(𝑠) 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)
K(𝑎𝑞) + (𝑁𝐻4)2SO4(𝑠) K2SO4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) + 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)

ACIDITY OF BASES

The acidity of a base is he number of hydroxide ions that a basic molecule can produce in the
aqueous solution.
On the basis of acidity, bases are classified into three types: monoacidic, diacidic and triadic
bases.

MONOACIDIC BASE
Is the base which produces one mole of hydroxide ions per one molecule of a base in the aqueous
solution.
DIACIDIC BASE
Is the base which produces two moles of hydroxide ions per one molecule of a base in the
aqueous solution.
TRIACIDIC BASE
Is the base which produces three moles of hydroxide ions per one molecule of a base in the
aqueous solution .
The table below shows acidity of some bases
Name of a base Dissociation of the base Acidity of a base
Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq) 𝑁𝑎 𝑂𝐻 Monoacidic

Potassium hydroxide KOH(aq) 𝐾 𝑂𝐻 Monoacidic

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2(aq) 𝐶𝑎 2𝑂𝐻 Diacidic

Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3(aq) 𝑙 3𝑂𝐻 Triacidic

Page 22 of 91
NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
Neutralization is the reaction between base and acid to form salt and water.
• The reaction is referred to as neutralization reaction because the resulting products are neither acidic nor
basic.
Acid + base →salt + water

• The reaction that involve the reaction of an acid with carbonate or hydrogen carbonate produce carbon
dioxide in addition to salt and water
Acid + carbonate/hydrogen carbonate → salt +water+ carbon dioxide

Examples of neutralization reactions include;

• 𝐻𝑁𝑂 +𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝐾𝑁𝑂 +𝐻 𝑂

• 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 +𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂
• 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂
• 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 +𝐶𝑎 𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 2𝐻 𝑂

NOTE;
• To identify the end point for acid base reaction, an indicator must be added. For example
when phenolphthalein indicator is used in a particular titration (by running the acid from
a burette to a base in a flask), the pink colour of the contents in the flask starts to change
to colourless.
• The volume of the acid that has neutralized the alkali is called a titre value.

APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRALIZATION REACTION

1. Treating insect stings and bites

• Acidic liquids injected into the skin by ant bite, bee sting and nettle(leaves) sting is
neutralized by rubbing with baking soda (NaHCO3) in affected area(cucumber, ash and
avocado may also be used).
• Wasp sting are alkaline and can be neutralized by vinegar (acetic acid).

2. Control of soil pH
Neutralization can be applied in amending the soil pH of the field.
• When soil is too acidic lime materials include quick lime (CaO), Slaked lime (CaOH) and
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) added to neutralize soil.
• When soil is too much alkaline iron sulphate, ammonium based fertilizer and organic
matter may be used.

3. Relieving indigestion
Stomach pain (indigestion) or heartburn is caused by presence of excess acid (HCl) in the
stomach. It is relieved by tablets containing magnesium bicarbonates or sodium bicarbonates.

Page 23 of 91
4. Treating factory wasters
Waste from factories often contain acid which can cause death to living organism either land
or water bodies. To prevent these lime materials added to neutralize wastes from industries.
5. Manufacture of fertilizers
Ammonium fertilizers are produced from neutralization between ammonia gas with mineral
acids.
For examples;
HCl(aq) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

6. Preventing formation of acidic rain

Acidic rain is caused by acidic gases like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide produced by the industries in the atmosphere leading to acidic rainfall. To reduce the
problem, air pollution devices containing bases are fitted in exhaust pipes to neutralize the
acidic compounds before reaching the atmosphere.

INDICATORS
An indicator is a substance that changes its colour or smell to indicate the presence or absence of
some chemical species.
• Acid base indicators are chemicals that are used to determine the chemical nature of a
substance; whether it is acidic or base.
• Acid base indicators are also known as pH indicators because alkalinity and acidity relate to
pH range.
• Indicators normally change colour to indicate the presence or absence of acids or base.

The table below shows some of the common acid base indicators

Indicator Colour acidic medium Colour in basic medium

Litmus Red Blue

Methyl orange Red Yellow

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

OCCURRENCE OF pH INDICATORS
pH indicators may occur naturally and may also synthesized.

(a) NATURAL pH INDICATORS

Is a substance which is found naturally and can be used to determine whether the substance is
acidic or basic.
• Examples of natural indicators are turmeric, grape juice, red cabbage, cassava leaves, onion,
beetroot ,and coloured flowers like of hibiscus.
• For example;
 Red cabbage juice is pink in acids and green in bases.
 Hibiscus flower extract has pink colour in an acid and green colour in base.

Page 24 of 91
 The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus which is extracted from lichens, having
a purple ,red and blue colour in distilled water, acidic solution and basic solution.

(b) SYNTHETIC pH INDICATORS

Are chemical substances which are made from different substances in the laboratory and used to
determine the pH of substances .
• Examples of synthetic indicators include
i. Universal indicator
ii. Phenolphthalein (POP)
iii. Methyl orange (MO).
UNIVERSAL INDICATOR
Universal indicator is a chemical substance that displays several colour changes across a wide
range of pH values.
When an acid or base solution is added to the universal indicator, a new colour is produced
which is used to determine the pH value of the acid or base by matching the colour with the
colours on the pH colour chart.

pH value Colour of the universal indicator

1-2 Red

3 pink

4 Brown

5 Yellow

6-8 Green

9-10 Blue

11-12 Indigo

13-14 Violet

pH SCALE
pH scale is a scale of numbers ,from 0 to 14 which is used to express acidity, neutrality and
alkalinity .
• Specification of the pH values
 pH=7 means neutral
 pH<7 means acid
 pH>7 means base

Page 25 of 91
• pH of a substance is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of a water soluble substance.
• Mathematically; pH of a substance is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ions concentration
of a solution.
𝑝�𝐻� = −log[𝐻 � ]
+
Where: [𝐻� ]= Hydrogen ions concentration

pH-METRE
pH-metre is an electronic device which is used to measure the pH of a substance.
• It consist of a glass electrode which is connected to the metre that measures and display the pH
of a substance.

USES OF pH INDICATORS

1. They are used to give rough pH values of chemical solutions and drinks such as fruit juices
and water.
2. They are used in acid base titrations to show completion of the reaction(end point)
3. They are used in agriculture to test the alkalinity or acidity of the soil.
4. They are used to test pH of water used in swimming pools to ensure that water used is
approximately neutral
5. They are used in wastewater monitoring to avoid environmental pollution

SALTS

Salt is an ionic compound which is made up of positively charged ions(cations) and negatively
charged ions(anions) formed when all or part of hydrogen ions in an acid is replaced by a metal
or metallic cation
• The cation of a salt can be any positive ion, except H+, and it will be a simple metal ion or
𝑁𝐻
• The anion of a salt can be any negative ion, except OH-

OCCURENCE OF SALTS
Salts occur naturally and are also synthesized in the laboratory.
• The main natural sources of salts include sea water and rocks.
• Different salts are used in our homes and industries for various purposes. These include table
salt (NaCl), washing soda (Na2CO3• 10H2O), Plaster of Paris (CaSO4.H2O)and bleaching
powder(Ca(OCl2))

Page 26 of 91
TYPES OF SALTS

Depending on the pH value of the solution obtained when the salts are dissolved in water, salts
are categorized into three types namely;
• Neutral salts
• Acidic salts
• Basic salts
Depending on their formation and compositions, salts are categorized into two types, namely;
• Normal salts
• Double salts

NEUTRAL SALTS
These are salts that produce neutral solutions when dissolved in water.
• They are formed by the reactions of strong acids and strong bases.
• Neutral salts, when categorized basing on formation and composition, are termed as normal
salts.

A NORMAL SALT
Are salts formed by complete replacement of replaceable hydrogen atoms from an acid molecule
by a metal, or a group of species acting like a metal.
• Examples of these salts are NaCI, KCI, K2SO4, KClO3, MgCl2, CuSO4, MgSO4, and NaNO3.

ACIDIC SALTS
Are those salts that produce acidic solutions when dissolved in water.
• They are formed when a strong acid reacts with a weak base.
• Their aqueous solutions turn blue litmus paper red.
• Acidic salts may contain one or more replaceable hydrogen atoms present in an acid
molecule or positive radical.
• Examples of acidic salts include FeCl3, ZnCl2 ,HgCl2, NaHSO4, NaHPO4, (NH4)2SO4, and
NH4Cl.

BASIC SALTS
Are class of salts that produce alkaline solution when dissolved in water.
• They are formed from the reaction between strong base and weak acid
• Their aqueous a solution turn red litmus paper blue
• Examples of basic salts are CH3COONa, Na2CO4, NaHCO3 and Na2C2O4

DOUBLE SALTS
This is the salt formed by intimate association of two simple salts when crystallize from their
solution mixture.
• Examples are potash alum [KAl(SO4)2.12H2O],and ferric alum[NH4Fe(SO4)2.12H2O]

PREPARATION OF SALTS

There are several methods of preparing salts.

• The selection of the method to be used depends on whether the salt required is soluble or
insoluble in water.

Page 27 of 91
PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS

The following methods are used in preparation of soluble salts

(i) Reaction of acids with metals(displacement reaction)
Metals higher in reactivity series than hydrogen react with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen
gas
Metal + acid salt + hydrogen gas
Example; Zn + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(s)

(ii) Reaction of acids with metal oxides and metal hydroxide (neutralization method)
Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with acids to produce salt and water only.
Metal oxide + acid salt + hydrogen gas
Metal hydroxide + acid salt + hydrogen gas
Examples
• K2O(S) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
• NaOH(aq)+ HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

(iii) Reaction of acids with insoluble bases

Insoluble bases react with acids to form soluble salts and water
Insoluble base+ acid salt + water
Examples
• ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
• Cu(OH)2(s)+ HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(iv) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates
Most metal carbonates react with acids to produce salt, water and carbondioxide.
Carbonate + acid salt + water + carbon dioxide
Example Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(v) Reaction of acids with metal hydrogen carbonates
• Metal hydrogen carbonates, or commonly known as bicarbonates, are compounds in the
form of MHCO3, where M represents a metal.
• Metal carbonate react with acids in the same way as metal carbonates to form a salt,
water and carbon dioxide gas.
Hydrogen carbonate + acid salt + water + carbon dioxide
Example 2NaHCO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
(vi) Preparation of salts by direct combination
• If salts are required in anhydrous form, they cannot be prepared by wet methods.
• In this case it is possible to prepare by direct combination
For example, in preparation of iron (III) chloride, dry chlorine is passed over hot iron wire or
steel.

Page 28 of 91
 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2 FeCl3(s)

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

• Insoluble salts are prepared by using ionic precipitation or double decomposition method.
• In this method, two soluble salts are used to form an insoluble salt and a soluble salt.
• The insoluble salt precipitates, while the soluble salt remains in solution. The precipitate is
filtered and washed with distilled water and then dried.
• For example, to prepare insoluble lead (II) iodide, the solution containing lead ions and
another containing iodide ion are mixed. Such solutions could be lead (II) nitrate and
potassium iodide. A bright yellow precipitate of lead (II) iodide is formed after mixing. The
chemical equation for this reaction is as follows:

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s)+ 2KNO3(aq)

• Other common insoluble salts which can be prepared by using this method include calcium
sulphate (CaSO4), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), silver chloride (AgCl), barium carbonate
(BaCO3), barium sulphate (BaSO4), and lead (II) sulphate (PbSO4).

PROPERTIES OF SALTS

Salts exhibit different physical and chemical properties

(a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SALTS
Physical appearance of salts
Salts range from crystalline to powder in appearance and exhibit different colours depending on
their types.
• For example, hydrated copper(ll) sulphate is a blue crystalline salt, while sodium chloride is
a white crystalline salt. Ferrous chloride is a green crystalline salt, while calcium nitrate is a
white crystalline salt. Calcium carbonate is powdered white.

Solubility of salts
Solubility of a solute in a given solvent is the number of grams of the solute required to saturate
100g of solvent at a given temperature

Page 29 of 91
Or; Is the amount of grams or moles that dissolve in a solvent to form a saturated solution at a
given temperature.

• Some salts are more soluble in certain solvents than others.

• The table below summarizes the solubility of salts in water.

(b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SALTS

Action f heat on salts

Different salts behave differently when heated. Some salts will decompose after slight heating,
yet others have to be strongly heated. Some do not decompose at all even with strong heating.
(i) Action of heat on carbonates
 Sodium and potassium carbonates do not decompose even when strongly heated
• Na2CO3(s) No reaction

• Na2CO3(s) No reaction
 The carbonates of magnesium , calcium ,copper , zinc ,lead decompose to give respective
metal oxide with evolution of carbondioxide gas

• CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)

• CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

• MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)

• ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

• PbCO3(s) PbO(s) + CO2(g)

Page 30 of 91
  Ammonium carbonate behaves differently when heated. It decomposes slowly even at
room temperature to produce ammonia gas, water and carbondioxide.
(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g)+ H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(ii) Action of heat on nitrates

• Most nitrates decomposes on heating to give metal oxides, brown fumes of nitrogen
dioxide and oxygen gas

The table below summarizes the effect of heat on some nitrates

Examples;
• 2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
• 2KNO3(s) 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
• 2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s)+ 4NO2(g)+O2(g)
• 2Ca(NO3)2(s) 2CaO(s)+ 4NO2(g)+O2(g)
• 2Mg(NO3)2(s) 2MgO(s)+ 4NO2(g)+O2(g)
• 2Zn(NO3)2(s) 2ZnO(s)+ 4NO2(g)+O2(g)
• 2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s)+ 4NO2(g)+O2(g)
• NH4NO3(s) 2N2O(g) + H2O(g)

(iii) Action of heat on sulphates

Sulphates are generally more stable to heat than nitrates. Even sulphates of metals that are low in
the reactivity series must be heated strongly to decompose.
 Sulphates of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals do not decompose when heated
 Sulphates of copper and zinc decompose when heated strongly as per the following
chemical equations.

CuSO4(s) CuO(s) + SO3(g)

ZnSO4(s) ZnO(s) + SO3(g)

Page 31 of 91
 ammonium sulphate, decomposes on heating to give sulphuric acid and ammonia gas.
• During heating, the sulphate first decomposes to give ammonium hydrogen sulphate as
shown in the following equations

(NH4)2SO4(s) NH4HSO4(l)+ NH3(g)

• On cooling the product ,ammonia gas and sulphuric acid are formed
NH4HSO4(l) NH3(g) + H4SO4(l)
(iii) Action of heat on ammonium salts
• All ammonium salts decompose on heating
• For example ammonium chloride decomposes (sublimes) into hydrogen chloride and
ammonia gases as shown in the chemical equation below.

(NH4)2Cl(s) HCl(g) + NH3(g)

DELIQUESCENCY, HYGROSCOPY, AND EFFLORESCENCY IN SALTS

Basing on exposure to air, salts are categorized as deliquescent, hygroscopic or effloscent salts

 Deliquescency is the process by which a compound absorbs water from the atmosphere and
form solution.
 Deliquescent salt is a salt which absorbs water from the atmosphere and form solution
Examples: CaCl2, NaOH, KOH, P4O10(in water it forms H3PO4)
 Hygroscopic salt ; is a salt which absorbs water from air without necessary forming
solution.
Example: CaO, CaCl2, NaNO3, KCl, NaCl, CuSO4

•
The tendency of CaCl2 to absorb water vapour explains its use as a drying agent for may
gases except ammonia because it.
 Efflorescence: is the process by which a compound loses its water to the atmosphere.
 Efflorescent salt is the one which when left in air loses all the water of crystallization.
Examples: Na2CO3.10H2O, Na2SO4.10H2O, FeSO4.7H2O

GENERAL USES OF SALTS

(i) Control of soil pH: Calcium oxide added when soil is acidic and calcium sulphate (gypsum)
added when soil is alkaline.

(ii) Used as antacid: Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt) and sodium hydrogen carbonate are
used to relieve heartburn and acid in the stomach.

(iii) Used as inorganic fertilizer: Inorganic fertilizers like ammonium sulphate, ammonium
nitrate and calcium phosphate are salts.

(iv) Alleviation of health disorders; various salts are used to alleviate problems associated with
health conditions. These salts include chlorides, phosphates and sulphates of sodium ,potassium
and calcium

Page 32 of 91
(v) Production of pesticides: certain salts are used as pesticides to kill or control pests such as
insects, rodents , weed and fungi. For example cooper (II) sulphate, iron (II) sulphate, sodium
chlorate (V) are used for control of fungi in crops.

SPECIFIC USES OF SOME SALTS IN DAILY LIFE

The table below shows specific uses of some salts in daily life

Page 33 of 91
REVISION EXERCISE
[Link] two roles of indicators in chemistry laboratory.
2. Two colourless solutions P and Q into different test tubes were tested using coloured
solutions X and Y. On addition of solutions X, solution P turns pink and colorless on reaction
with solution Q. But on reaction with solution Y solution P turns yellow.
(i) Identify solutions P and Q.
(ii) Identify solutions X and Y.
(iii)Explain what happens when two drops of solution Y are added to solution Q
3. In the storage room of the chemistry laboratory, the following solutions of soluble salts were
available: BaCl2, Na2CO3, CuSO4, Pb(NO3)2, KI .Assume you are the chemistry teacher and
required to prepare any three insoluble salts using the available soluble salt,
(a ) Name the method that you will use for preparation
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for preparation of three insoluble salts from the available soluble
salts provided.

Page 34 of 91
TOPIC FOUR:THE MOLE CONCEPT AND RELATED CALCULATIONS

SUB TOPICS
• The mole as a unit of measurement
• Applications of the mole concept

THE MOLE AS A UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

Mole of substance is the amount of substance containing as many particulate entities(atoms ,

molecules, or ions) as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 isotope.

• A mole is an SI unit of amount of substance. It‘s short form is ―mol‖

• The term mole is derived from the Latin word ―moles‖, which means large mass or bulk

AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT

In order to establish a quantitative relationship between one mole of a substance and the
respective number of particulate entities, the number of particulate entities contained in 12 g of
carbon—12 will be calculated.

• The measured mass of carbon-12 is 1.9927 x 10-23g. The number of atoms in 12 g of

carbon—I2 is obtained by dividing the 12g by the measured mass.

That is ; = 6.02198 10 ≈ 6 022 10 atoms

• This number 6 022 10 is know o's constant or Avogadro's number expressed by the
symbol,𝑁 .
• The constant was named after Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian physicist (1776—1856)
honored for his work on gases.
• One mole of any substance therefore contains 6 022 10 particulate entities, that is,
atoms, molecules or ions,.
• Avogadro’s constant is the number of particulate entities contained in one mole of a
substance.

Mole and other units

Unit of measurement Number of objects per unit

Pair 2 objects. Example: shoes, socks

Dozen 12 Objects. Example: Cups, plates

Gross 144 Objects. Example: Chalks in the box

Page 35 of 91
 Ream 500 Objects. Example: sheets of papers

Mole 6.2𝑥1023 Particles. Example: atoms, ions, molecules

• 1 mole of atoms = 6.02𝑥1023 atoms

• 1 mole of ions = 6.02𝑥1023 ions
• 1 mole of molecules = 6.02𝑥1023 molecules

Amount of substance in moles(n) =

That is; n=

Then , number of particulate entities (N), can be expressed as :

N= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁 )
That is; 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑁
EXAMPLES
12
1. Calculate the number of moles of ammonia in 4.03 x 10 molecules.
Solution
12
Given , number of molecules(N) = 4.03 x 10 molecules
Avogadro‘s constant = 6 022 10 molecules/mol

From; number of moles(n) =

Then , number of moles= =6 692 10 moles

𝟏𝟐
Therefore; number of moles=𝟔 𝟔𝟗𝟐 𝟏𝟎 moles

2. Calculate the number of atoms in 0.45 moles of aluminium

Solution

Given , number of moles(n) = 0.45 moles

Avogadro‘s constant = 6 022 10 atoms/mol
From; N= 𝑛𝑁
Then; number of atoms(N) = 0 45 6 022 10 atoms/mol
= 2 7099 10 atoms
Therefore; number of atoms= 𝟐 𝟕𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 atoms

Page 36 of 91
EXERCISE 4.1

1. Calculate the number of moles of ammonia in 4.03 x 1014molecules.

2. Calculate the number of atoms in 0.65 moles of sulphur.

3. How many moles of nitrogen are there in 2.2 x 1012molecules of the gas?

4. Calculate the number of ions in 0.24moles of copper(II) nitrate

MOLAR MASS
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of that substance.
• Different substances have different molar masses because the number of sub atomic particles
present in an atom differs from one substance to another.
• The molar mass of an element is expressed in gram per mole (gmol-1or g/mol).
• Molar mass is quantitatively similar to a dimensionless physical quantity known as Relative
Atomic Mass (RAM).
 For example, the molar mass of sodium is 23 g/mol, because the RAM of sodium is 23.
 Similarly; the molar mass of aluminum is 27 g/mol because the RAM of aluminum is 27.
• The molar mass of a molecular substance is its Relative Molecular Mass (RMM) obtained by
summing up the relative atomic masses(RAM)

EXAMPLES

Compute the molar mass for each of the named compounds;

1. Sulphuric acid (𝐻 𝑆𝑂 )
The relative atomic masses of elements are ;H= 1, S=32, O= 16
Molar mas of (𝐻 𝑆𝑂 = (2× 1) + (1 × 32) + (4 × 16) = 98g/mol

2. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

The relative atomic masses of elements are;H= 1, Cl=35.5
Molar mas of HCl=(1× 1) + (1 × 35.5) = 36.5g/mol

3. Ammonium sulphate (𝑁𝐻 𝑆𝑂

The relative atomic masses of elements are ; N= 14, H= 1, S= 32, O=16
Molar mass of(𝑁𝐻 𝑆𝑂 = [(1× 14)+(1 × 4)] 2+(1 × 32) + (4 × 16) = 132g/mol

Page 37 of 91
4. Hydrated copper(II) sulphate(CuSO4.5H2O)
The relative atomic masses of elements are ;Cu= 63.5, S= 32,O= 16,H= 1
Molar mass = 63.5+ 32+ (16 4 [ 1 2 16] 5 = 𝟐𝟒𝟗 𝟓𝐠 𝐦𝐨𝐥

EXERCISE 4.2
Calculate the molar mass for each of the following;

a) NaOH
b) (NH4)2SO4
c) Al2(SO4)3
d) BaSO4
e) C2H5OH
f) (NH4)2Cr2O7

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NUMBER OF MOLES AND MOLAR MASS

Number of moles(n) =

That is ; n=

Mass(m)= number of moles(n) molar mass(Mr)

That is; m=nMr

Molar mass(Mr) =

That is ; Mr =
EXAMPLES

1. The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24:

(a) How many moles are there in 35.8g of magnesium?
(b) What is the mass of 3. 58 moles of magnesium?
Solution
(a) Given ;mass(m)= 35.8g ,molar mass =24g/mol

From; number of moles(n)=

Then ; number of moles(n)= = 1.492moles

(b) Given ; number of moles= 3.58moles, molar mass =24g/mol

Required; mass of magnesium
From; Mass(m)= number of moles(n) molar mass(Mr)
Then mass(m) = 3.58moles 24g/mol = 85.92g
2. How many copper atoms are there in a pure copper plate weighing 36g? (Cu= 63.5g/mol)

Page 38 of 91
Solution
Given , mass(m) = 36g , molar mass = 63.5g/mol
From; N= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁 )

But; Number of moles(n) =

Then; N= = 𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁 )

N= 6 022 10 atoms/mol = 3 414 10 atoms

Number of copper atoms = 𝟑 𝟒𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 atoms

3. How many molecules are there in 5.3g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)?
(Na= 23, C= 12, O=16)
Solution
Given ; mass of Na2CO3= 5.3g
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = (23 2 + 12+ (16 3 = 106g/mol
From; N= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁 )

But; Number of moles(n) =

Then; N= = 𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁 )

N= 6 022 10 atoms/mol = 3 011 10 molecules

Number of copper atoms = 𝟑 𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 molecules

4. The equation below shows the dissociation of sulphuric acid into its ions
H2SO4(aq) 2𝐻 � �𝑆𝑂
From the equation, how many ions are there in 9.8g of sulphuric acid?
Solution
Given ; mass of H2SO4= 9.8g
Molar mass of H2SO4 = (1 2 + 32+ (16 4 = 98g/mol
From ; Number of moles(n) =

Number of moles(n) = = 0.1moles

From the equation, 1 mole of sulphuric acid contains 2 moles of hydrogen ions and 1 mole of
sulphate ions. Therefore, there are three moles of ions in one mole of sulphuric acid.
1 mole of H2SO4 3 moles of ions
0.1 moles of H2SO4 x
� � � �
X= �= 0.3moles of ions
� �

From; N= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑁 )

N= 0.3moles of ions 6 022 10 ions/mol = 1.8066 10 ions
Therefore, number of ions in 9.8g of H2SO4= 1.8066 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 �ions
Page 39 of 91
EXERCISE 4.3

1. How many moles are there in each of the following substances

(a) 24g of calcium

(b) 108g of potassium nitrate

(c) 4.23kg of zinc carbonate

(Zn= 65.4, Ca= 40,K=39, N= 14, O=16, C= 12)

2. Calculate the mass of each of the following substances

(a) 4.4moles of iron

(b) 0.2 moles of hydrochloric acid

(c) 0.035moles of hydrated iron(III) chloride (FeCl3.6H2O)

(Fe= 56, Cu= 63.5, S= 32, Cl= 35.5,O= 16, H=1)

3. Calculate the number of ions in 10.8g of lead(II) nitrate

(Pb= 207, N= 14, O= 16)

MOLAR VOLUME
Molar volume is the volume of one mole of a substance.
• It is related to the density of the substance and varies with temperature and pressure.
• Hence, molar volume is expressed as:

Molar volume =
• This relationship may be deduced into the number of moles as:

Number of moles =
• In case of gases, the volumes at standard temperature and pressure (STP) are used. For
this purpose, 0oC or 273 K temperature is taken as the standard temperature and 1
atmosphere (atm) or 1 bar or 760 mmHg or 101325 Pascal (Pa) pressure is taken as the
standard pressure.
3
• One mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm at standard temperature and pressure (STP).
• This is according to the Avogadro's Law which states that, ―equal volumes of all gases
measured at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of particles
(molecules or ions)”
3
• The 22.4 dm is known as the gram molecular volume (GMV) of a gas.
GRAM MOLECULAR VOLUME (GMV)
Is the volume occupied with one mole of a gas at standard temperature and pressure(STP)
Page 40 of 91
For example:
3
• One mole of oxygen gas occupies 22.4 dm or 22.4 litres at STP
3
• One mole of hydrogen gas occupies 22.4 dm or 22.4 litres at STP.
3
• One mole of chlorine gas occupies 22.4 dm or 22.4 litres at STP.
Therefore, the number of moles of a gas can be calculated by using the following equation.

Number of moles (n) =

That is; n=
• The volume of a gas at STP can be calculated by using the following equation.
Volume of a gas at STP(V)= number of moles(n) gram molecular volume (GMV)
That is; V= nGMV
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the amount of substance 2. Determine the volume of 0.5 mol of
present in 48.8L of oxygen at S.T.P. carbon dioxide gas at
(G.M.V=22.4litres mol) S.T.P. (G.M.V=22.4𝐿�)
Solution Solution
Data ; volume , (V)= 48.8L , Molar volume,
3 Data given: Amount of 𝐶�𝑂� ,n= 0.5mol
2
GMV= 22.4𝑑�𝑚� ,Molar volume, GMV= 22.4𝐿�
Required: Amount of O2 • Required: Volume , V
From; Number of moles (n)
From; n= , then V= nGMV

= Volume of CO2= 0.5 moles 22.4L/mol

=11.2L
= = 2.18moles Therefore; volume of CO2�= 11.2L

Therefore; amount of O2 = 2.18moles

3. Determine the volume of 5g of ammonia gas at S.T.P. (G.M.V=22.4dm3, N=14, H=1)

Solution
Data given: Mass, m= 5g ,Gram molecular But; number of
volume, GMV= 22.4dm3 moles(n)=
◦ Molar mass, 𝑀�r of 𝑁�H3=(1 14
1 3 = 17𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙, Then; Volume of 𝑁�𝐻�3
Required: Volume of 𝑁�𝐻�3 = 𝐺𝑀𝑉
From n= , then V= nGMV 3 3
= 22.4𝑑�𝑚� /mol =6.588 𝑑�𝑚�

Therefore; Volume of NH3 =6.588 dm3

Page 41 of 91
 EXERCISE 4.4

1. Calculate the volume of the following gases at STP

a) 0.25 mol of chlorine gas

b) 5.6g of nitrogen gas

2. How many molecules of chlorine gas are there in 8.5dm3 of the gas at STP?

3. Work out the volume of 22g of CO2 molecules would occupy at STP.

4. What is the relative molecular mass of gas Y if the mass of 560𝑐𝑚 of gas Y measured at
STP is 2.20g?(Y is not the actual symbol of the gas)

5. Calculate the volume of 7.0𝑥1022 molecules of ammonia

PREPARATION OF MOLAR SOLUTION

Solutions are prepared by dissolving a solute in a solvent.
• An aqueous solution is formed when water is used as a solvent.
• A molar solution is a solution which contains one mole of solute dissolved to make one
litre(1𝑑𝑚 ) of the solution.
For example;
• A molar solution (1M) of sulphuric acid contains 98g of H2SO4 in a litre of the solution
while sodium hydroxide contains 40g of NaOH in a litre of the solution.

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
Concentration of a solution is the quantity of a solute in a given volume of a solution.
• The quantity could be in terms of grams or moles.

(a) MASS CONCENTRATION(C);

Is the mass of solute dissolved in one litre of the solution.

Mass concentration(C)=

That is ; C=
 For example, a solution of sodium chloride made by dissolving 10 g of the solute to make
up a litre of the solution has a concentration of 10 g/litre or 10 gdm-3

(b) MOLAR CONCENTRATION OR MOLARITY(M)

Is the number moles of solute dissolved in one litre of the solution.

• Molarity is expressed in mol/litre or 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚 ,also expressed as ―M‖

Molarity (M)=

That is ; M =
Page 42 of 91
• This formula can be further linked with mass concentration by introducing mass of the
substance and molar mass.

Number of moles n =

[ ] [ ]
( )
Thus, molarity(M) = =

Molarity(M) = , that is ;M=

EXAMPLE
Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions:
(a) 4.0g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 250cm3 of a solution
(b) 6 moles of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)in 10litres of a solution

Solution

(a) Given , mass of NaOH = 4.0g, volume,V = 250cm3 = 0.25dm3

Molar mass of NaOH= 23+16+1= 40g/mol

4 0g
Mass concentration(C)= = = 16g/dm3
𝑑𝑚3

From ; Molarity(M) =

= = 0.4mol/dm3
40g mol

Therefore ,molarity of NaOH= 0.4M

(b) Given ; number of moles =6mol, volume,V= 10 litres

From ; Molarity (M)=

Molarity (M)= = 0.6M
�

Therefore, molarity of Na2CO3= 0.6M

Page 43 of 91
DILUTION LAW
Dilution is a process of lowering concentration of a solution by adding more solvent (distilled
water)

• In dilution, only the volume of the solvent is increased, while the number of moles of the
solute in the solution remains the same.
• Number of moles before dilution = Number of moles after dilution
𝑛 =𝑛
• Remember ; M = , then; n = MV
• 𝑛 =M1V1 ; 𝑛 =M2V2
 Then ;
M1V1=M2V2
Where ; M1- molarity of solution before dilution
M2- molarity of solution after dilution
V1- volume of solution before dilution
V2- volume of solution after dilution

STOCK SOLUTION
Is a concentrated solution from which dilute solutions are prepared.

DILUTION FACTOR
Is the number of times the volume of the concentrated solution is diluted to obtain a less
concentrated solution.

Dilution factor =

Or; Dilution factor =

EXAMPLE
(a) What volume of 10M acetic acid is required to prepare 5.0dm3 of 0.25M acetic acid?
(b) Use the information in part (a) to find the dilution factor

Solution

Given ; M1= 10M, V2= 5.0dm3 , M2= 0.25M

(b) Required ; dilution factor
(a) Required; V1 From; Dilution factor =
From dilution law; M1V1=M2V2
� = = 40
V1= = =
Therefore, the dilution factor is 40
0 125𝑑𝑚 �=125𝑐𝑚 meaning that the concentrated
Therefore, volume of 10M acetic solution should be diluted 40 times.
acid required = 𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒅𝒎𝟑 �or
𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑
Page 44 of 91
APLLICATION OF MOLE CONCEPT
The mole concept is widely applied in chemistry. Applications of mole concept include ;
• Stoichiometry
• Determination of empirical formula
• Determination of molecular formula
• Determination of molar mass and masses
• Determination of concentration(molarity)
• Determination of volume

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between the reactant and the product in a balanced
chemical equation.
• Consider the reaction below
Example;
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) s
This can be read as; 3moles of hydrogen gas reacts with 1mole of nitrogen gas to form
2moles of ammonia gas.
• The numbers 3,1 and 2 are called stoichiometric coefficients/values
• They tell us the proportions of reactants that form products.

 In any chemical reaction for the reaction to stop at least one of the reactant should have
been finished.
• The reagent which is fully consumed is called limiting reagent or limiting reactant

LIMITING REAGENT
Is the reactant in the chemical reaction that determines the amount of product that is formed.

OR
Is the reactant that is fully consumed when a reaction goes to completion.

EXAMPLES
1. 0.2mol hydrogen reacted with nitrogen to produce 2.24 L of ammonia at STP. Calculate
(a) Amount of nitrogen reacted
(b) Volume of nitrogen reacted
(c) Find the amount of excess hydrogen.
Solution
Consider the balanced chemical equation

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Given , volume of ammonia at STP = 2.24L

From; Number of moles (n) =

= = 0.1moles

Page 45 of 91
Number of moles of ammonia gas = 0.1moles

From a balanced equation;

1 mole of N2 2 moles of NH3
X 0.1moles of NH3
� � � � �
X= = 0.05moles of N2
� �

Therefore, number of moles of nitrogen required = 0.05moles

2. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide gas that will be produced at STP when a 20g sample
of calcium carbonate is completely decomposed on heating.

Solution

Consider the balanced chemical equation

CaCO3(aq) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

• Convert 20g of CaCO3 into number of moles;

From ; Number of moles(n) =

Molar mass of CaCO3= [40+ 12+ (16 3) ]= 100g/mol

Number of moles(n) = = 0.2 moles of CaCO3
From a balanced equation;

1 mole of CaCO3 1 mole of CO2

0.2 mole of CaCO3 X

� � � � �
X= � �
= 0.2moles of CO2

• Convert 0.2moles of CO2 to volume

From; Number of moles (n) =

then V= nGMV
Volume of CO2= 0.2 moles 22.4L/mol =4.48L
Therefore; volume of CO2= 4.48L

Page 46 of 91
EXERCISE 4.5
1. When 0.12g of a metal was dissolved in excess dilute sulphuric acid, 112𝑐𝑚3of dry
hydrogen at STP were evolved. Calculate the mass of the metal which replaces 1g of
hydrogen, if the density of hydrogen at STP is 0.09𝑔𝑑𝑚−3. Identify the metal.
2. 2g of a mixture of potassium chlorate and potassium chloride yielded on heating
336cm3 of oxygen at S.T.P. What is the percentage mass of potassium chlorate in the
mixture?
3. Give two significances of stoichiometry in industrial production
4. An empty polythene container was found to have mass of 35g and volume of 56
dm3. Hydrogen sulphide gas recently prepared was pumped into the container
resulting to an increase in mass while volume remained constant. Determine the mass
of the polythene container together with hydrogen sulphide gas at STP.
5. What mass of ammonia will be evolved by heating together 100g of ammonium
chloride and 70g of calcium hydroxide? Which of the reagents is in excess and by
what mass?
6. 2.10g of a mixture of potassium chlorate and potassium chloride were heated until
the evolution of oxygen was complete. What is the percentage by mass of potassium
chloride in the mixture if the total volume of oxygen collected was 3.36dm3 at S.T.P?
7. A certain reaction required 20.0cm3 of NaOH solution containing 8.0gdm3 to
neutralize 0.18g of a dibasic acid. Calculate the relative molecular mass of the acid
.(Na=23, O=16, H=1)

Page 47 of 91
TOPIC FIVE :VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
SUB TOPICS
• Standard volumetric apparatus
• Standard solution
• Volumetric calculations
• Applications of volumetric analysis

CONCEPT OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

Volumetric analysis refers a method based on the measurement of the volume of a solution
required to react completely with a definite volume of another solution.
• By comparing the volumes of the two solutions, the concentration of one substance can be
calculated provided that the concentration of another solution is known.
• The volumes of the two solutions, their stoichiometric ratios in the chemical reaction, and
their concentrations are involved in the calculations.
• The volume required to complete a particular reaction is easily identified through colour
changes of the resulting products or pH indicators used during titration.

COMMON TERMS
1. Titration is a chemical analysis in which the unknown quantity or concentration of a
chemical species is determined by adding to a known quantity or concentration of another
substance.
2. Standards solution (titrant) is solution of known concentration usually added to the
burette during titration.
3. Titrand (analyte) is solution of unknown concentration usually added to the conical flask
4. End point is the point in titration whereby reactants have reacted completely indicated by
change in colour of the indicator.
5. Equivalence point (stoichiometric point) is the point in titration at which titrant and
titrand will have reacted together proportionally.
• The equivalent point is estimated by using the stoichiometric relationship between the
reactants
STANDARD VOLUMETRIC APPARATUS
Standard volumetric apparatus refers to various apparatus that are used in volumetric analysis.
These apparatus include;
• burette • Funnel
• Pipette • Retort stand and clamp
• Volumetric flask • White tile
• Conical flask • Dropper
Page 48 of 91
S/N APPARATUS DESCRIPTION USE(S)
1. Burrete • Graduated glass tube with a Used to accurately
tap at one end (some with measure and dispense
rubber with clip or marble) liquids or solution
for controlling the flow of during titration
solution.
• The most common burette has
a capacity of 50𝑐𝑚

2 Pipette • Thin calibrated glass tube Measuring and

with or without a wide middle transferring
part definite/specific
• Common pipettes have volume of liquids or
capacities of 20𝑐𝑚 or solutions
25𝑐𝑚 .
• Other fixed volumes of
pipettes are 10𝑐𝑚 and 5𝑐𝑚
,which are known as
micropipettes.
3. Volumetric flask • They are calibrated to contain They are used in
a specific volume of solution measuring specific
ranging from 5𝑐𝑚 or volume of liquid,
5000𝑐𝑚 therefore used to
prepare standard
solution

4. Conical flask • Common conical flask has Used for mixing

capacity of 250𝑐𝑚 reagents thoroughly
• It has a neck which is easily during titration for the
held while swirling the reaction to proceed
contents inside and complete.
• It has a flat bottom to allow it
to stand on the base without
support

5. Funnel • It can be made of different Used to pour a

materials such as glass, solution into the
aluminium or plastic materials burette without
spilling it.

6. Retort stand and clamp • Mede up largely of metallic Used to hold the
materials burette in an upright
• The clamp can be adjusted to position while
different positions from the performing
base of the retort stand volumetric analysis
experiments

Page 49 of 91
7. White tile • The conical flask or beaker is Give clear background
placed on a white or white for observing the
paper during titration colour change at the
end point of the
titration.

8. Dropper • It is made up of glass or glass Used to transfer an

material indicator into a
solution drop by drop

EXERCISE 5.1
1. explain the meaning of the following terms
a) volumetric analysis
b) Titration
c) Titrant
d) Titrand
2. Why it is not advisable to blow the remaining solution from the pipette?
3. Why it is necessary to clean and rinse any volumetric apparatus with distilled water before
using it?

STANDARD SOLUTIONS
A standard solution is a solution with a precisely known concentration of a substance.
• The concentration of a solution is expressed in moles per litre (mol/L) or moles per cubic
decimetre (mol/dm3).
• This concentration is abbreviated by capital ―M‖ and the resulting concentration is known as
the molarity.
• Thus, molarity is the concentration of a solution expressed in moles per litre of a solution.
• The concentration of a standard solution is usually expressed in four decimal places, for
example, 0.1000 M and 1.5000 M.

• In volumetric analysis, the unknown concentration of a solution is determined by using the

solution of known concentration, of process known as standardization.

Hence, standardization is the determination of unknown concentration of a solution (analyte

/titrand) by using a solution of known concentration (titrant).

PRIMARY STANDARD SOLUTIONS

Standard solutions are usually prepared from primary standards.

• A primary standard is a substance with high purity and stability used to prepare standard
solutions.
• Examples of primary standards are sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) for acid base titrations, and
examples for redox titrations are potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and oxalic acid (H2C2O4).
Page 50 of 91
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY STANDARDS

Primary standard reagents should have the following characteristics:

1. They should have high purity to enable preparation of exact concentration of solutions.
2. They should be stable hence do not decompose with time or when exposed to air.
3. They should have no water of hydration, that is, should not be hygroscopic or efflorescent.
4. They should be less volatile or nonvolatile so that cannot easily lose any component due to
evaporation.
5. They should be highly soluble in water.
6. They should have high molecular mass to enable measurement of a significant amount of a
substance for a specific concentration.

SECONDARY STANDARD SOLUTION

Secondary standard solution is the solution whose exact concentration is determined by

standardization using primary standards solution.
• Most common acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCI) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as well as
bases such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) are not primary
standards because they absorb water or vaporise during storage or preparation.
• Their exact amounts cannot therefore be determined by direct measurement (weighing).
However, their concentrations in solutions can be determined by standardising with primary
standards.
PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTION
• Standard solutions are prepared by dissolving a known amount primary standard to get a
known volume of a solution by using a specific solvent such as distilled water.
• If a particular primary standard is not available, the solution should standardised with a
primary standard solution of another substance.
• For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is a primary standard which can be used to standardise
silver nitrate solution by titration.
(a) PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTION FROM SOLID CHEMICALS
1. Identify the volume and concentration of the standard solution required.
2. Calculate the number of moles of the substance needed to make up the standard solution.
3. Work out the molar mass of the substance.

Page 51 of 91
4. Using the results of the calculations in Step 2, calculate the mass of the substance needed to
prepare the standard solution.

5. Carefully weigh the required mass of the substance (use an analytical balance).
Do the following in order to weigh the required mass accurately:
(a) Weigh empty watch glass and note reading, 𝑴�
𝟏�
(b) Add the mass of substance to watch glass and Weigh watch glass together with mass of
substance, 𝑴�
𝟐�
(c) Subtract mass of watch glass and substance from empty watch glass to get mass of a solute
substance.
�������𝑴� = 𝑴� − 𝑴�
� 𝟐� 𝟏�
6. Transfer the primary standard into a beaker. Rinse the watch glass using distilled water
from wash bottle and pour rinse water into the beaker.

7. Stir the mixture in the beaker with glass rod until all the soluble is dissolved,
then transfer the solution into a volumetric flask.
8. Rinse the beaker and the glass rod using distilled water from a wash bottle
and pour rinse water into the volumetric flask.
9. Add water to the solution to just below the graduated mark on the volumetric
flask.

10. Top up the solution with water up to the graduated mark using aclean dropper to make sure that
the lower meniscus is exactly at the graduated mark.
11. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to ensure the solution is
homogenous.
12. Work out the molar concentration (Molarity) of the solution.
13. Label the solution correctly by indicating its name and
concentration.
Page 52 of 91
For example:

Sulphuric acid(H2SO4)

Molarity, M= 0.25M
NOTE: This method can be used to standardize any chemical substance which is in solid form not
only base (eg oxalic acid).

(b) PREPARATION OF SECONDARY STANDARD SOLUTIONS OF COMMON BASES

AND MINERAL ACIDS
• Common bases and acids are likely to have low degree of purity ,the factor which accounts
for why they cannot be used as primary standards
Preparation of standard solution of bases and mineral salts requires standardisation with primary
standards to obtain secondary standard solutions.

PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS OF MINERAL ACIDS

• Solutions of mineral acids are prepared by dilution of concentrated acids. Concentrated acids
are bought as stock solutions from chemical suppliers.
• The molar concentrations of the stock solutions are usually not indicated on the reagent
bottles.
 Only the density or specific gravity, molar mass, and percentage purity of the acids are
indicated on a label on a bottle.

PROCEDURES
1. Calculate molar concentration (Molarity) stock solution by using data indicated on reagent
bottle.

Molarity of stock solution =

2. Measure the volume of concentrated acid by using a measuring cylinder.

• The volume can be determined using 𝑴2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

the dilution law.
𝑴1𝑽1 = 𝑴2𝑽2 𝑽2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

⸫This means 𝑽2= 𝑽1 + 𝑽𝒘

Where:
𝑴1 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑽1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Page 53 of 91
3. Put water in the 250ml beaker about half of it and pour acid into water in the beaker.
Remember: Always add acid slowly into water and not vice versa.
4. Rinse the measuring cylinder with distilled water and add in the beaker.
5. Transfer the solution in the beaker into the volumetric flask. The beaker should be rinsed
two times with water and pour water in the flask.
6. Add water to the solution to just below the graduated mark on the volumetric flask. Then fill
up the flask with water to the lower meniscus of the graduation mark with clean dropper.
7. Invert the flask several times to obtain a uniform solution
NOTE: This method can be used to standardize any chemical substance which is in liquid form
not only acid(eg ammonia solution).

EXAMPLES
1. The industrial sulphuric acid is usually labeled as containing 1.84g/ml and percentage purity
of 98%. Calculate the molarity of theacid.
Solution
Data given ;
Density = 1.84g/ml , Percentage purity = 98%.
Molar mass of 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 = [(1X2) + 32+ (16X3)] = 98g/mol
From ; Molarity of stock solution =

= =18.4 M
Therefore, Molarity of the acid is 18.4M
2. A student wants to prepare a solution whose concentration is 0.4000M from 100.00𝑐𝑚
of 2.0000M hydrochloric acid. How many times should the solution be diluted?
Solution
Given ;
Initial concentration 𝑀 = 2.0000M
Initial volume 𝑉 = 100𝑐𝑚 Dilution factor = = =5

Final concentration 𝑀 = 0.4000M Or; Dilution factor = = =5

Required; final volume 𝑉 =?
Thus, the solution should be diluted five
From dilution law; M1V1=M2V2 times.
�
V2= = =500.00cm3

Page 54 of 91
EXERCISE 5.2
1. The industrial hydrochloric acid is labeled as containing a density of 1.14𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 and
percentage purity of 35%.
a) Calculate the molarity of the acid.
b) What will be the volume of the solution made when 15𝑐𝑚3of this acid is diluted to form a
solution of molarity 0.05M.
2. The percentage purity of nitric acid is 68% and it‘s density is
1.42𝑔/𝑐𝑚3. 10𝑐𝑚3 of this acid was diluted to 500𝑐𝑚3, calculate
a) Molarity of the acid in the bottle.
b) The molarity of the solution that was prepared.
3. A solution was prepared by diluting 5ml of 2M nitric acid to make one litre of a solution
for titration experiment. Calculate
(a)The molarity of the solution prepared.
(b) The volume of water that was added to prepare the solution in (a) above.

PERCENTAGE PURITY OF ALKALIS AND ACIDS

• Many chemicals sold commercially are usually not 100% pure.
• Their purity in terms of compositions are based on mass or volume, and must be determined
before being used in preparation of solutions. The higher the composition of the substance
needed, the higher its purity.
• The composition can be expressed in terms of either weight (w/w%), volume (v/v%) or both
weight and volume (w/v%).
• In many cases, the percentage weight (w/w%) is expressed as wt% or % for density.
• The purity is very important as impurities can interfere reactions of the pure substance
involved.
• The percentage purity of the sample is obtained by the following formula:

Percentage purity = 100

• In order to determine the mass of a pure substance from a given impure solid substance that
is required to prepare a certain solution,
 first calculate the amount (number of moles) of a pure chemical substance.
 Secondly, multiply the number of moles of a pure substance by the molar mass of
the substance to get the mass of the pure substance that is required. That is;
Page 55 of 91
 Mass of pure substance = moles of pure substance x molar mass

• To obtain mass of impure substance use the formula;

Mass of impure =

• For the liquid reagents such as acids use the formula;

Volume needed =

EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the mass of 98.5% Na2CO3 required for preparing 10.6g Na2CO3.
Solution

From ; Mass of impure =

Mass required = = = 10.76g

Therefore, mass required = 10.76g

2. What mass of potassium hydroxide with 85.9% purity is needed to prepare 2 litre of
0.2500M solution of potassium hydroxide? The molar mass of potassium hydroxide is
56.11g/mol
Solution
First ,calculate mass of pure substance required
From ; Molarity(M) =
Then, Concentration = molarity x molar mass
= 0.2500mol/dm3 x 56.11g/mol= 14.03g/litre

From ; Mass concentration(C)= �� �

Then; mass = mass concentration x volume of the solution(L)

=14.03g/litre x 2 litres = 28.06g
Mass of impure potassium hydroxide is given by ;

Mass of impure =

Mass of impure = = = 32.6659g

Therefore, 32.6659g of the impure potassium hydroxide are needed to prepare 2 litres of
0.2500M potassium hydroxide solution.

Page 56 of 91
3. What volume of hydrochloric acid with 37.1% and density of 1.2g/cm3 should be used to
prepare 2.5 litre of 0.1000M of hydrochloric acid solution?(the molar mass of hydrochloric
acid is 36.5g/mol)
Solution
First , convert number of moles to mass
From ; Molarity(M) =
Then, Concentration = molarity x molar mass
= 0.1000mol/dm3 x 36.5/mol= 3.65g/litre

From ; Mass concentration(C)= �� �

Then; mass = mass concentration x volume of the solution(L)

=3.65g/litre x 2.5 litres = 9.125g

Mass of impure hydrochloric acid needed is given by ;

Mass of impure =

9 125𝑔 9 125𝑔 100

Mass of impure = 37 1 = = 24.5957g
100 37 1

Volume of impure acid is given by ;

Volume needed =

Volume needed = = 20.50cm3

ALTERNATIVELY;

From ; Molarity of stock solution =

= =12.1972 M
Molarity of the stock solution of hydrochloric acid is 12.1972M
From Dilution law ; M1V1=M2V2

Where ; M1- molarity of the stock solution = 12.1972M

M2- molarity of solution after dilution= 0.1000M
V2- volume of solution after dilution= 2.5dm3=2500cm3
Required; V1- volume of the stock solution
�
V1= = =20.50cm3

Therefore; volume of stock solution required to prepare 2.5 litres of 0.10000M HCl is 20.50cm3

Page 57 of 91
TITRATIONS
Titration is a laboratory technique which is used to determine the unknown concentration of the
solution using a standard solution (whose concentration is known).
• The two reagents should react chemically in definite proportions.
• Not all chemical reactions are suitable for titrations. The following are necessary for the
titration technique to be applied.
1. The reaction must be fast so that the titration can be performed by using convenient time.
2. The reaction should go to completion; it should not be a reversible reaction.
3. The reaction should be free from side reactions; meaning that it can be represented by a
single chemical equation.
4. The reaction should have a definite end point that can be determined accurately.
• Common titration reactions include;
(i) Acid-base reactions
(ii) Precipitation reactions
(iii) Redox reactions.
At this level, only the acid base titrations are covered.
ACID BASE TITRATIONS
• An acid base titration involves an acid and a base.
• Usually the titrant(a solution of known solution) placed in a burette is added to a known
quantity of the titrant (the solution of unknown concentration) until the reaction is complete.
• The completion of reaction is indicated by the change in colour of the indicator.

The table below shows some acid base indicator and the colours in acidic and basic media.

Indicator Condition in acidic medium Colour in basic medium

litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange (MO) Red/pink yellow
Phenolphthalein(POP) Colourless Pink
The choice of the indicator depends on the strength of the reactants. Two indicators are mostly
used which are Phenolphthalein (P.O.P) and Methyl Orange (M.O)
The table below shows the appropriate indicator for different acid base titrations.
Titration reaction Example Most suitable indicator
Weak base + weak acid Ammonium solution + ethanoic No suitable indicator
acid
Strong base + weak acid Sodium hydroxide + ethanoic acid Phenolphthalein (POP)
Strong base + strong acid Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric Any indicator (POP/MO)
acid
Weak base + weak acid Sodium carbonate + hydrochloric
acid

Page 58 of 91
PROCEDURES FOR CARRYING OUT ACID BASE TITRATIONS

1. Clean the burette, conical flasks and the pipette before use.
2. Prepare the retort stand that will be used to hold the burette upright.
3. Use a funnel to fill the burette with the titrant, usually the acid.
4. Adjust the bubble at the tip of the burette.
5. Record the initial burette reading to two decimal places.
6. Pipette the alkali (base) into a conical flask. Record the volume of the base for the pipette
used.
7. Add 2 to 3 drops of the indicator in the conical flask and record the colour of the
8. Slowly allow the acid to drain from the burette into the alkali in the flask while swirling
carefully the contents in the flask until a permanent colour change of the indicator is
observed. Record the final reading of the burette and the colour of the resulting solution.
Note that when the end point approaches, the colour of the solution will start to change.
• At this point, add the acid in small drops until there is a permanent colour change in the
mixture.
 If Phenolphthalein (P.O.P) indicator is used the colour will change from (base
solution) pink to colourless (at neutralization point).
 If Methyl Orange (M.O) indicator is used the colour will change from (base solution)
yellow to orange (at neutralization point).
9. Calculate the volume used, sometimes known as the titre value by subtracting the initial
burette reading from the final burette reading and record the volume of the acid used.
(see the sample table below)
Table of Results:
3
Volume of pipette used was 20cm
Burette readings
Burette reading(cm3) Pilot 1 2 3

Final reading (cm3) 20.00 40.00 30.00 45.00

Initial reading (cm3) 0.00 20.00 10.00 25.00

Volume used (cm3) 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00

10. Repeat the Steps 6—9 three more times. The difference in volumes used should be one to
three drops, of which one drop is approximately equal to 0.1 cm3, thus the difference between
one experiments to another should not exceed 0.3 cm3.
11. Calculate the average titre value.
12. From the average titre value, the concentration of the substance is worked out.

NOTE: The first titration is usually referred to as the rough reading and recorded as a pilot;

Page 59 of 91
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS

In calculations involving volumetric analysis the following mathematical relationship (mole ratio
formula) is used;

where:
Ma is the molar concentration of the acid
Vais the volume of acid used (average titre volume)
nais the number of moles of the acid used(found from a balanced equation)
Mb is the molar concentration of the base
Vb is the volume of base used (pipette volume)
nb is the number of moles of the base used(found from a balanced equation)
EXAMPLES
1. Sodium hydroxide solution (25𝑐𝑚 was titrated with 0.1000M hydrochloric acid. The result
obtained are presented in the table below;
Burette reading(cm3) Pilot 1 2 3

Final reading (cm3) 50.00 40.00 30.00 42.60

Initial reading (cm3) 36.50 27.45 17.50 30.00

Volume used (cm3) 13.50 12.55 12.50 12.60

Determine the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution

Solution
Average titre volume =
From; =

= cm3 𝑀 =
Average titre volume = 16.03 cm3
Then
Balanced chemical equation
2HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 𝑀b =
Given;
Molarity of acid (Ma) = 0.1000M Mb = 0.0502M
Volume of Pipette (Va) = 25cm3 • Molarity of sodium hydroxide solution is
0.0502M
Average titre volume (Va) = 12.55cm3
From balanced chemical equation
𝑛𝑎 = 1, 𝑛𝑏 = 1

Page 60 of 91
2. A 26.50g sample of sodium carbonate was dissolved in distilled water to make 500cm3 of
solution. A 25.00cm3 volume of solution reacted completely with 20.00cm3 of dilute
sulphuric acid. Calculate the molarity of the acid.
Solution
Given ; mass of sodium carbonate = 26.50g
volume of sodium carbonate solution= 500cm3 = 0.5dm3
Balanced chemical equation
H2S𝑂 + Na2 CO Na2SO + H2O 𝑙 + CO

Volume of Pipette (Vb) = 25cm3 𝑛𝑎 = 1, 𝑛𝑏 = 1

Average titre volume (Vb) = 20.00cm3
Molarity of sodium carbonate; • Molarity of sodium carbonate is
0.5000M
From Molarity(M) =
From; =
Concentration =
𝑀 =
Concentration = = 53g/𝑑𝑚
Then
Molar mass of Na2CO3=(23 2 12
16 3 = 106𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀b =
Then ; Mb = 0.0502M
• Molarity of sodium hydroxide solution is
Molarity(M)= = 0.5M
0.0502M
EXERCISE 5.3
2. 12.5cm3 of 0.5M sulphuric acid neutralize 50cm3 of a given solution of sodium hydroxide.
What is the molarity of alkali?
3. 25cm3 of sulphuric acid required 32cm3 of 0.1M sodium hydroxide for neutralization.
Calculate the concentration of the acid in gdm-3 .
4. 70cm3 of sodium carbonate solution required 50cm3 of 0.2M sulphuric acid for complete
neutralization. What is the gram concentration of sodium carbonate?
5. 25cm3 of potassium carbonate required 26.8cm3 of 0.1M hydrochloric acid for
neutralization. If 50cm3 of the potassium carbonate are mixed with 20cm3 of 0.5M
hydrochloric acid, how many cubic centimetres of 0.25M sodium hydroxide solution must
be added to make the solution neutral?
6. 10g of calcium carbonate wee dissolved inn 250cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid and then
boiled. What volume of 2M potassium hydroxide would be required to neutralize the acid?
7. What volume of 0.1M sulphuric acid would be required to neutralize a mixture of 1g of
anhydrous sodium carbonate and 1g of sodium hydroxide?
8. 100g of 0.05M sulphuric acid were placed in a flask and a small quantity of anhydrous
sodium carbonate was added. The mixture was boiled to expel carbon dioxide, cooled and
the volume restored by addition of distilled water to 100cm3 .25cm3 of the solution now
required 18cm3 of 0.1 sodium hydroxide solution to neutralize it. What was then mass of
sodium carbonate added?

Page 61 of 91
DETERMINATION OF PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Volumetric analysis is used to determine various properties of chemical substances such as;
(a) Relative atomic mass of unknown element
(b) Percentage purity of components in a sample
(c) Amount of water of crystallization
(a) DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES OF UNKNOWN ELEMENTS IN
AN ACID OR BASE.
Steps
1. Determine the molarity of the standard solution(if not given directly)
2. Determine the molarity of the analyte by using the mole ratio formula that is ;

3. Determine the gram concentration of the analyte from the data given , in most cases
use the formula ;

Concentration =

4. Determine the molar mass of the analyte, in most cases the following formula is used;

From; Molarity(M) =

Then ; Molar mass = �

5. Determine the atomic mass of unknown element by comparing the molar mass with
its molecular formula, then identify the unknown element by comparing with the
atomic masses of known elements in the periodic table.
NOTE; the analyte for this case, is the chemical substance (acid or base) with
unknown element.
EXAMPLES
1. A 2.65g sample of an unknown monovalent metal (X2CO3) was dissolved in water to make
250cm3 of a solution. The following results were obtained when 25cm3 of monovalent
metal carbonate was reacted with a solution made by dissolving 0.1 moles of hydrochloric
acid in distilled water to make 0.5dm3 solutions by using methyl orange indicator.

Burette readings(cm3) Pilot 1 2 3

Final reading (cm3) 25.20 35.00 24.90 40.10
Initial reading (cm3) 0.00 10.00 0.00 15.00
Volume of HCl used (cm3)

Page 62 of 91
 (a) Calculate the average titre volume of the hydrochloric acid used in titration
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
(c) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid and those of the metal carbonate
solution used in reaction.
(d) Determine the relative molecular mass of metal carbonate
(e) Determine the relative molecular mass of the metal
(f) Identify the unknown element ―X‖ in the compound X2CO3
Solution
(a) To calculate the average volume of the acid used, first calculate the titre values of each
titration as follows
Burette readings(cm3) Pilot 1 2 3
Final reading (cm3) 25.20 35.00 24.90 40.10
Initial reading (cm3) 0.00 10.00 0.00 15.00
Volume of HCl used (cm3) 25.20 25.00 24.90 25.10
�� �
Average titre volume =
�����������������������������������������������������������= ����� = 25 𝑐𝑚

The average titre volume = 25 cm3

(b) Balanced chemical equation :

X2CO3 (aq) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 2 Cl + H2O(l)+ CO

(c) To calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid and those of the metal carbonate
solution used in reaction.
 The molarity of HCl is given by;
� �
Then number of moles(n) = molarity x
Molarity = volume of solution
��
�
Molarity = � = 0.2 mol/𝑑𝑚 Volume of solution used in the
�
Molarity of HCl= 0.2000 mol/𝒅𝒎𝟑 reaction = 25cm3= 0.025dm3
� � Number of moles = 0.2 mol/𝑑𝑚 x
From ; molarity = ; 0.025dm3= 0.005 moles of HCl
� � �

Number of moles of X2CO3 is calculated by considering a balanced chemical equation.

1 mole of X2CO3 2 moles of HCl
Y 0.005moles of HCl
�� � � � � � � �
Y= = 0.0025 moles of X2CO3
� � �

Page 63 of 91
 (d) To determine the relative molecular mass of metal carbonate;

Molarity of X2CO3 solution

From; mole ratio formula.
�
=���
� �
Where, Gram concentration = =
Molarity of acid (𝑀a ) = 0.2M
10.6g/dm3
Volume of acid (Va) = 25 � �
cm3 From: Molarity = � �
Volume of base (𝑉𝑏 = 25 cm3
Molarity of base (Mb) = ? � �
Molar mass =
𝑛𝑎 = 1 = 2, �𝑛𝑏 = 1
�
Then: Molar mass =
� � �
���������������𝑀b=
(e)

� The relative molecular mass of

Na2CO3 = 106g/mol
� � �
𝑀b� = �
= 0.1000M (e) Relative atomic mass of X
�

Let X2 CO3 = 106

Molarity of solution AA = 0.1000M 2x + 124 +(16 x 3) = 106

From ; 2x + 60 = 106
=
�
Gram concentration == X= 23.
�
(f) From the periodic table an element
Given ; Mass = 2.65g Volume = with relative atomic mass of 23 is
250cm3= 0.25dm3 sodium, then it can be concluded that
the element X is sodium (Na) hence
the compound is Na2CO3

EXERCISE 5.4
1. A 39.75g sample of unknown metal carbonate (Y2CO3) was dissolved to make 200cm3
of a solution. The solution was titrated with 1.0000M sulphuric acid. If 20m3 of the
solution reacted completely with 37.5cm3 of the sulphuric acid, calculate ;
(a) Number of moles of sulphuric acid used in the reaction
(b) Numbers of moles of the metal carbonate in 20.00cm3 of the metal carbonate
solution.
(c) Molar mass of the metal carbonate
(d) Relative atomic mass of the metal Y in the formula unit and identify the metal
2. 25cm3 of XOH solution containing 32gdm-3 of the base was found to neutralize 10cm3of
1M sulphuric acid solution;
a. Write a balanced chemical equation between the alkali and acid
b. Calculate relative atomic mass of X
c. Identify the element X

Page 64 of 91
 3. 16g of a metal carbonate (M2CO3) was dissolved in water to make 250cm3 of
solution. 20cm3 of this solution required 25cm3 of 0.8M hydrochloric acid for complete
neutralization. By showing all steps clearly, determine the relative atomic mass and
identify element M.

(b) DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE PURITY OF A SUBSTANCE

Steps
1. Determine the molarity of the standard solution(if not given directly)
2. Determine the molarity of the analyte by using the mole ratio formula that is ;

3. Determine the gram concentration of the pure substance , in most cases use the formula ;

From ; Molarity(M) =

Then , gram concentration = molarity x molar mass

4. Determine the mass of the pure substance , in most cases use the formula ;

From ; gram concentration = �� �

Then , pure mass(g) =gram concentration x volume of solution(dm3)

5. Compute the percentage purity of the analyte using the formula;
� � � � � � �
Percentage purity= 100
� � �

• Alternatively; you may determine the gram concentration of impure sample and use the
following formula to compute percentage purity.
� � � �
Percentage purity= 100
� � �� �

EXAMPLE
A solution made by dissolving 15g of impure sodium hydroxide in distilled water to make
1000cm3 of a solution. 25cm3 of the solution reacted completely with 20cm3 of 0.1250M
sulphuric acid for complete reaction.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction took place.
(b) Compute the percentage purity and percentage impurity of sodium hydroxide.
Solution
(a) Balanced Chemical equation
H2 SO + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO + 2H2 O

Page 65 of 91
(b) Percentage purity and impurity of NaOH Gram concentration = 8g/dm3
Molarity of NaOH From :
�
From: mole ratio formula. Gram concentration =
�
�
=��� Mass of pure NaOH = Concentration x
� �
� � volume.
𝑀 = Volume = 1000 cm3 1dm3 = 1000cm3
�
Given Mass of pure NaOH = 8g� dm x ldm
Molarity of acid (Ma) = 0.125M Mass of pure NaOH = 8g
Volume of Pipette (Vb) = 25cm3 Given mass of impure NaOH = 15g
Average titre volume (Va) = 20cm3
𝑛𝑎 = 1 , �𝑛𝑏 = 2 Percentage purity
� � � �� � � � �
𝑀b� = = x 100%
� � � � � ��
�
𝑀b = 0.2000M Percentage purity = �
x 100%
From; Percentage purity = 53%
� �
Molarity = Percentage purity of sodium hydroxide =
� �
ram�concentation = Molarity x Molar 53%
mass Percentage impurity = 100% - percentage
Molar mass of NaOH = 23+16 +1 = purity
40g/mol. Percentage impurity = 100% - 53%
Molar concentration = 0.2 mol/dm3 x = 47%
40g/mol. Percentage impurity of NaOH = 47%

EXERCISE 5.5
1. A 5.125g sample of impure sodium carbonate was dissolved to make 250cm3 of solution.
25cm3 of the solution required 35.8cm3of 0.05M sulphuric acid for complete neutralization.
Calculate the percentage purity of the sodium carbonate sample.
2. 5g of a mixture of sodium chloride and sodium carbonate (anhydrous) were made up to
250cm3 of aqueous solution.25cm3 of this solution required 40cm3of 0.1M of hydrochloric
acid for neutralization. What is the percentage mass of anhydrous sodium carbonate in the
solution?
3. 10g of impure sodium hydroxide was made up to 250cm3 solution.27cm3 of the solution
was found to neutralize 25.0cm3 of 1M hydrochloric acid solution. Calculate ;
(a) The molarity of sodium hydroxide
(b) The percentage purity of the sodium hydroxide
4. 5.0g of a mixture of sodium chloride and sodium carbonate (anhydrous) were made up to
250cm3 of aqueous solution.25cm3 of this solution required 40cm3 of 0.1M hydrochloric
acid for neutralization. What is the percentage by mass of anhydrous sodium carbonate in
the mixture?
5. 3.5g of a mixture of potassium carbonate and potassium sulphate (both anhydrous) were
made up to 250cm3 of aqueous solution. 25cm3 of this solution required 24.6cm3 0f 0.110M
hydrochloric acid to neutralize. What is the percentage by mass of potassium carbonate in
the mixture?

Page 66 of 91
(c) DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION IN A
SUBSTANCE
Steps
1. Calculate the gram concentration of hydrated sample, using the formula;
� � �
Gram concentration = �� �

2. Calculate the molarity of hydrated substance using the experimental titration results and
balanced chemical equation.
Note, water of crystallization is not involved in the reaction.
3. Calculate the gram concentration of anhydrous substance, using the formula;

From ; Molarity(M) =

Then, gram concentration = molarity x molar mass

4. Calculate the relative atomic mass of hydrated substance , using the following relation;

Molar�mass�of�unhydrous�substance gram�concentration�of�unhydrated�substance
=
Molar�mass�of�hydrated�substance� gram�concentration��of�hydrated�substance

Molar mass of hydrated substance =

� �� � �
Molar�mass�of�unhydrous�substance
� � � �

5. Determine the number of molecules of water of crystallization in the sample using the
relative atomic masses of various atoms in the sample.
EXAMPLES
Hydrated oxalic acid [(COOH)2. XH2O] was made by dissolving 20.16g of the acid to make one
litres solution. 25 cm3 of the solution required 20cm3 of 0.4000M sodium hydroxide. Calculate
the number of molecules of water of crystallization in the acid.
Solution
Concentration of hydrated oxalic acid in �
=���
grams per dm3 � �
� � �
From; Concentration = 𝑀 =
� �
Mass = 20.16g. Given
Volume = 1.0dm3 Molarity of acid (Mb) = 0.4000M
Concentration =
� Volume of acid (Vb) = 20cm3
3
𝑑𝑚 � Volume of acid (Va) = 25cm3
Concentration = 20.16 g/dm3
Molarity of oxalic acid
From : mole ratio formula.
Balanced chemical equation
Page 67 of 91
 COOH � 2NaOH(aq) 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 2H2O(l)

𝑛𝑎 = 1, �𝑛𝑏 = 2.
Then
� � � �
𝑀a = �
= 0.1600mol/dm3
�

Concentration of anhydrous oxalic acid in gram per dm3

From:
� �
Molarity = � �
Gram concentration = molarity x molar mass
Molar mass of (COOH)2= [12+ (16 x2)+ 1] x 2 = 90g/mol
Gram concentration = 0.1600mol/dm3 x 90g/mol = 14.4g/dm3
Molar mass of (COOH)2.XH2O
From:
Molar�mass�of�unhydrous�substance gram�concentration�of�unhydrated�substance
=
Molar�mass�of�hydrated�substance� gram�concentration��of�hydrated�substance
Then ;

Molar mass of hydrated substance =

� �� � �
Molar�mass�of�unhydrous�substance
� � � �

Molar mass of (COOH)2.XH2O = 90𝑔 𝑑𝑚 = 126g/mol

To find the value of x in (COOH)2.XH2O

Let (COOH)2.XH2O =126
(12 + (16x2) 2 + 12 + x (1x2 + 16)) = 126
90 + 18 x = 126
18x = 36
�
= = 2
� �
The value of X in (COOH)2.XH2O = 2, the Compound is (COOH)2.2H2O

EXERCISE 5.6
1. A sodium carbonate solution was made by dissolving 179g of hydrated crystals to make
a one litre solution.20cm3 of the solution was found to neutralize 25cm3 of molar
solution of nitric acid. Calculate;
(a) The concentration of the base in
(i) Mole/dm3
(ii) g/dm3
(b) The value of X in Na2CO3 .XH2O
2. Calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallization in oxalic acid crystals,
H2C2O4. XH2O, from the following data: 5g of the crystals were made up to 250cm3 of
aqueous solution and 25cm3 of this solution required 15.9cm3of 0.5M sodium hydroxide
solution to neutralize it.

Page 68 of 91
3. 12.6g of the hydrated oxalic acid was dissolved to make 1litre of aqueous solution.
12.5cm3 of required 25cm3 of 0.1M potassium hydroxide for complete neutralization.
Calculate:
(a) Concentration of hydrated acid in (i) mole/dm3 (ii) g/dm3
(b) Mass of water in each 12.6 of hydrated acid
(c) The value of X in H2C2O4. XH2O
4. A solution of hydrated sodium carbonate was titrated with 1.68M nitric acid solution.
30cm3 of the solution required 28.75cm3 of nitric acid for complete neutralization. If the
solution was prepared by dissolving 120.56g of the carbonate to make 600cm3 of
solution determine the molecules of water of crystallization in the hydrated sodium
carbonate.
5. (Miscellaneous question )
You have been employed as the Senior Chemical officer in a company which deals with
treatment of chemical wastes before disposing them off into the ocean so as to prevent
aquatic pollution. The company wants to neutralize a mixture of bases made by
dissolving 1.6 kg of sodium hydroxide and 2.12kg sodium carbonate in 200dm3of water
by adding carefully concentrated sulphuric acid. Determine the volume of concentrated
sulphuric acid required to neutralize the mixture of bases before disposing them off.

APPLICATIONS OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS IN DAILY LIFE

Volumetric analysis is applied in different fields as follows;

(a) Medicine
• Used to determine concentration of virus/bacteria in a blood sample
• Used to determine amount of acid which can be neutralized byantacid tablet
(b) In industries
• Used to determine amount of acetic acid in vinegar
• Used to analyse the acidity of fruit juices
• Used to analyse the household ammonia (used as a cleaning fluid)

(c) In agriculture
• Used to determine composition of soil substances contained, substances
include nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous
(d) Other applications
• Used to determine percentage of iron in iron ore
• Used to determine salt content in brine (water containing dissolvedsalt)
• Used to determine percentage mass of copper in a copper salt

Page 69 of 91
TOPIC SIX: IONIC THEORY AND ELECTROLYSIS
SUB TOPICS
 Ionic theory
 The Mechanism of electrolysis
 Laws of Electrolysis
 Applications of Electrolysis
CONCEPT OF IONIC THEORY
The theory was proposed by Svante Arrhenius to explain the fact ―during electrolysis ionic
compounds dissociates in solution to give randomly moving charged particles called ions‖.

Ion is a charged particle of an atom; there are two types of ions namely;

 Cations
 Anions
CATIONS
Are positively charged ions formed when an atom losses electrons from an outermost shell.
 Cations are formed when highly electropositive elements(especially metals) losses
electrons from their outermost shell
M Mn+ + ne
Examples

Na Na+ + e

Ca Ca2+ +2e

Al Al3+ + 3e

ANIONS
Are negatively charged ions formed when atoms gains electrons in their outer most shell.
 Anions are formed when highly electronegative (especially non-metals) gain electrons
from other elements.
N + ne Nn-
Examples
Cl + e Cl-
O + 2e O2-

ELECRICITY CONDUCTION
Electricity conduction requires the presence of charge carriers to transport the charge from
one point to another.

Page 70 of 91
  In solid materials charge carriers are free electrons. A solid material having free
electrons will be capable of conducting an electric current hence is called a
conductor.
 In solution states, charge carriers are free ions. Ionic compounds capable of
dissociating into free ions when in solution or molten state are known as electrolytes.
IMPORTANT TERMS
1. ELECTROLYTES
An electrolyte is a substance which dissociates into free ions when in solution or molten
state allowing an electric current to pass through.
 Common electrolytes are soluble salts, acids and bases.
Types of electrolytes
There are two types of electrolytes namely;
(a) Strong electrolyte
(b) Weak electrolyte

(a) STRONG ELECTROLYTE

Is the type of which dissociates completely in aqueous/molten state to form large number
of ions.
Dissociation of strong electrolyte is indicated by a full headed arrow ( ), to
indicate that the whole substance has dissociated into free into respective free ions.
Examples of strong electrolytes

(i) Soluble salts such as;

 NaCl(aq) 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙
 Pb(NO3)2(aq) 𝑃𝑏 + 2𝑁𝑂
 (NH4)SO4(aq) 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝑂
(ii) Strong acids such as ;
 H2SO4(aq) 2𝐻 + 𝑆𝑂
 HNO3(aq) 𝐻 + 𝑁𝑂
 HCl(aq) 𝐻 + 𝐶𝑙
 H3PO4(aq) 3𝐻 + 𝑃𝑂
(iii) Strong alkali such as;
 NaOH(aq) 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑂𝐻
 KOH(aq) 𝐾 + 𝑂𝐻

(iv) WEAK ELECTROLYTE

Is the type of electrolyte which dissociates partially to give a limited number of ions.

 Dissociation of weak electrolyte is represented by two half headed arrows pointing in

opposite directions ( ) to indicate that the substance has dissociated and the
maximum dissociation has reached equilibrium concentration.

Page 71 of 91
 Examples of weak electrolytes
(i) Weak acids such as;
 CH3COOH(aq) 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝑂𝑂 +𝐻
 H2C2O4(aq) 𝐶𝑂 + 2𝐻
 H2CO3(aq) 2𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂
(ii) Weak bases such as;
 NH4OH(aq) 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻

SUMMARY; CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTROLYTES

2. NON ELECTROLYTE
Is a substance that does not conduct an electric current in either aqueous or molten state.
• When a non-electrolyte is dissolved in water it does not dissociate to give free ions.
• Examples of non-electrolytes are cyclohexane, sugar, cooking oil, pure alcohols,
kerosene, gasoline, molten wax, and diesel.

3. CONDUCTOR
Is a solid substance that allows an electric current to pass through them.
• Conductors are highly electropositive hence donate free electrons from an outermost
shell to participate in electric conduction.
• Examples of conductors are metallic materials such as copper, iron.

4. NON CONDUCTORS/INSULATORS
Are solid materials which do not allow passage of an electric current .
• Insulators are made up of highly electronegative materials hence do not easily loss
electrons from their outermost shell to be used in conduction of electricity.
• Examples of non-conductors/insulators are wooden and plastic materials.

Page 72 of 91
ELECROLYSIS
Electrolysis is the phenomenon of decomposition of an electrolyte by passing an electric
current through its solution.
• In electrolysis, an external power source supplies the energy required to drive a chemical
reaction. Therefore, electrolysis is referred to as a process in which electrical energy is
used to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to take place.
• A non-spontaneous reaction is a type of a reaction which requires an external source of
energy for it to take place.
• The main components required to achieve electrolysis are; an electrolyte, electrodes, and
an external source of electricity.

ELECTROLYTIC CELL
An electrolytic cell is the apparatus in which electrolysis is carried out.
• It is also known as coulometer or voltameter.
A diagram below represents a simple electrolytic cell

COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTROLYTIC CELL

An electrolytic cell consists of three important components which namely; battery ,
electrolytes ,and electrodes.

1. BATTERY
Battery as a source of an electric current.

2. ELECROLYE
Is substance which dissociates into free ions when in solution or molten state. It hence acts as
a source of free ions in the electrolytic cell.

3. ELECTRODES
Are rods through which electrons enter and leave the electrolyte.

Types of electrodes
There are two types of electrodes namely:
(i) Cathode
(ii) Anode

Page 73 of 91
CATHODE
Is the negatively charged electrode attached to a negative terminal of the battery.
• During electrolysis, cations migrate to the cathode and undergo reduction by gaining
electrons.
ANODE
Is a positively charged electrode attached to a positive terminal of the battery.
• During electrolysis anions migrate to the anode and undergo oxidation by losing
electrons.
NOTE;
Most of the anode electrodes commonly used are inert in nature implying that, they cannot
react or undergo any changes during electrolysis.
 Examples of inert electrodes include carbon or graphite, gold, and platinum.
 Reactive electrodes such as copper, zinc, lead, and silver may dissolve or increase in size
due to the deposition of the ionic species.

CONCENTRATION AND STRENGTH OF AN ELECTROLYTE

The strength of an electrolyte is not the same as its concentration.
 The strength of an electrolyte depends on how the substance dissociates when dissolved in a
solvent. If a substance dissociates completely, then the electrolyte is strong, but if it dissociates
partially, then the electrolyte is weak.
 However, the concentration of an electrolyte is the amount of solute per unit volume of a
solution. When one mole of a substance is dissolved to make one litre of a solution
(electrolyte), the concentration of the electrolyte is said to be one molar solution written
as 1 M.
 The different electrolytes may have the same concentration but different strength due to
their differences in dissociation abilities. On the other hand, electrolytes can have similar
strengths but different concentrations.

THE MECHANINSM OF ELECTROLYSIS

When an electric current is passed through an electrolyte in an electrolytic cell, the free ions
move towards their oppositelycharged electrodes. The movement of ions towards their
oppositely charged electrodes, either cathode or anode is called ionic migration.

Ionic migration during electrolysis

The term ionic migration is movement of charged particles (ions) towards the oppositely
charged electrodes.
Electrode reactions
Upon arrival at their respective electrodes, the ions undergo chemical changes, whereby ions
are discharged into pure metals or gases.

(a)Reactions at the anode

Anions carry the negative charge due to the extra electrons they have.

Page 74 of 91
 On arrival at the surface of the anode, anions surrender the extra electrons to the
electrode, thus become discharged.
 In other words, anions lose electrons leading to an increase in oxidation state, a process
referred to as oxidation.
 The general equation for the reaction of the anion at the anode is given by:
� �X + 𝑛𝑒 , where n stands for valence of an atom/element.
 Examples
2𝐶𝑙 �𝐶𝑙 + 2𝑒
2𝑂 �𝑂 + 4𝑒

(b) Reaction at the cathode

Cations carry the positive charge due to the deficiency of electrons they have.
On arrival at the surface of the cathode, cations gain electron from the electrode, thus
become discharged.
 In other words, cations gain electrons leading to a decrease in oxidation state, a process
referred to as reduction.
 The general equation for the reaction of the cation at the cathode is given by:
𝑀 �𝑛𝑒 �� �M , where n stands for valence of an atom/element.
 Examples
𝑁𝑎 � 𝑒 ��� �𝑁𝑎
𝐶𝑎 � 2𝑒 �𝐶𝑎

NOTE;
During electrolysis, reduction and oxidation reactions take place in a complete electrolytic
cell. The two reactions are abbreviated as redox reactions.
 The oxidation half-reaction occurs at anode placed on the left hand side, whereas
reduction occurs at the cathode on the right hand side of the electrolytic cell.

FACTORS FOR PREFERENTIAL DISCHARGE OF IONS AT THE ELECTRODE

At the electrode, some of the ions gain or lose electrons. Only one type of the ions is
discharged at each electrode.

The factors which determine which ion to be discharged at a given time include:

1. Position of ion in electrochemical series

2. Concentration of ions
3. Nature of electrode

1. POSITION THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES

Electrochemical series is an arrangement of ions depending on their ease of discharge.
 Ions lower in electrochemical series are discharged easier compared to ions higher in
electrochemical series.
Page 75 of 91
For example; by considering the electrochemical series
• If Cu2+ and H+ migrate to the cathode ,Cu2+ will be discharged because it is lower in
electrochemical series
𝐶𝑢 � 2𝑒 �𝐶𝑢
• If 𝑁𝑂 and�𝑂𝐻 migrate to the anode, �𝑂𝐻 will be discharged because it is lower in
electrochemical series, thus
4𝑂𝐻 �2H2O(l) + 𝑂 + 4𝑒

2. CONCENTRATION OF IONS
A high concentration of ions in a solution favours their discharge.
For example, in the electrolysis of a concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid, the anions
present are hydroxide ions (OH- ) from water and chloride ions (Cl-) from concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
These ions migrate to the anode. Considering the preferential discharge of the two types of
ions, OH- should be discharged in preference to Cl- since OH- is below Cl- in the
electrochemical series. However, Cl- is discharged in preference to OH- because of the high
concentration of Cl- in the solution, thus chlorine gas is evolved instead of oxygen gas as
shown in the following equation:�2𝐶𝑙 �𝐶𝑙 + 2𝑒

3. NATURE OF ELECTRODE
Some electrodes , especially cathode favours some cations to be discharged in preference to
other despite of the hugher position in electrochemical series. For example ,during the
electrloysis of sodium chlorideby using mercury cathode, Na+ will be discharged because it
has high affinity to mecury as they react to form an alloy called sodium amalgum.
𝑁𝑎 � 𝑒 ��� �𝑁𝑎
Na(s) + Hg(l) �𝐻𝑔𝑁𝑎
• If platinum cathode would be used ,H+ would be discharged because it is lower in
electrochemical series compared to Na+ .
Page 76 of 91
SELECTROLYSIS OF SELECTED COMPOUNDS
Selected electrolytes include;
1. Dilute sodium chloride
2. Dilute sodium hydroxide
3. Copper (II) sulphate solution
4. Dilute sulphuric acid
5. Molten potassium iodide

1. ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION

Dissociation of electrolytes
𝑁𝑎𝑐𝑙 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑙
𝐻 𝑂⇌𝐻 𝑂𝐻

Reaction at the cathode

Na+ and H+ will immigrate to the cathode H+ will be discharged because it is lower in
electrochemical series
2𝐻 2𝑒�
̅ �� 𝐻

(Half reduction reaction at the cathode)

Reaction at the anode

OH- and Cl- will migrate to the anode. 𝑂𝐻 will be discharged to produce oxygen and water
as per the following equation, because it is lower in electrochemical series.

4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 �𝑂 4𝑒̅

Overall reaction
Is obtained by combining reaction at the cathode and anode:

At the cathode

2𝐻 2𝑒�
̅� 𝐻 𝑖

At the anode
4𝑂𝐻 𝐻𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒̅ --------------- (ii)

Combining equation (i) and (ii)

2 2𝐻 2𝑒 𝐻
{
1 4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒
4H 4e� 2H iii
{
4OH 4H O O 4e iv
4𝐻 4𝑂𝐻 4𝑒 2𝐻 4𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 + 4e

4𝐻 4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝐻𝑂 𝑂 (Overall reaction equation)

Page 77 of 91
2. ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE SOLUTION

Dissociation of electrolytes
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 𝐶𝑢 𝑆𝑂
𝐻𝑂 𝐻 𝑂𝐻

(a) USING INERT ELECTRODE (CARBON)

Reaction at the anode

Anions 𝑂𝐻 𝑆𝑂 will migrate to the anode. OH- will be discharged because it is lower in
electrical chemical series
4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒̅

Reaction at the cathode

Cations (H+, Cu2+) will migrate to the Cu2+ will be discharged because it is lower in
electrochemical series
𝐶𝑢 2𝑒̅ 𝐶𝑢
Overall reaction
Combine two equations

1 4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒
{
2 𝐶𝑢 2𝑒̅ 𝐶𝑢

4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒
{
2𝐶𝑢 4𝑒̅ 2𝐶𝑢

4𝑂𝐻 2𝐶𝑢 4𝑒 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 2𝐶𝑢 4𝑒

4𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝑢 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 𝐶𝑢 (Overall reaction equation)

(b) USING COPPER ELECTRODE

When copper electrodes are used, migration of ions is similar to when carbon electrodes are
used. But being an active electrode, it will participate in the chemical reaction resulting to
change in products formed at the anode.

Reaction at the anode

Copper anode will lose electrons and go in solution forming Cu2+ ions
𝐶𝑢 𝐶𝑢 2𝑒

Reaction at the cathode

Cu2+ and H+ will migrate towards the cathode and Cu2+ will discharge because it‘s lower in
electrochemical series

𝐶𝑢 2𝑒 𝐶𝑢

Page 78 of 91
NOTE:
 The colour of CuSO4 is blue due to presence of Cu2+. During electrolysis they are
removed from the solution and discharged hence as the process proceeds the blue colour
of CuSO4 solution will faint and finally become colourless due to loss of all Cu2+ from
the solution.
 The electrolysis of CuSO4 can be used in purification of copper where by impure copper
is made to be an anode, which will finally go into solution, became discharged at this
cathode leaving behind impurities settled down of the compartment.

3. ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN POTASSIUM IODIDE(KI)

Dissociation of electrolyte
𝐾𝐼 𝐾 𝐼

Reaction at the cathode

K+ will migrate to the cathode and became discharged because it is the only cation in the
electrolyte.
𝐾 𝑒� 𝐾

Reaction at the anode

𝐼 will migrate to the anode and became discharged because it is the only cation in the
electrolyte.
��������������������𝐼 𝐼 2𝑒

Overall reaction equation

2 𝐾 𝑒 𝐾
{
2 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 2𝑒

2𝐾 2𝑒 2𝐾
2𝐼 2 2𝐼 2𝑒

2𝐾 2𝐼 4𝑒� 2𝐾 2𝐼 2𝑒
𝐾 21 𝐾 𝐼 � (Overall reaction equation)

4. ELECTROOLYSIS OF DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID

Dissociation of electrolytes
𝐻 𝑆𝑂 2𝐻 𝑆𝑂
𝐻 𝑂⇌𝐻 𝑂𝐻

Page 79 of 91
Reaction at the cathode
Cation (H+) will migrate to the cathode and become discharged because it is the only cation
in the electrolyte.
2𝐻 2𝑒� 𝐻

Reaction at the anode

SO OH �will�migarte�to�the�anode�but�OH �will�discharged�more�because�it�is�lower�in
ions.
4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒

Overall reaction
Is obtained by combining reaction at the cathode and anode:

At the cathode

2𝐻 2𝑒�
̅� 𝐻 𝑖

At the anode

4𝑂𝐻 𝐻𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒̅ --------------- (ii)

Combining equation (i) and (ii)

2 2𝐻 2𝑒 𝐻
{
1 4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒
4H 4e� 2H iii
{
4OH 4H O O 4e iv
4𝐻 4𝑂𝐻 4𝑒 2𝐻 4𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 + 4e

4𝐻 4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝐻𝑂 𝑂 (Overall reaction equation)

NOTE;
• The overall reaction equation is the
electrolysis of water (all discharged
ions are present in water) hence
electrolysis of sulphuric acid is
referred to as electrolysis of water.
• The ratio of gases (oxygen and
hydrogen) collected during electrolysis
of sulphuric acid may not be exactly in
ratio of 1:2 because oxygen is more
soluble in water than hydrogen.
• Electrolysis of sulphuric acid is carried
in a special electrolytic cell known as
Hoffman‘s voltameter.

Page 80 of 91
LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS
These are laws that govern the process of electrolysis. They were put forward by famous
scientist known as Michael Faraday, hence they are also known as ―Faraday‘s laws of
electrolysis‖.
There are two laws namely

- Faradays first law of electrolysis

- Faraday‘s second law of electrolysis
FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS
The law explains about the quantity of substance evolved/ liberated/ deposited at the
electrode.
Amount of substance liberate/ deposited depend on
i. Quantity of charge passing through an electrolyte.
ii. Nature of ion (valency)
The law state that

―Mass of a substance deposited or liberate at the electrodes is directly proportion to the

quantity of charge through the electrolyte‖.

Mathematically; m� �

Then: m= KQ

K= is a constant represent d by letter Z: known as electrochemical equivalent

Hence; m= ZQ
But Q = It
Where
I = electric current
t= time (second)
m= QZ
m= Z It
= �� =

ELECTROCHEMICAL EQUIVALENT (Z)

Refers to the mass of substance deposited or liberated at the electrode when unit quantity of
charge (1 coulomb) is passed through the electrolyte.
-1
• Electrochemical equivalent has the units of gC
• Electrochemical equivalent is also given by ;
=
Where
Ar – relative atomic mass of a substance
v = change of the ion (valency)
F = Faraday‘s constant

Page 81 of 91
FARADAY’S CONSTANT
Refer to the amount of electric charge carried by one mole of electrons.
1 Faraday (1F) = 96500 coulombs
That is; One more of electron carries is equivalent to 96500 coulombs

 1mole of electrons carries 96500 C = 1Faraday(1F)

 2 moles of electrons carried 193000 C = 2Faradays(2F)
Recall
𝑚= 𝑄
But
= 𝑟⁄𝑣

𝐴𝑟𝑄
𝑚=
𝑣 𝐹

Also

𝐴𝑟𝐼𝑡
𝑀=
𝑣 𝐹

EXAMPLES ON FARADAY’S FIRST LAW

1. How long a current of 10A should be passed through a solution of silver chloride in order
to deposit 3.24kg of silver at the cathode? ( the electrochemical equivalent of silver =
1.118 x 10-3gC-1)
Solution
Given ; mass (m) = 3.24kg = 3240g , electric current(I)= 10A ,
Electrochemical equivalent of silver (Z) = 1.118 x 10-3gC-1, required; time
From ; m= Z It
Then ; t= = = 2.898 x 105seconds
 The current should be passed for 2.898 x 105seconds

2. Amount of 2A was passed through solution of a divalent metal X for three minutes and
0.1184 g of a metal was deposited at the cathode. Calculate the relative atomic mass of
and identify metal X.
Solution

Given ;Electric current (I) = 2A, Time = 3 min = 180 sec, Mass(m) = 0.1184g, Valency = 2

Faraday‘s constant(F) =96500C/mol

Required; relative atomic mass(Ar) of metal X

�
From ; 𝑚 =
Page 82 of 91
Then ; 𝑟 = � = = 63.5g/mol

 From the periodic table an element with relative atomic mass of 63.5 is copper (Cu).

3. What mass of zinc will be formed in electrolysis by allowing an electric current of 10A to
flow for one hour through an electrolyte containing zinc ions?
Solution

Given; Valency of zinc(v) = 2 , relative atomic mass= 65 g/mol, electric current(I) = 10 A,

time = 1 hour= 3600 s , required; mass(m)

From; �𝑚 =

� �
Then; 𝑚 = = = 12.12g

 Mass of zinc formed = 12.12 g

4. Calculate the volume of oxygen produced at S.T.P when a current of 10A was passed
through aqueous sulphuric acid for 30 minutes.
Solution

Given; Electric current = 10A, Time = 30 min = 1800 sec, required; volume of oxygen

From; Q= It = 10A 1800𝑠 = 18000Coulombs

1 Faraday 96500Coulombs
X 18000 Coulombs
�
X= = 0.187Faradays
Recall reaction at the anode;

4𝑂𝐻 2𝐻 𝑂 𝑂 4𝑒
From the balanced equation
4 Faraday 1 mole of O2
0.187Faradays x
� � � � �
X= �= 0.047 moles of O2
From
𝑛 = 𝑉⁄𝐺𝑀𝑉
Then; V= n GMV = 0.47 mon X 22.4 dm3/mole = 1.053 dm3

 Volume produced of oxygen = 𝟏 𝟎𝟓𝟑� 𝐦𝟑

5. How many faraday of electricity are required to form 0.325 g of zinc by electrolysis
Solution

Given; Valency (V)= 2, relative atomic mass of zinc(Ar )= 65 g/mole

From
Page 83 of 91
 𝑛 2𝑒̅ 𝑛
2 Faraday 65g of Zn
? 0.325g of Zn
� � �
X= �= 0.01 Faradays
�
 Require 0.01 Faradays of electricity

6. What quantity of electricity will be required to form 2 kg of aluminium from a solution

by electrolysis
Solution

Given; Mass(m) = 2 kg = 2000g, valency (V) =3 , Required ; Quantity of electricity(Q)

�
From; 𝑚 =

�
Then;𝑄 = � = = 2.144 10 Coulombs

 Quantity of electricity required = 2.144 𝟏𝟎𝟕 Coulombs

7. A sample of impure silver of mass 3.45g was used as anode in an electrolysis purifying
process. The cathode was made up of pure gold mas 6.45g after electrolysis the cathode
was found to weigh 9.66g
(i) Calculate the number of coulomb of electricity passed
(ii) What is the percentage purity of impure silver
Solution

Mass of impure silver = 3.45g , mass of cathode(gold) = 6.45g,

Mass of pure silver + mass of cathode = 9.66g

(i) Required ; number of coulombs of electricity

Mass of pure silver = [Mass of pure silver + mass of cathode]- mass of cathode
Mass of pure silver= 9.66g -6.45g = 3.21g
�
From; 𝑚 =

�
Then;𝑄 = �

where; m= mass of pure silver= 3.21g, v= valency of silver= 1, Ar= relative atomic mass of
silver= 108, F= Faraday‘s Constant= 96500C/mol
� � � � �
𝑄= =2868 C
�

 Number of coulombs passed = 2868 Coulombs

Page 84 of 91
(ii) Required; Percentage purity of silver
� � �
�𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = � 100 = 100%= 93
� � �

 Percentage purity of silver= 𝟗𝟑

8. An element X has a relative atomic mass of 88. When a current of 0.5A was passed
through the fused chloride of X for 32 minutes and 10 seconds, 0.44g of X was deposited
at the cathode
(a) Calculate the number of faradays needed to liberate 1 mole of X
(b) Write the formula for X ion
(c) Write the formula for the hydroxide of X
Solution

Given ; Ar= 88, I = 0.5A, t = 10s + (32 X 60) = 1930s, m= 0.44 g ,

(a) Required ; number of faradays needed to liberate 1 mole of X

v= ?
from; 𝑚 =

� �
then, v= = =2
� �

Recall; deposition of X2+ at the cathode: 2𝑒̅

2 moles of electrons = 2 Faradays is required to liberate 1 mole of X

 Number of Faradays required to liberate 1 mole of X = 2 Faradays

(b) Formula for x ion is
(c) Formula for hydroxide of X = OH

Page 85 of 91
FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

The law state that

―When the same quantity of charge of electricity is passed through solutions of different
electrolytes the masses of substances deposited/liberated at the electrodes is directly
proportional to their chemical equivalents’’.

Mathematically

𝑚 1
𝑚 2

K=1
𝑚
=( ) �𝐾
𝑚

𝑚
=
𝑚

CHEMICAL EQUIVALENT€
Refer to the relative atomic mass of the substance divided by number of electrons required to
reduce or oxide each unit of substance.

Mathematically ;
Chemical equivalent = � � �

E=

FIGURE: VERIFICATIOM OF FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

Page 86 of 91
ALTERNATIVE STATEMENT OF FARADAYS SECOND LAW

―When the same quantity of charge (electricity) is passed through different electrolytes the
number of moles of substances deposited or liberated at the electrode is inversely
proportional to their respective number of electrons required to oxidize or reduce the unit
quantity of the substance (valency)‖

𝑛 𝑣
=
𝑛 𝑣

PROOF:

Recall 𝑟 𝑚 𝑉 𝑟 𝑟
=
𝑚 𝑟 𝑚 𝑉 𝑟 𝑟
= 𝑖
𝑚 𝑚 𝑟 𝑣
( )�( ) = �
But 𝑟 𝑚 𝑣
𝑟
1= 𝑖𝑖
𝑉 Recall
𝑟 𝑀⁄
= 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟�𝑜𝑓�𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠� 𝑛
𝑉
Then
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒�𝑒𝑞𝑛� 𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑� 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜�𝑒𝑞𝑛� 𝑖 𝑀
𝑚 𝑟 𝑟 =𝑛
= 𝑟
𝑚 𝑣 𝑣 𝑟 1
𝑚 � 𝑟 𝑣 =
= 𝑀 𝑛
𝑚 𝑣 𝑟
𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 𝑛 1⁄ = 𝑣
𝑛 𝑣
= ( )� ( )
𝑚 𝑣 𝑟
𝑟 𝑛 𝑣
𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦�𝑏𝑦� �𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕�𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 =
𝑟 𝑛 𝑣

EXAMPLES:

1. Calculate the chemical equivalent of following substance

(a) Silver(Ag)
(b) Copper(Cu)
(c) Aluminium (Al)
Solution

(a) Silver(Ag) , RAM= 108, v= 1

= = = 108 (c) Aluminium; RAM= 27, v= 3
= �= �= 9
(b) Copper (Cu) ;RAM= 63.5, v= 2

= �= � = 𝟑𝟏 𝟕𝟓
Page 87 of 91
 2. Electrolysis led to the deposition of 36g copper. If the same quantity of charge flows in
iron (III) chloride. Find the number of moles of iron deposited.
Solution

Given; mass of copper = 36 g, RAM (Cu)= 63.5, RAM(Fe) = 56

Required; number of moles of iron deposited

ECu= = = 31.75

EFe= = = 18.67

From Faraday‘s second law

�
=
� �
mFe= �= � = 21.17 g

From;
�
Number of moles= =

= 0 378�𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠�𝑜𝑓� 𝑒

 Number of moles of iron deposited= 0.378 moles

3. A current of 1.5 A was passed through silver nitrate and copper (II) sulphate connected in
series for 10 minutes. If 0.35 g of silver was deposited in the first call, calculate the mass of
copper deposited for equivalent time.
Solution

Given; Mass( Ag) = 0.35 g, Ar(Ag) = 108, Ar(Cu) = 63.5

Required ;mass of copper deposited

EAg = = = 108

𝑅 𝑀 63 5
𝑐𝑢 = �= � = 31 75
v 2
From faraday second
�
=
� �
mCu= �= � = 0.102g

Page 88 of 91
APPLICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis is applied into different industrial activities such as

• Production of gases
• Extraction of metal
• Electroplating
• Purification of metals

1. PRODUCTION OF GASES
Electrolysis can be used to produce different gases such as hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine.

Hydrogen and oxygen can be produced from electrolysis of various electrolytes and dilute H2SO4
sulphuric acid. Chlorine can be produced from electrolysis of concentrate NaCl solution

2. EXTRACTION OF METALS
Electrolysis is used to extract reactive metal such as potassium (K), sodium (Na), Aluminium
(Al) from their molten chlorides or oxides (their respective ores) .resulting metals will be
discharged and collected at the cathode of the electrolytic cell.

3. ELECTROPLATING
Electroplating is an electrical deposition of one metal on other metal. It is the process of coating
one metal with another metal. In this process, the metal to be electroplated is made to be the
cathode while an electroplating metal is made to be the anode of an electrolytic cell.

Importance of electroplating

• Decoration by coating with shining or valuable metals.

• Prevention of rusting by coating iron with reactive metal which do not undergo rusting
such as Zinc during electroplating metal to be coated is made to be cathode while coating
metal is made to be anode
FIGRURE:SET UPP OF ELECTROPLATING SILVER SPOON USING COPPER

At the anode At the cathode

𝐶𝑢 𝐶𝑢 2𝑒 𝐶𝑢 2𝑒� 𝐶𝑢

Page 89 of 91
 4. PURIFICATION OF METAL
Electrolysis can be used to purify impure metals such as copper. During purification impure
metal is made to be the anode whereby it loses electrons and dissociates to form ions which are
deposited at the cathode, leaving impurities at the bottom of the container of an electrolytic cell.

FIGURE: SET UP FOR PURIFICATION OF COPPER BY ELECTROLYSIS

At the anode At the cathode

𝐶𝑢 𝐶𝑢 2𝑒 𝐶𝑢 2𝑒� 𝐶𝑢

REVISION EXERCISE
9. A steady current of 4A was passed through fused aluminium oxide. Calculate the time
taken to deposit 75g of aluminium metal
10. How long will a current of 15A take to form one kilogram of copper by electrolysis?
11. What current must be supplied to produce in a refinery to a refinery to produce one
metric tonne (1000kg) of copper by electrolysis within 24 hours?
12. What volume of oxygen measured at STP during electrolysis of NaOH solution by a
current of 5A supplied for 30minutes?
13. Calculate the current required to deposit :
(i) 15g of copper in 20 minutes from copper chloride solution
(ii) 4g of silver in 2000seconds from silver nitrate solution
14. Calculate the mass of a substance liberated in each of the following cases:
(i) A current of 2.5A was passed for 20minutes in a solution containing silver ions.
(ii) A current of 1.5A was passed through dilute sulphuric acid for 40minutes and 10
seconds
15. Calculate the volume of oxygen produced at S.T.P when the current of 10A was
passed through aqueous sulphuric acid for 30 minutes
16. How many moles of electrons are required to produce 54g of Al during the electrolysis
of molten Al2O3 ?
17. A current of 2A was passed through solution of divalent metal X for three minutes and
0.1184g of the metal was deposited at the cathode.
(i) Calculate the relative atomic mass of X
(ii) Identify metal

Page 90 of 91
18. Determine the volume of oxygen which will be produced during electrolysis of dilute
sodium hydroxide solution by the passage of two (2F) of electricity at STP.
19. What ass of zinc will be formed in electrolysis using a 15A current for one and half
hour?
20. How many Faradays of electricity are required to form 0.325g of zinc by electrolysis?
21. What quantity of electricity will be required to form two kilograms of aluminium from
a solution by electrolysis?
22. 0.02moles of electrons were passed through a solution of sodium hydroxide using
platinum electrodes.
(i) Give the names of the gases evolved at each electrode
(ii) Write the ionic equations of the reactions taking place at the electrodes
23. Assume you are a chemist in a chemical plant that deals with production of chlorine
gas. You want to produce 100litres of chlorine gas per hour so that you can reach the
company‘s goal of producing 2400litres every day. What current of electricity will you
allow to flow per hour?
24. A steady current of 2A was passed through a solution containing ions of a metal (X2+)
for nine minutes. The mass of metal X that was liberated was 0.3552g .Calculate the
molar mass of metal X
25. 0.2g of copper metal was formed at the cathode when 6.0A was through copper (II)
sulphate solution for sometimes using inert electrodes.
(i) Find the time required to deposit 0.2g of copper metal
(ii) What volume of oxygen gas measured at STP which will be collected
when 0.2g of copper was formed?
26. Determine the volume of oxygen gas which will be produced during electrolysis of
dilute sodium hydroxide solution by passage of four (4F) faradays f electricity at STP.
27. A current of 10000A is passed through an electrolytic cell for purifying copper for 12
hours.
(i) What mass of pure copper is deposited at the cathode?
(ii) What mass of aluminium would be deposited if the cell was changed to
refine aluminium?
28. A current flowing through an electrolyte deposits 0.5g of silver at a certain time
interval. How much copper would be deposited from the solution of copper (II) nitrate
in the same time interval using the same current?
29. A current of 0.5A flowing for six minutes and twenty seconds through two electrolytic
cells in series was found to deposit 0.216g of silver at the cathode of the first cell and
0.659g of nickel at cathode of the second cell. Determine
(i) The quantity of electricity passed through two cells
(ii) The quantity of electricity needed to deposit 1g of silver
(iii) The quantity of electricity needed to deposit 1g of nickel atoms
30. An electric current was passed through two electrolytic cells, A and B. Cell A contained
solution of copper (II) sulphate with copper electrodes while cell B had a solution of
silver nitrate with silver anode. The gain in mass of cathode in cell A was 0.189g.
Calculate:
(i) Quantity of charge through electrolytic cells
(ii) Gain in mass of cathode in cell B

Page 91 of 91