Surveying

Chapter 1 Fundamental concept

Surveying is defined as determining the relative positions of points on, above, or beneath the
earth's surface through measurements of horizontal and vertical distances, angles, and
directions.
1. OBJECTS OF SURVEYING:
(a) Determining relative positions of various points, above on or below the surface of earth
(b) To mark the positions of proposed structure on ground.
(c) To determine areas, volumes and other related quantities.
***The average radius of earth is taken as 6370 km for all calculations point of view
 Classification of survey
o Plane survey
o Geodetic survey
(a) Plane Surveying: The surveying in which the curvature of earth is neglected and is
assumed to be a flat surface.
 The vertical line is indicated by the direction of a freely suspended plumb bob.
A single horizontal plane of reference is selected. There the plumb bob lines at
all points of the area are assumed to be parallel. The curved line on the earth's
surface is considered as straight.
 Plane survey can safely be used when the extent of area is less than 250 Sq km.
 Also when the difference between an arc distance of 18.2 km on the surface of
earth and corresponding chord distance is about 10mm.'
 Also when the difference between the sum of angels in a plane triangle and
spherical triangle is only one second (1") for a triangle at the earth's surface
having an area of 195 Sq. km.
(b) Geodetic Surveying:-
 Shape of earth is taken into account.
 All lines lying on the surface are curved lines and triangles are spherical triangles.
 Preferred for works of large scale with high degree of precision.
 The directions of plumb lines at various points are converging towards centre of earth.
3. CLASSIFICATION:
(a) Functional classification of surveying:
(i) Control Surveying: Establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of widely spaced
control points using principles of Geodetic Surveying. In India, control survey is done by
"Survey of India"
(ii) Topographical Survey: To show natural features of the country such as rivers, hills,
lake, etc.
(iii) Cadastral Surveys: Fixing of property lines, to show boundaries of fields, buildings
etc. This is to be done by a revenue engineer.
(iv) Engineering Surveys: To obtain data for designing any type of project such as roads,
railways, water supply systems etc. An engineer is interested in this survey works.
(v) Mine Survey: Under ground works such as mines, shafts, pits, bore holes etc.
(vi) Hydrographic Survey: Surveying under water bodies e.g., determination of channel
depth etc.
(vii) Astronomic Survey: To determine absolute location of a point on earth by taking
latitude, longitude, azimuth, local time etc.
(viii) Geological Survey: Determining different strata inside the earths crust Geologist will
be dong this survey.
(b) Classification Based on Instruments:
(1) Chain Surveying: Only linear measurements are taken with a chain of tape. Angular
measurements are not taken.
Generally used when high accuracy is not required.
(ii) Compass Surveying: Horizontal angles are measured with a compass in addition to
linear measurements with a chain or tape.
 Magnetic compass is not a precise instrument.
 More precise than chain survey.
(iii) Levelling: Levelling instrument is used For finding difference in elevations and
determining elevations with reference to a datum. More precise than compass survey.
(iv) Plane table survey:
 Both plotting and taking measurements are simultaneous.
 Linear measurements with a chain or tape.
 Most suitable in areas with magnetic material where other surveys using with
magnetic needle may get affected.
 Less accurate.
(v) Theodolite Survey:
 Very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical, angles.
 Useful for the traverse survey and triangulation. Base lines are located using
Triangulation.
(vi) Tacheometric Survey:
  Theodolite with a stadia diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to
central horizontal hair is used.
 Not very accurate extremely convenient for Topographical details.
(vii) Photogrammetry: Using photographs - vast areas area difficult to reach.
(viii) EDM Surveys: Based on triangulation where all the three sides of a triangle are
measured with EDM instruments.
4. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING:
(a) Working from whole to part: First a system of control points are fixed with higher
precision for a large area. Minor control points can then be established by less precise methods
within the main area.
It prevents accumulation of errors. Minor errors are localized.
(b) Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference.
5. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PLAN AND A MAP:
Plan is constructed by usual orthographic projections, disregarding earth's curvilinear
surface. A plan is drawn on a relatively large scale.
If the scale is relatively small, a plan is called a map. A map generally shows some
additional features such as relief, and contour lines to indicate undulations on the ground.
6. SCALES : Scale is the fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears with the
corresponding distance on ground.
 A good draughtsman can plot a length to accuracy within ± 0.25mm.
(a) Classification of Scales:
Large Scale : 1cm = 10m
Medium Scale : 1cm =10m to 100m
Small scale : 1cm>100m
(b) Representation of a scale:
(1) Engineer's scale: Indicated by a statement e.g. 1cm =X m
(ii) Representative Factor: indicated by a ratio. If 1cm = 1m
Distance on the Map
R.F=
Distance on the Ground

****Larger the denominator of R.F. smaller is the scale of Map.

(iii) Graphical scale: Indicated by a line drawn on the map so that its distance corresponds to
a convenient units of length on ground.
 The graphical scale has the advantage over the numerical scales that the distances on
the maps can be determined by actual sealing even when the map has shrunk.
(c) Types of Measuring Scales:
(i) Plain scale: It is possible to measure two successive dimensions only e.g. metres and
decimeters.
(ii) Diagonal scale: Possible to measure three successive dimension such as metres,
decimeters and centimeters.
(iii) Chord scales: Are used to measure and to setout angles, without using a protractor. It
is rectangular in shape and has graduations from 0 to 90°.
(d) Use of verniers in scales:
 A vernier is a device for measuring accurately the fractional part of the smallest
division on a graduated scale.
 Least count of a vernier is equal to the difference in length of one division of main
scale and one division of vernier scale.
(i) Direct vernier: It has divisions slightly shorter than those of main scale. It increase in
the same direction as that of main scale.
'n' divisions of vernier = (n - 1)*divisions of main scale

(ii) Retrograde vernier: It increases in opposite direction to that of main scale. Smallest
division of vernier is longer than that of main scale.

***Small division length (v) > main scale division length (s)
(iii) Extended vernier: 'n' division of vernier scale are equal to (2n-1) divisions of main
scale.

(iv) Double vernier: is used when the graduations on the main scale are numbered in
both directions. Index mark (zero mark) will be at center. It is a combination of both
direct and retrograde verniers.
Example:1.
 10 divisions of vernier scale are equal to 11 parts of main scale of each 0.1 What is the
least count of the scale?
Solution:

EXAMPLE:If a line of 5cm has shrunk to 4.5cm, determine

(a) shrinkage factor
(b) correct length corresponding to measured length of 90m
(c) correct area corresponding to a measured area of 81 m².
SOLUTION:

FIELD BOOK:
 The Book in which chain or tape measurements are recorded
 Standard dimensions are 20 cm x 21 cm
 Double line field book is most commonly used for ordinary survey works
 Single line field book is used for very large scale works where more details are to be
entered.
 The chain line is started from the bottom and works upwards.