Notes by Dr. Rahat Andleeb (Ph.

D Zoology)

Subject: Biotechnology code: BIT: 405 Semester :BS (H) 7th morning

Lecture #1

Introduction to biotechnology
The term “biotechnology” was coined by a Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky, in 1919, to refer
to the science and methods that permit products to be produced from raw materials with the aid
of living organisms. Biotechnology is a diverse field which involves either working with living
cells or using molecules derived from them for applications oriented toward human welfare
using varied types of tools and technologies. The main subfields of biotechnology are medical
(red) biotechnology, agricultural (green) biotechnology, industrial (white) biotechnology,
marine (blue) biotechnology, food biotechnology, and environmental biotechnology.

Biotechnology is widely used in agriculture to improve plant growth and yields, increase
resistance to pests and diseases, and enhance nutritional content. In fact, it’s estimated that up to
80% of all processed foods today contain ingredients derived from biotechnology. From
genetically engineered crops to the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) for insect control on fruit
trees and grapevines, examples of biotechnology in agriculture are widespread.

Early Biotechnology (Emergence of Biotechnology)

Cheese production began around 4,000 to 7,000 years ago when humans began to breed animals
and process their milk. Fermentation, in this case, preserves nutrients: Milk will spoil relatively
quickly, but when processed like cheese, it is more stable. As for beer, the oldest records of
brewing are about 6,000 years old and were an integral part of the Sumerian culture. Evidence
indicates that the Sumerians discovered fermentation by chance. Wine has been produced for
about 4,500 years, and evidence suggests that cultured milk products, like yogurt, have existed
for at least 4,000 years.

In the early twentieth century, scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and
explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure
microbiological culture in an industrial process that of manufacturing corn starch using

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Clostridium acetobutylicum to produce acetone, which was used to manufacture explosives
during World War I. Shortly after that, in 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold
Penicillium. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic compound formed by the mold by
Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain, and Norman Heatley – to form what we today know as
penicillin. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in
humans. What we think of as modern biotechnology began around the end of the nineteenth
century. By then, Mendel's work on genetics was completed and institutes for investigating
fermentation along with other microbial processes had been founded by Koch, Pasteur, and
Lister. At the beginning of the twentieth century, industry and agriculture started to incorporate
biotechnology. The growing automobile industry, for example, used fermentation processes to
produce acetone and paint solvents. By mid-century, major advances in genetics dominated
biotechnology research. The discovery that DNA carries the genetic code and the structure of the
"double helix" were described by Watson and Crick. Soon, new techniques were developed to
allow manipulation of DNA. Genetically engineered plants, microbes, animals, and products like
insulin, highlight the future of biotechnology.

Biotechnological product in Agriculture

Genetically Modified Crops: Genetically modified crops are created by inserting genes
from different organisms into the DNA sequence of specific crop varieties. This produces traits
that would not occur naturally, such as resistance to pests or environmental conditions like
drought. The GMO industry has evolved over the years, with progress being made in developing
crops that are tolerant to herbicides, resistant to disease, and insect-resistant.

Advantages of GMO biotechnology:

 Increased efficiency and reduced costs

 Higher crop yields
 Ability to generate new food products
 Improved quality of life for farmers

Developing of Biofuels: Biofuels are types of fuel that can be produced using natural inputs
like algae, corn stover, and sugarcane bagasse instead of petroleum products. This helps to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions because they do not emit any carbon when burned. It also does

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not take away from the food supply because some inputs, like algae, can be grown on wastewater
or using arable land that isn’t fit to grow crops.

Advantages of biofuels:

 Reduced greenhouse gas emissions

 Increased competition may lead to lower prices
 More options for where fuel source comes from

Improving Plant Growth: However, with the advent of biotechnology, sustainable plant
growth can be achieved quickly and efficiently. These plants are altered in a laboratory to
possess a specific trait, such as resistance to pests, abiotic stress, and several other factors. Once
the variety is created, it only takes a few generations for farmers to obtain examples that have all
desired traits and grow much more efficiently because they no longer need to worry about
previous growth challenges.

Advantages of biotechnology for plant growth

 Increased tolerance to stress factors, such as drought or salinity

 Faster growth rates and shorter generation times
 Costs less than traditional breeding methods

Improving Plant Seed Quality: Biotechnology has allowed for more effective and
efficient ways of improving the crops that feed our population, as well as ensuring high-quality
seeds at harvest time. Seed quality has always been the basis for a good crop, and biotechnology
has allowed seeds to be improved in several ways. For example, scientists have been able to
improve the ability of seeds to withstand different conditions such as drought or flooding by
using DNA technology that targets specific genes responsible for water uptake during these
stressful times. In addition, biotechnologists have introduced new genetic material into plants
that can lead to higher nutritional value in many foods we eat every day, like fruits, vegetables,
grains, and oilseeds.

Advantages of biotech in improving seed quality

 Improved crops
 More food for the world’s population.

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  Better crop yields in the face of changing conditions around the globe
 Increased nutritional value

Improve Animal Health and Breeding

Another great example of biotechnology in agriculture is improving animal health and breeding.
Biotechnology is now being used in livestock production, which allows the animals to grow
faster with less food for better meat quality. It can even be used for cloning. Animals that are
resistant to diseases can also be bred using biotechnology. By using biotechnology solutions,
farmers can increase their production and improve the quality of animal products. The animal
biotech industry has a long way to go, but the potential is huge. This technology has great
advantages over conventional methods and may be a key to feeding our growing population in
the future. When combined with plant-based biotechnology, the potential for increased food
production is even greater.

Advantages of biotechnology in animal breeding:

 Improved animal product quality

 Faster growth
 Resistance to diseases
 Increased food production potential

Biotechnology Applications in Medicine

Biotechnology has a variety of applications in the field of medicine. Some of the biotechnology
applications in medicine include the following:

Recombinant Insulin: Insulin is required by diabetic patients to remove excess sugar from
the blood. Diabetic patients have a very low level of insulin or no insulin produced by the body.
Therefore, they need external insulin to control blood glucose levels. Later it was discovered that
the insulin produced by the pancreas of the pigs can be used by humans. But there were not
enough pigs to provide the quantities of insulin required. This led to the cloning of the human
insulin gene. The specific gene sequence that codes for human insulin were introduced in [Link]
bacteria. The gene sequence altered the genetic composition of the [Link] cells. Within 24 hours

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several [Link] bacteria containing the recombinant human insulin gene were produced. The
recombinant human insulin was isolated from [Link] cells.

Gene Therapy: Gene Therapy holds the most promising answer to the problem of genetic
diseases. Gene therapy is used to treat genetic disorders usually by the insertion of a normal gene
or correct gene for the defective or inactive gene into an individual with the help of vectors such
as retrovirus, adenovirus, and herpes simplex [Link] normal gene replaces the defective or
inactive gene and carries out its functions. The therapy has the highest chances of developing a
permanent cure if introduced in the earliest stages of life.

Molecular Diagnosis: Medical diagnosis is another application of biotechnology in the

health sector. Many times the pathogen concentration increases by the time the disease is
diagnosed. Hence, early diagnosis and knowledge of pathophysiology are essential for an
effective cure. This can be achieved with the help of techniques such as Recombinant DNA
Technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
(ELISA), etc.

Pharmacogenomics: Pharmacogenomics has led to the production of drugs that are best
suited to an individual’s genetic makeup. It can be applied in diseases such as cancer, depression,
HIV, asthma, etc.

Edible Vaccines: Vaccines are obtained by animals and cell cultures. These vaccines contain
inactivated pathogens. The transgenic plants can produce antigens that can be used as edible
vaccines. Antigenic proteins from several pathogens can be expressed in plants such as tomato
and banana. Transgenic sugar beet can treat foot and mouth disease of animals, transgenic
banana and tomato can cure diseases such as cholera and hepatitis B.

Biotechnology in industrial and environmental sector:

It goes without saying that the Environment is essential for every aspect of the life because all
the living beings are dependent on it for their survival and needs. The man-made disruption to
the environment is causing extinction and pollution, which is dangerous for both biodiversity and
specifically us humans as well.

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1. Bioremediation Bio means living, remediation means process of removing or correcting.
Nature is full of microbes and microorganism which are both harmful and beneficial to us and
exhibit symbiotic relationships to maintain the balance in our environment.

Bioremediation has been used since many years to remove or detoxify pollutants, usually as
contaminants of soils, water or sediments by using microorganisms. An excellent example of this
is the use of bacteria for removing oil spill in the ocean. Oil spills have considerable negative
impact on marine life, mainly sea birds and filter feeders. Microorganisms can be used to remove
organics material or toxic chemical from domestic waste and industrial effluents such as
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), petroleum hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls
and even metals. A number of strategies already exist for treating toxic materials in this manner,
some of which reduce the pollutant (biological transformation) to less toxic products.

2. Biosensors: Biosensors are devices that are used to detect the presence or concentration of a
biological analyte such as a biomolecule, a biological structure or a microorganism. It consists of
an analytical device consisting of a biocatalyst (enzyme, cell or tissue) and a transducer that
converts biological or biochemical signal into a quantifiable electrical signals. Now days, the
transducer are made using nanofabrication technologies which are much faster and relatively
cheaper. Biosensors and immunoassays are therefore now available even in the market.

Contamination of metals or pollutants in the environment can be detected using microbes based
biosensors. Biosensors can also be designed to be very selective, or sensitive to a broad range of
the compounds. For example, a wide range of the herbicides can be detected in river water using
algal-based biosensors; the stresses are inflicted on the organisms being measured as changes in
the optical properties of the plant’s chlorophyll.

Biosensors are of different types, such as calorimetric biosensors, immunosensors, optical

biosensors, BOD biosensors, gas biosensors, depending on the need of the end user. Biosensors
are also said to hold the key for mass Coronavirus testing.

3. Biofuels:Depleting fossil fuels reserves continue to renew interest in the conversion of

biomass to biofuel production. Biofuels are derived from renewable feed stocks that are
environmentally friendly fuels with the potential to meet more than a quarter of world’s demand
for transportation fuels by 2050. Biofuels are made from the living things or from the waste that

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they produce, including agricultural [Link] of the most common biofuel is ethanol, which is
produced from plants, food crops, biomass and generally from the seed or the fruit part of the
plant. Biofuels can also be prepared from lignocellulosic materials through biochemical and
thermochemical conversion processes. Scientists are currently investigating the use of cellulose
(the fibours in stem and other plant parts of most plants) to produce ethanol. This will mean that
any plant can be used to make biofuel.

4. Biopesticides: Biopesticides can be described as the beneficial use of one living organisms
to directly or indirectly suppress, inhibit, damage or kill a pest or pest population. Biocontrol
agents include the products obtained from fungi, bacteria, viruses and other organisms.

The population of the world is increasing day by day which simultaneously leads to increase in
global food demand. This passes on as a great challenge to traditional agricultural systems.
Through biotechnology, we can use biological tools for the benefits of humanity. Biotechnology
is thus a rapidly growing segment in biological sciences that has diversified applications in
sustainable agriculture, beginning with developing chemical-free biopesticides.

Biotechnology uses many things such as plants, animals and microbes. Early man is known to
decompose agricultural and kitchen waste by burying it in the soil for many months, that we
today call composting. Biotechnology can offer similar eco-friendly alternative that rely on
natural mechanisms to fight pathogens.

5. Bioenzymes:Enzymes are proteinaceous substances produced by living organisms and have

several beneficial characteristics. They are the main pre-cursors of all the transformations
occurring in the environment. They are catalysts with either narrow (chemo-, region- and stereo-
selectivity) or broad specificity, therefore, they can be applied to almost any environmental
activity or process.

Bioenzymes can carry out total transformations of the toxicological structure of a contaminant,
or cause complete conversion of a substance into innocuous inorganic end product. And they can
do this in a much faster way than any other non-biological method. Bioenzymes can perform
conversions for which no efficient chemical transformations have been devised.

Bioenzymes are a powerful tool that helping maintain a clean environment in several ways.
Some of these are utilized by a number of industries such as those of agro-food, oil, animal feed,

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detergent, pulp and paper, textile, leather, petroleum and various chemical and biochemical
industry. Enzymes also play an important role in maintaining pollution free environment and are
deployed in waste management using Recombinant DNA technology, protein engineering, etc.

Industrial Biotechnology:

The utilizationof biotechnological tools (bioprocessing) for the manufacturing of biotechnology-

derived products (fuels, plastics, enzymes, chemicals, and many more compounds) on industrial
scale is industrial biotechnology. The aim is to develop newer industrial manufacturing processes
and products, which are economical and better than preexisting ones with minimal
environmental impact. In industrial biotechnology

 Microorganisms are being explored for producing material goods like fermentation
products as cheese;
 Biorefineries where oils, sugars, and biomass may be converted into biofuels, bioplastics,
and biopolymers;
 Value-added chemicals from biomass.

The utilization of modern techniques can improve the efficiency and reduces the
environmental impacts of industrial processes like textile, paper, pulp, and chemical
manufacturing. For example, development and usage of biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to
synthesize chemicals and development of antibiotics and better tasting liquors and their usage
in food industry have provided safe and effective processing for sustainable productions.
Biotechnological tools in the textile industry are utilized for the finishing of fabrics and
garments. Biotechnology also produces spider silk and biotech-derived cotton that is warmer
and stronger and has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency, and wrinkle
and shrink resistance.

Biofuels may be derived from photosynthetic organisms, which capture solar energy, transform it
in other products like carbohydrates and oils, and store them. Different plants can be used for
fuel production: Bioethanol can be obtained from sugar (as sugarcane or sugar beet) or starch
(like corn or maize). These are fermented to produce ethanol, a liquid fuel commonly used for
transportation.

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  Biodiesel can be obtained from natural oils from plants like oil palm, soybean, or
algae. They can be burned directly in a diesel engine or a furnace, or blended with
petroleum, to produce fuels such as biodiesel.
 Wood and its by-products can be converted into liquid biofuels, such as methanol
or ethanol, or into wood gas. Wood can also be burned as solid fuel, like the
firewood.

In these kinds of biological reaction, there are many renewable chemicals of economic
importance coproduced as side streams of bioenergy and biofuels as levulinic acid, itaconic
acid, and sorbitol. These have tremendous economic potential and their fruitful usage would
depend upon the collaboration for research and development between the government and the
private sector.