CHAPTER 4:

PRESENTATION,
ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATION OF
DATA
 Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis

Step 1: Preparing the Data

Keep in mind that no data
organization means no sound
data analysis. Hence, prepare
the data for analysis by first
doing the two preparatory sub-
steps.
 TWO PREPARATORY SUB-STEPS

1. CODING SYSTEM
The process of labeling and
organizing your qualitative
data to identify different
themes and the relationships
between them
 TWO PREPARATORY SUB-STEPS

2. DATA TABULATION
The method of processing
data/information by
organizing it into a table
 Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis
Step 2: Analyzing the Data
Before immersing yourself into studying every
component of the data, decide on the kind of quantitative
analysis you have to use, whether to use simple
descriptive statistical techniques or advanced analytical
methods.
DATA PRESENTATION
 DATA PRESENTATION
The data presentation section introduces the chapter by
indicating order of presentation
• It summarizes background information of the

respondents and the data collected through literature,

survey questionnaires, interviews, and observations
• Data should be sufficient, valid, and accurate;

presentation should be clear and logical

• It follows the sequence raised. The data should

adequately answer the research survey questions

 DATA PRESENTATION
• The tables, graphs, and figures are appropriately
presented, placed, titled, numbered and referred to in
the text
• The text presents only the highlight of the tables
• Appropriate sub headings are used to facilitate resear
erusal of text and presents non-evaluative analysis of
data
 DATA PRESENTATION
• Presentation should be clear and scholarly done and
may come in the form of tables, figures or charts
• Analysis refers to the skill of the researcher in
describing, delineating similarities and difference,
highlighting the significant findings or data and ability to
extract information or messages out of the presented
data
• Interpretation is the explanation or suggestions inferred
from the data, their implications but not conclusions
 ANALYSIS OF DATA
• In analyzing data, stress only the important result that gives
information that could answer the problem you raised or posed in
your study which you stated in Chapter 1.
• You highlight only those important and unique findings. You have
to be consistent and coherent in your approach as well as logical,
based on certain academic conventions
• Data may be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatuvely depending on
the level of measurement and the number of dimensions and
varibles of the study
 ANALYSIS OF DATA
• Analyze in depth to give meaning to the data presented in the data
presented in the table. Avoid table reading.
• State statistical descriptions in declarative sentences.
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
• Establish interconnection between and among data
• Check for indicators whether hypothesis is/are supported or not by
findings
• Link the present findings with the previous literature/studies
• Use parallel observations with contemporary events to give
credence presented in the introduction
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
• Present the findings of the study in the order of the specific
problem as stated in the statement of the Problem
• Present the data in these forms:
Tabular
Textual
Graphical
 TABULAR PRESENTATION
Tables organize and comress data into standardized forms. They
facilitate the study and interpretation.

Parts:
Table Number Row Clasifier
Table Title Body
Column Header Source Note
 Table 4. The Demographic Profile of the Respondents According to Sex

Grade and Section Frequency Percentage

Male Female Total Male Female Total
Grade 7: St Augustine 9 26 35 2.45 7.10 9.55
St. Monica 21 14 35 5.73 3.82 9.55
Grade 8: St. John Paul II 19 19 38 5.19 5.19 10.38
St. John XXIII 26 11 37 7.10 3.00 10.1
Grade 9: St. Rita of Cascia 14 22 36 3.82 6.01 10.82
St. Ezekiel 23 12 35 6.28 3.27 9.55
Grade 10: St.Thomas 11 23 34 3.00 6.28 9.28
St. Alphonsus 19 12 31 5.19 3.27 8.46
Grade 11: St. William 19 29 48 5.19 7.92 13.11
Grade 12: St. Clare 8 29 37 2.18 7.92 10.01
Total 169 197 366 46.13 53.78 100
 TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
Presenting the data textually involves using statements
with number to describe a given data. It aims to highlight
some important data and supplement the tabular or
graphical presentation
Age Frequency Percentage
12 33 9.04
13 65 17.81
14 76 20.82
15 66 18.08
16 61 16.71
17 45 12.29
18 19 5.21
19 1 0.27
Total 366 100

Figure 5. The Demographic Profile of the Respondents According to Age

Table 5 and Figure 5.1 presents the frequency distribution of the

respondents according to their age. It shows that most of our respondents are 14 years old.

Second is 15 years old with 18.08 percentage while 18 years old and 19 years old have the

least percentage
 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
• A graph is a chart representing the quantitative
variations of a variable itself or in comparison with
those of another variable
• Graphing presents variations, changes, and
relationships of data in very attractuve, appealing,
effective, and convincing way
 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
The common types of graphs used in research are bar
graph, line graph, circle graph, prictogram, and map
graph.You should only choose the graphs which represent
best your data to avoid redundancy.
 Percentage of Sex
Male Female

7.92 7.92

7.1 7.1
6.82
6.28
6.01
5.73
5.19 5.19 5.19 5.19

3.82 3.82
3.27 3.27
3 3
2.45
2.18

St. Augustine St. Monica St. St. John St. John XXIII St. Rita of St. Ezekiel St. Thomas of St. Alphonsus St. William the St. Clare of
Paul II Cascia Villanova Hermit Montefalco
 THE EXTERNAL FORMAT
The use of tables and graph
• Tables and graphs are both ways to organize and
arrange data so that it is more easily understood by
the viewer
• Tables and graphs are related in the sense that the
information used in tables is frequently also used for
the basis of graphs
 THE EXTERNAL FORMAT
• When designing table, keep the format clear and
simple. Line up decimal places, note units clearly, use
a large enough typeface and construct a clean orderly
arrangement of rows and columns
• Bar graphs are an excellent way to show the results
that are one time, that are not continuos-especially
samplings such as surveys and inventories
 THE EXTERNAL FORMAT
• Bar graphs are used to get an overall idea or trends in
responses which categories get, many versus few
responses
• Bars in a graph should be wider than the spaces
between them
• All bars should be of equal width, and all spaces
including the space between the axis and the first bar,
should be equal of width
 THE EXTERNAL FORMAT
• Bars should be neither very thin nor very wide
• Use the same color for all the bars in a graph that are
in a single data set
• Use different fill colors for positive and negative values
• Line graph is most useful in displaying data or
information that change continuously over time
 THE EXTERNAL FORMAT
• The column graph is more similar
• Circle or pie graph are particularly good illustrations
when considering how many parts of a whole are
inception
• Each slice should be easily distinguished from the rest
and clearly labeled
• Use fewer slices in a graph
• Emphasize a slice in a pie graph by exploding it or by
choosing a color different from the rest of the slices
 THE EXTERNAL FORMAT
• Number of segments or slices in a pie graph
should be limited to those that can be seen
and labeled
• Components that are too small to be shown
individually can be grouped into one segment
labeled other or miscellaneous
 OTHER CONVENTIONS REGARDING
GRAPHICS
1. Keep graphics simple. Design the graphic to
help others understand your point
2. Simplify your data
3. Use consistent symbols
4. Avoid special effects if they do not enhance
the point to be made
 CAPTIONS, LABELS, AND LINES

Table caption should be the same as that which

appears in the list of tables. It is placed above
the table unlike that which is used in figures.
The caption should tell in precise terms what
the table contains.
 OTHER RULES
● Unusual abbreviation are not allowed in the table, if
necessary, put a legend at the bottom of the table
● Captions should be worded as concisely as clarity
permits
● When a table is placed broadside on a page the
caption should be on the binding side
● Be consistent in label size, font, and style
 FIGURE (CHART, GRAPH, AND
ILLUSTRATION)
These should be done judiciously. The research
reporter must ask himself he following questions:
is the illustration necessary? does it simply repeat
what the text said?
 FIGURE (CHART, GRAPH, AND
ILLUSTRATION)
Illustrative materials shall be called figures. The figure
number and caption should be centered below the
illustration. An Arabic numeral is written after the word
“Figure” followed by a period.
The caption should be brief and explanatory.
SPSS
 SPSS COMPONENTS

Data Editor/Data View – opens immediately upon starting

SPSS and, when empty, it looks like a typical spreadsheet

Variable View – each variable in an SPSS dataset has a

set of attributes that can be edited by toggling to this part
 VARIABLES IN SPSS

Name: The variable’s machine readable name. This is the

name used to refer to the variable in SPSS’ underlying
code and, if no “Label” is defined, the name that will
appear at the top of the column in the “Data View”
 VARIABLES IN SPSS

Type: It indicates the type of data that can be stored in the

variable’s column. The most frequently used types are
“String” (for text) and “Numeric.” SPSS uses the type to
know what rules can be applied to a specific variable. It
won’t do arithmetic on a string variable, for example.
 VARIABLES IN SPSS

Width: It indicates the allowed number of character per

instance

Decimals: Sets the number of decimal places allowed in

variable instances
 VARIABLES IN SPSS
Label: It sets the name that will be displayed at the top of the column
in the Data Editor, allowing for a human readable representation of
the variable name

Values: It sets names given to coded values (e.g. if the variable

contains survey responses where a “0” represents “no” and “1”
represents a “yes” this field can be used to tell SPSS to display the
text values instead of the numerical raw data).
 VARIABLES IN SPSS
Missing: Sets the values that will be encoded as
“Missing”

Column: Sets the displayed column length

Align: Sets the displayed alignment (right, left, or

center)
 VARIABLES IN SPSS
Measure: It sets the statistical level of measurement.

Scale : Variables that represent a continuous scale

Interval: Has equal intervals, but no true zero (temperature)

Ratio: Has equal intervals, and a true zero (weight, heigh,
income, age)
 VARIABLES IN SPSS
Measure: It sets the statistical level of measurement.

Ordinal: Variables that can be rank ordered but do not

represent precisely measured values

Nominal: Variables that cannot be ranked such as those that

represent labels or classifications
 SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL

A threshold that determines whether a study result can be considered

statistically significant after performing the planned statistical tests

It is most often set to 5% (or 0.05), although other levels may be used
depending on the study.
 p-value

The probability value (p-value) is the likelihood of obtaining an effect

at least as large as the one that was observed, assuming that the null
hypothesis is true; in other words, the likelihood of the observed effect
being caused by some variable other than the one being studied or by
chance.
1. Null Hypothesis: This is the idea that there is no real effect –
meaning, whatever you’re testing doesn’t actually change
everything

2. P-value: This tells you how likely it is that your results happened
just by chance, assuming the null hypothesis is true
Sample: Imagine you are testing a new study method to see if it
helps students score higher on a test.

Null Hypothesis: The study method DOES NOT improve test

scores
Alternative Hypothesis: The study method DOES improve test
scores

After testing, you find that students using the method scored
higher.
Now, the p-value tells us how likely it is that these higher scores
HAPPENED BY CHANCE rather than because of the study
method.
 The p-value helps to quantify the proof
against the null hypothesis:
1. a large p-value suggests that the observed effect is very likely if
the null hypothesis is true.
2. a small p-value (equal to or less than the significance level)
suggests that the observed evidence is not very likely if the null
hypothesis is true – i.e. either a very unusual event has happened
or the null hypothesis is incorrect.

Often a p-value of 0.05 or 0.01 (written ‘p ≤ 0.05’ or ‘p ≤ 0.01’)

Interpreting p-value:
If p is small (e.g., p<0.05), it means the chances of this happening
randomly are VERY LOW. So, we REJECT THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
and say the study method likely worked

If p is large (e.g., p>0.05), it means the results could have easily

happened by chance. So, we FAIL TO REJECT the null hypothesis
and say there’s no strong evidence that the study method worked.
Interpreting p-value:
If p is small (e.g., p<0.05), it means the chances of this happening
randomly are VERY LOW. So, we REJECT THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
and say the study method likely worked

If p is large (e.g., p>0.05), it means the results could have easily

happened by chance. So, we FAIL TO REJECT the null hypothesis
and say there’s no strong evidence that the study method worked.
Imagine flipping a coin. If someone claims they have a special coin
that lands on heads more often, you test it by flipping it 10 times. If it
lands on heads 7 or 8 times, you might wonder if the coin is really
special – or if you just got lucky.

The p-value helps you decide:

● If p is small, you might think, “This isn’t just luck, the coin might
actually be special”
● If p is large, you might thing “Eh, that could have happened
randomly”
PEARSON
CORRELATION
 The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) is the most
common way of measuring a linear correlation. It is a
number between –1 and 1 that measures the strength
and direction of the relationship between two
variables.

You use this if you want to see the linear relationship between two
variables
 WHEN TO USE PEARSON CORRELATION?
Use it when:
1. Both variables are numerical (quantitative) – It doesn’t work with
categories
2. You expect a linear relationship – The data should form a
straight-line pattern
3. The data is normally distributed – Works best when there are no
extreme outliers
HYPOTHESIS TEST:
Two tailed is a method in which the critical area of a
distribution is two-sided and tests whether a sample is
greater than or less than a certain range of values. It is
used in null-hypothesis testing and testing for statistical
significance. If the sample being tested falls into either of
the critical areas, the alternative hypothesis is accepted
instead of the null hypothesis.
HYPOTHESIS TEST:
One tailed is a statistical test in which the critical area of
a distribution is one-sided so that it is either greater than
or less than a certain value, but not both. If the sample
being tested falls into the one-sided critical area, the
alternative hypothesis will be accepted instead of the null
hypothesis.
When Pearson’s r is close to 1…

This means that there is a strong relationship between your

two variables. This means that changes in one variable are
strongly correlated with changes in the second variable.
When Pearson’s r is close to 0…

This means that there is a weak relationship between your

two variables. This means that changes in one variable are
not correlated with changes in the second variable.
When Pearson’s r is positive (+):

This means that as one variable increases in value, the

second variable also increase in value. Similarly, as one
variable decreases in value, the second variable also
decreases in value. This is called a positive correlation
When Pearson’s r is negative (-):

This means that as one variable increases in value, the

second variable decreases in value. This is called a
negative correlation.
Sig (2-Tailed) value

You can find this value in the Correlations box. This value
will tell you if there is a statistically significant correlation
between your two variables.
If the Sig (2-Tailed) value is greater than .05:
You can conclude that there is no statistically significant
correlation between your two variables. That means,
increases or decreases in one variable do not significantly
relate to increases or decreases in your second variable.
If the Sig (2-Tailed) value is less than or equal to .05:

You can conclude that there is a statistically significant

correlations between your two variables. That means,
increases or decreases in one variable do significantly
relate to increases or decreases in your second variable.
STEPS:

1. Analyze/Correlate/Bivariate

2. Select the variable

Correlations
Knowledge_gain Change_dietary_behviour
Knowledge_gain Pearson Correlation 1 -.424
Sig. (2-tailed) .476
N 5 5
Change_dietary_behviour Pearson Correlation -.424 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .476
N 5 5