Introduction

The Arab invasion of Sindh, whether futile or fruitful, remains one of the most significant events in the history of
the subcontinent. However, historians have multifarious interpretations regarding its impacts and connection with
the subsequent Muslim rule in India. One prominent criticism is proposed by Stanley Lane-Poole, a British
orientalist, who opines that the Arab conquest of Sindh was not much of a major achievement, having no
significant impact on the history of Islam and the Indian subcontinent. His argument stems from the fact that the
Arabs failed to establish their political dominance beyond the northwestern region of India and were confined to
only a smaller portion of the vast country. Poole’s statement is partially true in the sense that the Arab rule
undeniably remained episodic in the political and military domains; nevertheless, regarding it as a ‘triumph
without results’ is a prejudicial and unsubstantial viewpoint. One cannot label it an unprofitable event by assessing
a single aspect and downplaying all the other accomplishments. The Arab conquest not only influenced the
region’s political geography but also provided a gateway for further Muslim expansion into India. Indian society
witnessed a massive change following the brief rule of Muhammad bin Qasim; these changes are portrayed in the
socio-cultural, economic, and religious spheres, such as eliminating unethical practices, exchanging knowledge,
formulating an economic system, etc. Thus, the answer comprehensively explores how the Arab occupation of
Sindh was a rewarding victory for both Islam and India, not a worthless triumph.
“Today Sindh is an Islamic nation, similar to Iraq and Egypt; therefore, it is impossible to deny the greatness of the
Arab conquest of Sindh, its historical significance and consequences.”
Prof. Syed Abdul Qadir Shuja-ud-Din (a Pakistani historian and scholar)
A brief overview of the Arab conquest of Sindh
The bilateral relations between Arabia and Sindh have a long history that dates back to the mid-seventh century
when Arab traders started to inhabit the coastal areas of Sindh and Baluchistan. Nevertheless, it was not until 712
A.D. that Muhammad Bin Qasim, the Umayyad general, defeated Raja Dahir and established Muslim rule in the
subcontinent. Although the Muslims held power for a brief time, their transient rule proved to be effective in many
ways, laying the cornerstone for Muslim supremacy in India that lasted for almost a millennium until the advent of
European forces.
Factors making the Arab conquest of Sindh a rewarding victory rather than a triumph without results
Religious Factors
✓Introduction of Sindh as the birthplace of Islam
It is a universally acknowledged truth that the conquest of Sindh sowed the seeds of Muslim rule in India. Sindh,
being the ‘Bab-ul-Islam’, opened the gateway for the future propagation of northwest Asia and other regions of
the subcontinent. Tanvir Anjum, in his essay ‘The Emergence of Muslim Rule in India’, highlights the fact by saying,
“The Sindh invasion was not an isolated event; rather, it was part of a more extensive process that ultimately
resulted in the foundation of Muslim supremacy throughout India.”Thus, Muhammad bin Qasim’s expeditions
assisted and inspired many others, like the Ghaznavis, Ghauris, and Mughals, to solidify the Islamic footprint in
India, which has continued to dominate the landscape even today.
✓Propagation of Islam in the Subcontinent
The Arab rule changed the stigmatized violent image of Muslims that had been engraved in the minds of people.
Their Islamic mode of life, principles of egalitarianism and fraternity, and good administrative structure inspired
many Sindhi Hindus to embrace Islam with open arms. Their leader, Muhammad Bin Qasim, also believed in the
policy of tolerance and religious freedom. Instances of these events are vividly portrayed in Syed Sulaiman Nadvi’s
‘Arab-o-Hind ke Taluqaat,’ in which he defends the Muslim narrative of the advent of Islam against the Orientalist
perspective.
✓Rise of Sufism
The Arab expedition also opened the gateway for numerous ulema, scholars, preachers, and Sufi saints to enter
South Asia and spread the message of Islam. The conquest of Sindh gave birth to many Sufi saints, like Khwaja
Moeenuddin Chishti, Khawaja Nizam ud din Auliya, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Khaki, Shaykh Hameeduddin
Naguri, and Baba Fareed Ganj. In short, the growth of Islam in India would have been an allusive dream if not for
the Arab conquest.
Socio-cultural Factors
✓ Engagement of Mutual Cultural
The conquest of Sindh brought Islamic civilization face to face with the ancient Vedic civilization of the Indo-
Gangetic Plains. This cultural encounter is described as one of the ‘greatest romances of history’ by ‘Ishwari
Prasad’ in his book ‘A Short Story of Muslim Rule in India.’ The amalgamation of two distinct cultural ideologies
created a unique fusion and helped in mutual enhancement and enrichment. For example, Islamic law helped
eliminate inhumane cultural practices that were prevalent in Hindu society, like Satti – burning the wife alive with
the deceased husband – or ill-treatment of the lower classes, particularly Shudras and Dalits. Hence, the
engagement of mutual cultures proved the Arab invasion of Sindh a rewarding victory.
✓ Exchange of Knowledge and Ideas
Similarly, social and cultural hybridity gave rise to a mutual knowledge exchange. As the borders of the Umayyad
empire extended to the regions of Persia, India, and Spain, the Islamic culture was influenced by the new
civilization and vice versa. In the words of Kufi Ali, the author of Chachnama, “The Arab conquerors constructed a
direct line of communication between India and the Islamic world, creating enormous opportunities for economic
and cultural advancement.” The Muslim scholars learnt a great deal from India, particularly in the fields of
mathematics, philosophy, astronomy, and medicine. For instance, Abu Mashar – an Arab astronomer – spent ten
years in Banaras to study astronomy. Moreover, many Sanskrit books, such as Charaka-Samhita, Surya-Siddhanta,
and Khandakhadyaka, were translated into Arabic. Hence, the Arab invasion provided an opportunity for
intellectual exchange between the two civilizations.
Economic Factors
✓Boom of trade and commercialization
The economic relations between the two nations existed before the Arab conquest. However, trade and
commercialization in India witnessed a major boom following the Muslim expedition. The economy proliferated
because of the opening of new markets and expanded trading opportunities. This, in turn, led to increased tax
revenue, which was utilized in the human development sector. The fact is also evident in Maulvi Abdul Halim
Sharrar’s ‘Tareekh-e-Sindh’, as he quotes, “The Sindh occupation resulted in the revitalization of the economy
through the dynamic impulse of commercialization and extension of political dominion.” Moreover, the Arabs also
introduced the concept of urban planning by converting small villages into developed towns. Furthermore, they
further established businesses according to the crop production of the particular region. Thus, the Arabs left a
legacy behind them in the shape of a proper economic and administrative system, which continues to prevail in the
country.
Critical Analysis
To diagnose critically, the orientalist perspective presented by Poole is a biased and unjustifiable representation of
the Arab invasion of Sindh, aimed at subduing the accomplishments achieved in the socio-cultural, religious, and
economic domains. The minutiae of its success and consequences are endlessly debated; nonetheless, its position
in both Indian and Islamic history cannot be downplayed. Along with the political and religious impacts, it has
profoundly and permanently affected the socio-cultural realm, which is still evident in our languages, cuisines,
cultural practices, etc.
Conclusion
To wrap up, the Arab conquest of Sindh is one of the most remarkable events in the history of the South. Although
the Arabs failed to attain dominance in the political geography, their impacts in other fields are highly appreciable.
The conquest of Sindh marked the beginning of the long-standing Muslim rule in India and opened the region for
further exploration and conquests by the Ghaznavis, Ghauris, and Mughals. The expedition also influenced the
Indian culture and society, shaping both for centuries. Therefore, the conquest of Sindh cannot be dubbed as a
futile event in history; it is a significant aspect of the Indo-Islamic heritage and identity.
 Arab Invasion on Sind: Causes and Other Details:
Muḥammad ibn al-Qāsim al-Thaqafī (Arabic: 31 ;‫ محمد بن القاسم الثقفي‬December 695–18 July 715) was
an Arab military commander in service of the Umayyad Caliphate who led the Muslim conquest of Sindh
(part of modern Pakistan), inaugurating the Umayyad campaigns in India. His military exploits led to the
establishment of the Islamic province of Sindh, and the takeover of the region from the Sindhi Brahman
dynasty and its ruler, Raja Dahir, who was subsequently decapitated with his head sent to al-Hajjaj ibn
Yusuf in Basra. With the capture of the then-capital of Aror by Arab forces, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim
became the first Muslim to have successfully captured Hindu land, which marked the beginning of Muslim
rule in [Link] 708 to 711, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim led the Sindh conquest. He established Islamic
rule throughout the region, serving as governor of Sindh from 712 until his death in [Link] is
known as Bab-ul-Islam (the gateway of Islam), as it saw the first spread of Islam into South Asia. It has its
own culture and traditions, and has its roots in one of the world's oldest civilizations, the Indus Valley
Civilisation, which Sindh was home [Link] widespread political instability in India after the death of
Harshavardhan, the last independent Hindu King had inspired the foreign elements once again to attack
and enter India. The Arabs were no exception to it. After the rise of Islam, the Arabs having successfully
implanting it in Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Persia had cast a covetous eye on Sind. In 712 A.D. they were
successful in occupying [Link] bin Qasim al-Thaqafi, also known by the laqab of Imad ad-Din
Causes:
Several factors were responsible for the Arab invasion on Sind.
(i) Propagation of Islam:
Propagation of Islam was one of the key factors behind the Arab invasion of Sind. After the spread of
Islam in Egypt and Syria, the Caliph Walid 1 of Damascus had permitted the Arabs to go ahead with their
Indian mission. Further the followers of Islam were dead set against (completely opposed to)idolatry
practice of the Hindus of India. So they thought the spoliation (robbery plunder ruining destroing)of the
idolaters would be a means of earning.

(ii) Fabulous Wealth of India:

India was known to the world for her fabulous wealth and splendor. So like other invaders of the past, it
had tempted the Arabs to grab her wealth.

(iii) Political Condition of India:

The then Political condition of India was also a major factor behind the Arab invasion of Sind. There was
mutual rivalry and wars among the kings of petty provinces of India. Dahir, the ruler of Sind was
unpopular and not liked by many. The Arabs took full advantage of it.

(iv) The Immediate Cause:

The immediate cause of the Arab invasion of Sind was the looting of the eight Arab ships which carried
the gifts and treasures sent by the king of Ceylon to the Caliph, at the port of Debal near Sind. Some
Historians have opined that the ships were also carrying some beautiful women as well as valuable
articles for the khalifa. This unlawful act of piracy was strongly protested by Hajaj, the governor of [Link]
demanded compensation from Dahir, the king of Sind. But Dahir refuted(deny reject contradict a
statement accusation, prove wrong false disprove) Hajaj’s demands by saying that he had no control over
pirates. This infuriated Hajaj who decided to send military expeditions to Sind. He also obtained
permission from the Caliph in this regard.
However, the first two expeditions sent by Hajaj against Sind were beaten back(to force someone to go
back or to retreat by fighting) by Dahir. Enraged at the repeated failures, Hajaj sent his nephew and Son-
in-law Imaduddin Muhammad- bin-Qasim at the head of a huge army to Sind. Muhammad-bin- Qasim
was an able and young commander-in-chief.

Invasion of Sind by Muhammad-bin-Qasim:

Muhammad-bin-Qasim was a young man of hardly seventeen years when he was entrusted with the work
of invading Sind. He was very bold, courageous and ambitious. Muhammad-bin-Qasim led his army
towards Debal, a famous seaport, where the Arab’s ships were looted by some pirates. A nephew of
Dahir was the governor of Debal. Though he had an army of very small size with him, he tried to resist
Qasim. But it became futile,(pointless no result) when a treacherous Brahmin deserted the fortress and
gave Qasim all the information’s regarding the secrets of its [Link] also came to know from the
Brahman that the strength of the Sind army lay in the massive Hindu temple inside the fort of Debal and
as long as the red flag fluttered atop the temple, he could not defeat the Hindus. The temple was also
garrisoned by 4000 Rajput’s and 3000 Brahmins serving at the temple. However, after a fierce battle
Qasim brought down the red flag and the Arabian army resorted to a massacre. Despite a bold fight, the
Hindus of Debal were defeated by the Arabs.
The nephew of Dahir who was the governor fled away. Debal was captured and a huge booty with a large
number of women fell into the hands of the Arabs. The people were given the option of accepting Islam or
death. Many thousands of Hindus including Brahmans were mercilessly killed on their refusal to embrace
Islam. The massacre continued for three days. It was very unfortunate that Dahir who had prior
information of the Arabian attack, did not care at all.

Fall of Nirun:
Flushed with success, Muhammad-bin-Qasim marched towards Nirun, which was under the charge of
Dahir’s Son Jai Sindh. With the approach of the Arabs, Jai Sindh fled away after handing over the fort to a
priest. Qasim captured it without a fight. It is said Nirun fell because of the treachery of some Buddhist
citizens. Whatever may be the fact; Dahir had taken the matter lightly and did not attempt to check the
further advances of the Arabs.

Fall of Sehwan:
After capturing Debal & Nirun, Muhammad-bin- Qasim marched against Sehwan, a town which was under
the charge of the cousin of Dahir named Bajhra? The town was mostly inhabited by the merchant class
and the priests. Bajhra could not defend the town in the face of the Arabian attack and fled away with
panic. After his flight, the people of Sehwan surrendered to Muhammad-bin-Qasim. Sehwan fell because
of poor defence.
Fall of Sisam and Victory over the Jats:
Sisam also met the same fate as had happened to Sehwan. It was the capital of the Jats of Budhiya and
was ruled by Kaka, a jat king. Kaka had given shelter to Bajhra after his flight from Sehwan. Muhammad-
bin-Qasim defeated the Jats who in turn surrendered to the Arabs. But during the encounter, Bajhra and
his followers were killed. When so much had happened, yet Dahir did not raise his little finger to check the
invader. Muhammad-bin-Qasim then reached the river Mihran where he was detained for some months
because most of his horses of his army died of scurvy and he had to wait for fresh re-inforcement from
home.
Dahir could have taken the full advantage of this opportunity to attack and destroy the Arabs. But he
remained inactive. He also did not check the Arabs when they crossed the river Mihran. Probably, Dahir
was confident to defeat his enemy in a Single encounter and that’s why he was waiting for it at Rawar on
the bank of the Indus.

The Battle of Rawar:

Dahir, the powerful king of Sind was waiting for the Arab invader with a huge army of 50,000 sword men,
horsemen and elephantry at a place called Rawar. He was determined to finish the enemy once for all.
He did not know that the Arab army led by Muhammad-bin-Qasim was also equally strong to face any
Challenge.
After waiting for some days, both the armies started fighting on 20th June, 712 A.D. It was a serious and
severe battle. Dahir was a great warrior. He was fighting with a great spirit and was leading his army from
the front. By riding on an elephant he was at the front and was attacking the opponent with great
courage and valour.
In the mean while an arrow attached with burning cotton struck
Dahir’s ‘howdah’ and set it flame. At this the elephant got frightened and rushed towards the river Indus.
This made Dahir very much disturbed at the mid of the war. He became restless, inconsistent and
inattentive. At this moment he was injured by an arrow and fell from his elephant.
Although the elephant was brought to control, Dahir did not wait for it. He immediately rode a horse and
resumed fighting. But as he was not seen on the back of his elephant, his soldiers became
panicky and fled away from the field of battle. However, Dahir gave a heroic fight and laid down his life
after two days of his bloody battle. His widow Queen Ranibai refused to surrender the fort of Rawar and
fought the invader to the bitter end.(no mayter. what will do untill it finish)
She performed jouhar along with some besieged ladies of the fort. Muhammad-bin-Qasim became
victorious. Nevertheless he took about eight months to acquire control over Sind because his army had to
face tough resistance by the local people of many other towns and palaces including Alor and
Brahmanabad.

Occupation of Multan:
After conquering Sind, Muhammad-bin-Qasim marched towards Multan, a major city situated in the
upper Indus basin. On the way he had to encounter tough resistance by the local people but over
powered them. On reaching Multan he found the city strongly fortified and people in full revolt. But at
Multan he was also fortunate to get the help of a traitor who gave him the information regarding the
source of water supply to the city.
Muhammad-bin-Qasim cut-off the source. The people of Multan surrendered at last after fighting
bravely against the Arabs. Thus the city fell into the hands of the invader in 713 A.D. The Arabs
massacred and plundered the city. Women and children were made captives and a large quantity of gold
was collected by the Arabs. He obtained so much gold that they named the city as the ‘city of gold’.
After completing his mission in Sind and Multan, Muhammad-bin- Qasim was planning to proceed
more into the interior of India. In the mean while there came a tragic end to his life. He was put to
death by an order of Calipha, the religious head of the Islamic world.

Death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim:
The Death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim has been put to debate as there are two divergent views by different
Historians. Historian Mir Massum in his “Tarik Sind’ has described an interesting story about the
death of Muhammad-bin- Qasim. Muhammad- bin-Qasim during his campaign of Brahamanbad had
captured the two virgin daughters of Dahir. They were Surya Devi and Parimal Devi. They were sent to
the Calipha as gifts from Muhammad-bin-Qasim.

These two girls were determined to take revenge on Muhammad-bin-Qasim. So when they reached
Calipha, they told him that they had been used and dishonored by Muhammad-bin-Qasim before they
were sent to him. This made the Calipha so much angry that he at once ordered that Muhammad-bin-
Qasim should be put to death and his body, being sewn up in the raw hide of an ox, should be
despatched to him.
His order was immediately carried out. When Muhammad-bin-Qasim’s coffin was opened before the
calipha, the two girls were delighted at having avenged on the enemy and killer of their father. Their
mission was completed and so they declared that Qasim was innocent. This made the Calipha furious. At
his order, the two sisters were tied to the tails of horses and were dragged to death.
But the other view regarding the death of Muhammad-bin- Qasim has been ascribed to a political cause.
Some modern historians believe that Muhammad had become a victim of the court intrigues of the
Calipha. Calipha Walid died in 715 A.D. and was succeeded by his brother Sulaiman who had enmity with
Hajaj, the governor of Iraq and father-in-law of [Link] could not tolerate the
importance of Hajaj as a result of Muhammad’s victorious campaigns in India. To bring an end to this
Calipha might have ordered to kill Muhammad-bin-Qasim. Whatever may be the fact? Mohammad-bin-
Kasim got a tragic end of his life.

Causes of Arab Success in Sind:

Many factors have been ascribed to the success the Arabs in Sind and Multan. Sind had a heterogeneous
population consisting of the Hindus, the Buddhists, the Jains, the Jats, the Meds etc. There was no good
relation among them as the subjects of Dahir lack unity at social level. Instead there prevailed hatred
among them. So at the time of Arab invasion of Sind, they could not be united for the cause of their
motherland. Some historians have opined that it was due to lack of social solidarity among the people of
Sind; the country had to face the rath of the Arabs.

Unpopularity of Dahir:
Dahir was not liked by some sections of his subjects as he was proud and arrogant and mainly as a son
of an usurper. Dahir’s father was a minister who had murdered his king and married the widow queen.
Thus Dahir, being the son of an usurper, was not liked by the people.
Besides Dahir had enimity with his cousin brothers for the throne which had led the kingdom to a stage of
civil war. Further Dahir’s governors were almost semi-independent princes and did not co-operate him at
the time of crises. Because of his personal nature he was also not liked by his subjects who were mostly
non-Hindus. Owing to his unpopularity he did not get the support of the people of his own kingdom at the
time of foreign invasion.

Betrayal and Treachery:

It was the betrayal and treachery of some Indian citizens that had contributed a lot for the success of the
Arabs. Debal fell because of a Brahmin traitor who exposed secrecy of the Temple and flag which was
inside fort of Debal. At Nirun the Buddhists played treacherous role by joining hands with the invader. At
Multan, a traitor informed the invador the source of water supply to the city. Some historians have viewed
this as the role of the Fifth column(live in country support its enemies) in bringing about the fall of their
own country.

Poverty and Backwardness:

Sind was a poor, backward kingdom with a space population and limited resources. So it was not possible
on the part of the Dahir to finance for a large army or to wage a protracted war(lasted for long tidme
longer than expected). This also had tempted the Arabs to invade Sind.

Isolation of Sind:
Isolation of Sind from the rest of India was also a factor for the Arab’s success in Sind. Though there were
powerful dynasties like the Pratiharas of Malwa and Kanauj they did not come to the help of Sind. None of
them bothered or cared for this incident which marked the beginning of Muslim rule in India.

Religious Enthusiasm of Arabs:

The Arabs were inspired by a new religion and had become fanatic. They thought that they were the
forces of God and were engaged in a mission to destroy the faiths of the infidel and spared the blessings
of Islam. The Arabs had also a great sense of patriotic feelings. The Indians on the other hand had no
such religious enthusiasm or patriotism. Rather they had an indifferent, tolerant and cosmopolitan attitude
towards other faiths and other people. Undoubtedly this had resulted, the Arab’s success in Sind.

Strong Army:
The Arab army under the leadership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim was superior to that of Sind of Dahir in
strength and technique. They were also well-equipped. Dahir’s army only at Rawar was nearly on par in
number with that of the invader. But they were very poorly equipped as the majority of them were hastily
recruited on the eve of the war and had not sufficient military training. This had caused the defeat of
Dahir.

Responsibility of Dahir:
Dahir was largely responsible for the success of the Arabs owing to his initial lethargy and foolishness. He
had remained inactive while Muhammad-bin-Qasim was conquering Debal, Nirun and Sehwan one after
another. Even he had remained inactive when Muhammad crossed the Mihran to enter into Rawar. It was
foolishness on the part of Dahir to hope that he would finish the enemy in a Single stroke at Rawar. At
Rawar also Dahir committed a blunder by not commanding the army as its leader. Instead of commanding
the army, he fought like a soldier and died.

Arab Conquest Of Sindh Was A Triumph Without Results?Or an

episode?
The Arab conquest of Sind had little effect so far as political factors were [Link] are various
opinions among the historians about the effect of Arab invasion of Sindh. The Indian historians
opine that in no way had this invasion affected India. No doubt, the Arab victors ruled over Sindh
and Muslim for a long time but they could not do anything more than this. According to Stanley
Lane-poole, “The Arab conquest of Sind was only an episode in the history of India and of Islam—
a triumph without results.” Many scholars have shared their views with [Link] Haig
writes, “It was a mere episode in the history of India and affected only a small portion of the fringe
of that vast country.”
Many authors like Elphinstore, Wolsely Haig and Lane Poole are of the opinion that the Arab conquest
of Sindh was without any impact on the history of subcontinent as well as Islam. Their main argument is
that the Arabs could not proceed towards the rest of india and only a small portion of country came under
the their [Link] Arabs neither challenged nor broke the political and military power of Rajput rules
of the North.

After the death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim,. Their rule which continued to last only one and half centuries
was confined to Sind [Link] the task of the foundation of Muslim rule in India was done by the Turk
Muslims much later. According to Cambridge history of India, “the rulers of states beyond the deserts
have no cause for alarm that was to come later and enemy was to be not the Arabs but the Turks who
were to present the faith of the Arabian Prophet in a more terrible guise than it had worn when presented
by native Arabian”.

According to Prof. Habibullah, “The Arab was not destined to raise Islam to be a political force in
India, politically the Sind affair led to a dead end(a situation that has no hope of making progreess
,no progress). The Indian powers also did almost nothing to drive them out of Sind. Hence the
Arab invasion of Sind is regarded as an episode.”
The view point of the above mentioned historians is true only to the extant that Arabs conquest of Sindh
did not exert tremendous effects in the field of political activity, but so for as the other fields of human
activity are concerned, Arabs conquest could not be dubbed simply as having no results and impacts.

It may be said that there was no political effect of the Arab invasion on Sindh but its cultural effect cannot
be underestimated. Lanepoole has remarked (say something as comment mention say) in this
context, “The Arab conquest of Sindh, from the political point of view, was an insignificant event
but the effects of this conquest upon Muslim culture were profound and far-reaching.”
In that way, we conclude that the Arabs were immensely affected by culture and civilization of India and
as a result of their victory over Sindh, they came in contact with the people of India. They greatly praised
the Indian scholars, philosopher, artists, musicians and masons. (expert stone in building gilkar)The
Arabs also learnt much in the field of philosophy, science medicine and astrology form the Indian
scholars. They also received practical administrative knowledge from the people of India. The Arabs also
took advantage of the expert guidance of the Indian craftsmen and got built several mosques with their
help.
Caloph Harun-al-Rashid was a great lover of Indian culture. He honoured the Indian scholars and he
invited several Indian scholars to Baghdad and got translated various books in Arabic with their help.
Indian Medical officers were appointed in the hospital of the Caliph. Charak Samhita was also translated
into Arabic during this period. Many scholars of Arabia visited India and learnt various principles of
mathematics from Indian scholars.
Besides helping the exchange of ideas, the to-and-fro journey of the scholars facilitated the dissemination
of the seeds of Indian culture in foreign land. The Arabs acquired from the Hindus some new in foreign
land. The Arabs acquired from the Hindus some new knowledge and carried it not only to their own land
but also to [Link] the same way, India was also influenced by the Arabs. With the commencement of
a new religion of Islam, the people of oppressed lower classes felt attracted and embraced Islam was
sown in India with the Arab conquest of Sindh. Dr. Srivastava has also remarked, “The Arab conquest
of Sindh was destined to sow the seed of Islam in this land.”Thus the cultural influence of this
invasion proved permanent. It may be an episode from the political point of view but it was an event of
great importance from cultural point of view.

Effects of the Conquest of Sindh:

Little Effect in Political Sphere:
There is no doubt that Arab conquest was confined to Sindh and Multan only and the major portion of
northern India was not directly affected. Expeditions were send against Hindu princes of the north, but the
Rajputs were too strong to be defeated. The sudden death of Muhammad bin Qasim and fruitless help of
the Khalifah had greatly shaken the Arab stability in Sindh. Within the decline of the power of the Khalifah,
territories of Sindh were divided into independent states.
The internal weaknesses of Indian society were brought to height by the Arabs. Caste system,superstition
and feudalism were the main weaknesses of Indian [Link] this conquest gave courage to later
Muslims to conquer India so it is rightly said, “though the Arabs were not the actual conquerors of India
they were the path finder and the torch bearers.”
2. Another factor came to the light that Sindh was not the right path to enter [Link] the later invaders
invaded the punjab through Northern passes which were more rich than Sindh.
3. The Muslims in Sindh introduced a novel administration whose objective was the welfare of common
[Link] citizen were equel before law and all basic rights were protected by the [Link] Hindus were
allowed to decide thier disputes through their own [Link] reflects the internal and external
autonomy and freedom they enjoyed during the Muslim [Link] of Arab soldiers settled in Sindh for
good and some of them married Sindi women. The Arab and Hindus lived side by side in peace and amity
for a long time. The Arabs left a legacy behind in the shape of buildings or administrative or cultural
institutions that might have exerted influence on [Link] Arab administration was based on the
principles of Justice, equality, toleration and welfare. It was a role model for the later Turk sovereigns.

4. Before the conquest of Sindh,only the people of book (Ahl-e-Kitab) were treated as Dhimmis (protected
people) but now in new tradition occurred that who surrendered to Muslim rule and remained loyal would
be treated as Dhimmis either they were people of book or not.
.
Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “It may by conceded (admit agree ttue after first deny resist)at once that the Arab
conquest of Sindh from political point of view, was an insignificant event in the history of Islam” The
statement is nullified by the above-mentioned facts.

2. Profound and Far-Reaching Effect on Culture:

1. A common culture was developed in Sindh which was mixture of Arabs and Hindu culture.
2. Still the Sindhi language is written into Arabic script, it has many Arabic words.
3. The use of camel and horse was also introduced by the Arabs.

The establishment of Muslim rule in Sindh had profound and far reaching effects in the field of culture and
learning of the land. “The Arabs had brought with them a new religion and a new civilization which they
introduced among the conquered people. They brought India into direct contact with the Islamic world and
opened immense possibilities of commercial and cultural progress”.

(i) Social Effects:

The Arabs settled in Sindh and absorbed many local traditions but they also introduced many cultural and
social traditions in Sindh. The Arabs had an egalitarian society while the Hindus were divided strictly into
caste system. Muslim introduced equality,tolerance and justice in Sindh.
Before the conquest of Sindh, the Arabs were not only nomads but also bandits(robber raider). They were
uncivilized. The terrirotory of Sind became civilized after the invasaion of Arabs. They got awareness of
law, its importance and obedience.
Until recently the social pattern in Sindh was largely tribal, the place of Arab Shaikh being taken by the
Sindhi Wadera. The world Wadera itself is a literal translation of Arabic counterpart. Such Arab virtues as
hospitality have always distinguished Sindh, and the standard of Arabic scholarship has also remained
high. After the interaction of two different nations a new civilization came into existence, whose vivacious
(lively, full of energy) example “Sindhi Language” is still present today.
Arab scholars inhabited in Sindh and several Hindu scholars embraced Islam and permanently settled in
Arabia. The Muslim
treated the Sindi generously and granted them complete religious freedom. In a result a lot of Sindhi
Brahman and Buddhist embraced [Link] had started some new kind of industries in Sind. They
planted in Sindh some new kind of plants. The Arab brought horse and camels Sindh and still today they
inhabitants use the camel.

(ii) Religious Effects:

It cannot be denied that the conquest of Sindh sowed the Seeds of Islam in India. A large number of
persons in Sindh embraced Islam. The Muslim did not allow the monopoly of the Brahmans on religion
and gates of religion were open to [Link] spread in Sindh by high moral principles in which Muslims
treated [Link] the conquest of Sindh by the Arabs, Sindh remained always under Muslim rule
exept British rule.

Toleration was shown by the Arab governors of Sindh to their subjects irrespective of caste and creed.
Some of the temples were no doubt destroyed during the days of war, but that was a temporary phase,
for the destruction was not due to religious bigotry or fanaticism but to the fact that the temples were the
repositories of India’s agelong accumulated wealth. Once a place was occupied and peace restored or
the people submitted to the ruler and sought peace, the conqueror adopted a kind and conciliatory policy
towards them. When the people of Brahmanabad, for instance submitted to the conqueror, they were
allowed to rebuild their temples which were destroyed during the time of war.
The Brahmins were permitted to perform their rites and ceremonies in the manner prescribed by their
religion. Hajjaj bin Yusaf sent a farman to Muhammad bin Qasim instructing him to grant the population of
Sindh rights to life and property in lieu of ( instead of to replace it subtitue for it)their submission and
willingness to pay taxes to the Muslim administration. They were also given the right to perform their
religious rites as they [Link] Arab believed on the policy of toleration, they have given complete
religious freedom. They also given the permission to repair the ruined temples and construct the new
ones. Due to the High moral and character the Muslims attracted the local population. In a result majority
of the population of Sindh accepted [Link] Ulema, scholars, preachers, traders from Arabia
settled in Sindh. Ulema and Sufis had given great importance to the propagation of Islam and majority of
the Sindhis embraced Islam.

(iii) Intellectual Effects:

IMPACTS IN THE FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE

The impact of the conquest of Sindh by the Arabs was reciprocal. The Muslims brought with them the
knowledge which they derived from the conquered nations like persia and Byzantine [Link] Hindus
had also developed many branches of knowledge including medicine, Astronomy,Astrology, etc.

1. TRANSLATION OF BOOKS
The Abasid Kaliphs were great patrons of art and [Link] set up a house of translation in Baghdad
where many Sanskrit books were translated into Persian and Arabic.

The impotant books translated were Siddanta by Brahmgupta and others by Kahrah and Dimnoh
[Link] to [Link], “Astrology and palmistry also received considerable attention at Baghdad
and the titles of large number of books translated from Sanskrit on these subjects have been
[Link] subjects on which books were translated were logic,alchemy,magic,ethics,statecraft and
art of war.”

2. INDIAN MEDICINE
Indian system of medicine received even greater [Link] books by Sushruta and Charak were
translated into Arabic, the foremost authorities in Hindu medicine. The indian doctors enjoyed great
prestige at Baghdad and they were apponinted in [Link] of them Manka who was specially sent
from India to treat Haroon-ur-Rasheed and his treatment was successful.
3. MATHEMATICS
In Mathematics, the most important contribution of the Indo-Pak subcontinent went to Arabic learning
which was introduced of what known in the west “Arabic numerals”.Famous Arab mathematician Al-
Khurzami translated many Indian books into Arabic.

4. HISTORIOGRAPHY
The Muslim introduced the art of history writing in [Link] that time Indian had no authentic book on their
history. Muslims were renowned in historiography and the Indian history.

MUSIC

Music of Indo-Pak subcontinent had its impact on Arab music and was appreciated in Abbasid capital.
Professor Halim of Dhaka University who made a special study of Indo-Pak music concluded that the
Arabs system and the Indian system of music influenced each other.

INTELLECTUAL EFFECTS
The Arab acquired from the Hindus some new knowledge in Indian religion, philosophy, astronomy,
medicine and folklore(mythology oral history) and carried it to their own country as well as to Europe.
Many of the Sanskrit works on astronomy and mathematics were translated into Arabic under the
patronage of the Abbassid Khalifahs. During the reign of Harun-ar-Rashid Hindu scholars were invited to
Baghdad to translate into Arabic Sanskrit works on medicine, philosophy, astronomy and other subjects.
Similarly, many Arab savants studied Sanskrit to satisfy their thirst for knowledge of Indian culture.
The digit system was first invented in the sub-continent. Arabs adopted that procedure. Even today the
Arabic digits from one to nine are same like written in Hindi and these are called Arabic Numerals.
Famous Arab mathematician Khuarzami translated Hindi mathematics into Arabi.
Once the Khalifah Harun-ar-Rashid fell ill. For his treatment, a physician was called from the sub-
continent. Khalifah recovered with his Vedic treatment. After that Vedic physician was appointed in the
hospital of Baghdad. Hindi herbs were imported and several books on medicine were translated into
Arabic.
Ishwari Prasad opines, “It must be admitted that Muslims soon secularized the learning they borrowed
from India and presented it to the European world in a new garb which was perhaps more acceptable to
the European mind”. Amir Khusrau mentioned that the Arab astronomer Abu Mashar came to Benares,
the seat of Hindu learning, and studied astronomy there for ten years.

Thus, we find that the exchange of ideas and the cultural contact between the Arabs and the Hindus were
possible as a result of the Arab conquest. To the natives, particularly to the lower class, the Muslim rule
symbolized prosperity and emancipation. This is why the Jats and the Meds accorded welcome to the
Arabs by blowing conch-shell. So, from the cultural point of view, the invasion of Sindh cannot be
regarded as an isolated military [Link] Arabs left a legacy behind in the shape of buildings or
administrative or cultural institutions that might have exerted influence on India. The Sindhi language
shows Arab influence even today. It is wrong to say that the Arab conquest of Sindh had absolutely no
effect on India.

ANALYSIS

Talking into account the above mentioned facts about the effects of conquest of Sindh,the Lanepool
version was that it was a trimph without result,seems superficial. One can differ only that who among the
Sindhis or the Arabs influenced more, but as far the far reaching effects of this event are concerned,
these are out of question.
The Hindu and the European authors and historians have proved that the Arabs were influenced more by
the Hindus,if it is true then the version of Lanepool seems baseless.
According to L. P Sharma “the Arabs did not impress Indians culturally, instead they themselves were
influenced by the culture of India. The Arabs learnt much from fine arts, astrology,science of medicine and
literature of India. Dr. A. L Srivastava has expressed the view that, “not only the Arabs but Europeans
also drew advantage from the knowledge of the Indians in the eight and ninth century A.D because of
their contacts with them through Arabs.”
Therefore,we can say that if history is something more than the stories of kings and their great wars than
the conquest of Sindh cannot be dubbed simply as “a triumph without result.” To sum up, the effects of
Sindh conquest were more invisible than visible as observed by historians in his writings
The Arabs in Sindh after Muhammad :
The Arabs failed to penetrate further into India. The Arab’s thirst for further conquests was put to an end by the
valiant efforts of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in western India, while the Gurjara Pratiharas stopped their
conquests in northern India.
 In 750 CE. the Abbasids replaced Umayyads as Khalifas. It led to the conflicts among the Arabs officers in Sindh.
Ultimately the power of the Khalifas weakened and they failed to keep control over their distant provinces. Till 871
CE Sindh along with Punjab was under the direct control of the Khalifa but in that year the rulers declared their
independence and lived in peace with the Hindus.
The Arabs, no doubt conquered Sindh, but they could not enjoy their control over that region for a long time.
About the Arab conquest of Sindh Stanley Lane Poole observes “The Arabs had conquered Sindh but the conquest
was only an episode in the history of India and Islam, a triumph without results”.