EARTH SCIENCE  Plutonic or Intrusive- solidification of magma

2. Sedimentary Rocks- formed by lithification of sediments

GEOLOGY Lithification- compaction and cementation of sediments to form
sedimentary rocks
MINERALS- all minerals: 3. Metamorphic Rocks- forms from pre-existing rocks (either igneous,
1. Occur naturally sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) that have been altered by
2. are inorganic the agents of metamorphism, which include:
3. are solid  Heat
4. are elements or compounds with a unique chemical make-up  Pressure
5. are made up of particles that are arranged in a pattern that is repeated  Chemically Active Fluid- water containing ions in solution
over and over (called crystal) PLATE TECTONICS
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS Alfred Wegener- proposed his Continental Drift Theory in 1915
1. color- most unreliable property Continental Drift Hypothesis- supercontinent called Pangaea began
2. luster- surface reflection breaking apart about 200 million years ago.
3. streak- most reliable property
4. hardness- resistance from being scratched Evidence used in support of continental drift hypothesis:
MOHS HARDNESS SCALE:
10- diamond  Fit of the continents
9- corundum  Fossil evidence
8- topaz  Pock type and structural similarities
7- quartz  Paleoclimatic evidence
6- feldspar
PLATE BOUNDARIES
5- apatite
4- fluorite Types:
3- calcite
2- gypsum 1. Divergent Boundaries- plates move away from each other
1- Talc 2. Convergent Boundaries- plates move toward each other
5. Cleavage a. Oceanic-Continental Convergence- denser oceanic slab sinks
6. Fracture into the asthenosphere
7. Specific Gravity - Resulting volcanic mountain chain is called a continental
volcanic arc
ROCKS- naturally-occurring mixtures of minerals, mineraloids, glass or b. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence- when two oceanic slabs
organic matter converge, one descends beneath the other
- If the volcanoes emerge as islands, a volcanic island arc is
1. Igneous Rock
formed
 Volcanic or Extrusive- solidification of lava
 c. Continental-Continental Convergence- resulting collision TYPES OF FOLDS
between two continental blocks produces mountains
3. Transform Fault Boundaries- plates grind past one another and no  Normal- hanging walls move downward relative to the footwall
new lithosphere is created or destroyed  Reverse- compression causes the hanging wall to move upward
relative to the footwall
 Thrust- reverse fault in which the fault plane is at a low angle
 Strike-slip- movement is horizontal and parallel to the trend or strike
EARTHQUAKE- vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy of the fault surface
(elastic energy) that radiates in all directions from its source, the focus, in the
form of waves (seismic waves) HYDROLOGY

 Seismology WATER CYCLE- the movement of water and water vapor from the sea to
 Seismograph the atmosphere, to the land, and back to the sea and atmosphere again. The
 Seismogram five major processes involve are evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
surface runoff and percolation
Earthquake magnitude- strength
Earthquake intensity- damage done INLAND WATERS:
Richter Scale- measures the magnitude
Mercalli Intensity Scale- measures the intensity 1. Lake- a large body of fresh or salt water
2. River- a large stream of water flowing in a channel with more or less
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE defined bank
1. Destruction from seismic vibrations 3. Spring- a groundwater that flows out of the surface of the earth
2. Tsunami 4. Stream- a body of water with less than 60 feet in width, with a
3. Landslide and ground subsidence current confined within a bed and bank
4. Fire 5. Ground Water- water beneath the surface of the earth
6. Pond- a relatively shallow small body of standing water
LAYERS OF EARTH 7. Waterfall- a water falling from a height
8. Swamp- wetland that features inundation of large areas of and by
1. Crust- a very thin outer layer (5-40km) shallow bodies of water
2. Mantle- thickest layer; a rocky layer (2885 km or 1789 mi) 9. Estuary- partially surrounded by land where freshwater from a river
3. Outer Core- a layer that exhibits the characteristics of a mobile liquid meets the seawater
(2770 km or 1407 miles)
4. Inner Core- a solid metallic sphere radius about 1216 km or 754 METEOROLOGY
miles
ATMOSPHERE- delicate life-giving blanket of air that surrounds the fragile
FOLD- bend in rock layers that results from stress earth

 Anticlines- upfolding, or arching of rock layers  Composition- Nitrogen (N2) -78.08%

 Synclines- downfolds or troughs - Oxygen (O2) -20.95%
 - Argon (Ar) -0.93% 4. Saturation- maximum water vapor air can hold
- Neon (Ne) -0.0018% 5. Clouds- visible mass of tiny water droplets and/or ice crystals that
- Helium (He) -0.0005% are above the earth’s surface
- Hydrogen (H2) -0.00006% 6. Precipitation- any form of water, either liquid or solid (rain or snow),
- Xenon (Xe) -0.000009% that falls from clouds and reaches the ground
 Variable Gases- carbon dioxide (CO2) 7. Visibility- greatest distance one can see
- Water vapor (H2O) 8. Wind- horizontal movement of air
- Methane (CH4)
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O) CLOUD FORMATION
- Ozone (O3)  Condensation occurs when water vapor in the air changes to a liquid.
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) The result of this process may be dew, fog or clouds
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE  Clouds- a form of condensation nuclei described as visible
aggregates of minute droplets of water or tiny crystals of ice.
1. Troposphere- extending from earth’s surface up to the tropopause - Cirrus
(about 10km above the ground). It is where the weather occurs - Cumulus
2. Stratosphere- above the troposphere and below the mesosphere - Stratus
(between 10km and 50km), generally characterized by an increase in
temperature with height COMMON WEATHER INSTRUMENTS:
3. Mesosphere- between stratosphere and thermosphere (between 1. Wind Vane- measures wind speed
50km and 80km above) 2. Anemometer- wind direction
4. Thermosphere- “hot layer” above mesosphere (above about 85km) 3. Hygrometer- measures humidity
where hot temperature increases rapidly with height 4. Thermometer- measures temperature
Ozone layer- located in the stratosphere, serves as shield from the sun’s 5. Barometer- air pressure
ultraviolet rays. WHY DO WE HAVE SEASONS?
Weather- (short term) condition of the atmosphere at any particular time and - Due to the tilt of the earth’s axis
space
DIFFERENT SEASONS:
Climate- (long term) encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other 1. Winter Solstice
meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over long periods. 2. Vernal (Spring) Equinox
3. Summer Solstice
WEATHER ELEMENTS: 4. Autumnal (Fall) Equinox
1. Air Temperature- degree of hotness or coldness of air GLOBAL WIND SYSTEMS:
2. Air Pressure- force of the air above an area
3. Humidity- measure of the amount of water vapor in the air 1. Trade Winds- 300 north and south latitude
 2. Westerlies- between 300 and 600 north and south latitude  Heliocentric- planets revolve around the sun
3. Easterlies- between 600 latitudes and the poles  Big Bang Theory- expansion of the universe

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)- where the winds meet THE SOLAR SYSTEM:

THERMAL CIRCULATIONS:  Sun- main source of energy in the solar system, powered by the
nuclear fusion
 Sea breeze- wind blows from sea to the land  Mercury
 Land breeze- wind blows from land to the sea  Venus- hottest planet
 Air mass- an extremely large body of air whose properties of  Earth
temperature and humidity are fairly similar in any horizontal  Mars- red planet
direction at any given altitude  Jupiter- biggest planet
 Saturn
WEATHER DISTURBANCES
 Uranus- sideways planet
Thunderstorm- simply a storm that generates lightning and thunder  Neptune

Tornadoes- violent windstorm that take the form of a rotating column of Moon- natural satellite; the most accepted model for the origin of the moon
air or vortex that extends downward from a cumulonimbus clouds. is that during the formative period of the solar system, a Mars-sized impacted
Earth.
Hurricane- an intense storm of a tropical origin with sustained winds
exceeding 64 knots (74 mi/h), which forms over the warm Atlantic and Phases: new moon, waxing crescent moon, first quarter, waxing
Eastern North Pacific Oceans gibbous moon, third quarter, waning crescent

- Called a typhoon in the western North Pacific, a Eclipse: Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse
“bagyo” or “typhoon” in the Philippines, a
GALAXY- a massive system of stars, gas and dark matter held together by
“cyclone” in India and Australia, and a “Tropical
its own gravity
Cyclone” by international agreement.
Kinds of Galaxies:
Hurricane Stages of Development
1. Spiral
 Tropical Disturbance- or tropical wave; mass of thunderstorms with
2. Elliptical
only a slight wind circulation.
3. Lenticular
 Tropical Depression- when winds increase to between 20-34 knots
4. Irregular
 Tropical Storm- winds are between 35-64 knots
 Tropical Cyclone- winds exceed 64 knots MILKY WAY GALAXY- a spiral galaxy, which is the home of our Solar
System together with at least 200 billion other stars (more recent estimates
ASTRONOMY
have given numbers around 400 billion)
 Nebular Hypothesis
Solar System Debris:
 Geocentric Model- earth is the center
1. Meteor- a streak of light produced by a meteoroid moving
rapidly through the Earth’s atmosphere
2. Asteroid- a small, planet-like solar system body (minor planet)
3. Comet- a small, icy body in orbit about the Sun